Free-Hand Lettering

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Free-hand letterlng.Being a treatise on
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Works
of
VICTOR
T.
WILSON
PUBLISHED BY
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
Free-Hand Perspective.
For Use
in
Manual Training Schools and

8vo, xii
Colleges.
By
Victor T. Wilson.
+ 257 pages,
139 figures.
Cloth, $2 50.
Free-Hand
Lettering:.
Being a Treatise on Plain L.ettering from the Practical Standpoint for Use in Engineering Schools and
Colleges.
$1.00.
8vo, 105 pages, 23 full-page plates.
Cloth,
FREE-HAND pTTERING.
/,,
A TREATISE ON PLAIN LETTERING FROM THE PRACTICAL STANDPOINT FOR USE IN ENGINEERING SCHOOLS
AND COLLEGES.
VICTOK T.-WlLSON,
Author of Free -Hand
M.E.,
Perspective..
FIRST EDITION.
FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS.

London:
CHAPMAN & HALL,

1903.
Limited.
Copyright, 1903,
BY
VICTOR
T.
WILSON.
ROBERT DRUifMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK,
PREFACE.
The
set
student
who
takes
up the study
it
of lettering, as
outlined in these pages, will not find

of
to consist of a
will
copies which
if
reproduced carefully
;
give
proficiency in the subject
copy work seldom
yields
more
than a meaningless
result, it
does not lead to independent
and creative work.
Erroneous conceptions have grown

there are no
out of the idea that letters are standard, that they are
rigidly fixed in their forms; the truth
really fixed forms.
is
Variety will be found to some degree

it
in all lettering
each line of
the draftsman makes
is
creative work.
Nor should he who undertakes the study be

proficiency.
It
is
en-
couraged to think that a few hours of labor will develop

not an easy task, long and patient
labor rightly directed will alone give that certainty of
touch and judgment of values which are necessary.
The student
little
is
dealing with forms having a character

spoiled,
which can be
while apparently departing but
from the fundamental type, and which, on the
other hand, can be treated with an almost infinite and
IV
PREFACE.
if
subtle variation without detracting from the result
done in the right way.
Without a measurable knowledge

ing,
of free-hand
draw-
wherein
is
derived accuracy of hand and eye and an
intelligent sense of proportion, it will

sible,
be found impos-
beyond the merely
imitative, to
do good work.
The author has endeavored to treat the subject with this Emphasis is laid upon attaining a proper in view.
attitude, through the
development
of a letter, a
word
or line of words
by a sketch method, analogous to that

It
is
used in other free-hand drawing.

cultivate
the object to
design,
the conception that
all
lettering is
that any mathematical or mechanical attempt at treat-
ment
phasis
is
is
entirely impracticable in ordinary work.

also laid
Emby a
upon attaining
facility in
the free
single-stroke letter used
on working
drawings,
careful analysis of the stroking
and by practical points

from which to choose.
of
letters,
about the handling of the pen and a description and
an
illustration of a variety of styles
The chapter upon the design

is
which
it
hoped
will afford
is
matter of interest to the thoughtful
student,
not intended to form part of a regular course

is
of study,
but
for occasional reference only.
It is a
phase of the subject either overlooked or but slightly
touched upon in books on
lettering.
Attention is called to the footnotes added to a number

of the plates, siimmarizing the chief points to
be noted
about them, also to the references printed under each

plate, covering all the places in
which each
is
discussed
PREFACE.
in the text.
It is
hoped that
this will
be found a con-
venience in using the book for reference.
A number of
preparation
S.
authorities have been consulted in the
of
the work,
among them
Prof.
Henry
Jacoby's book on "Plain Lettering," an excellent

J.
treatise;
C. L. Fish's "Lettering of
Working Draw-
ings," containing some good practical offhand styles;
Frank
C.
Brown's "Letters and Lettering," probably
the most artistic treatment of letters which has ap-
peared up to the present time; from these the author

has taken the liberty occasionally to quote.
are also due to Messrs. Charles Scribner
His thanks
&
Sons for per-
mission to copy some styles from the recent treatise of
Lewis F. Day, "Alphabets, Old and New," and which

constitutes the matter, on Plate
XXI.
Victor T. Wilson.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface
ii{
CHAPTER
I.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.

1.
2.
Illustrative
Good Lettering is not Mechanical, but is Good Design Example
^
7
c,
3. 4. 5 6.
7. 8. 9.
Brief History of the
Roman and Gothic Letters
The Roman Letter

Variations in the Different Letters The Roman Letter is not a Fixed Type Further Analysis of the Roman Letters
11
13
Analysis of the Small Letters
14 18
'
The Roman Numerals

Proportions of the Roman Letters Vary The Gothic Letter Analysis of the Gothic Capitals Analysis of the Small Letters and Numerals Italicized Roman and Gothic Letters
ig
10.
11.
12.
20
22
22
13. 14.
23
24
25 26
15. 16.
Stump Writing The Proper Ratio
of Small Letters to Capitals
CHAPTER
SPACING.
17. 18. 19.
II.
Spacing is a Problem in Design Spacing Depends upon Several ^'arjables

Illustrative
28 28
29
vii
Example
V"i
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
20.
21
22.
Space by Sketch Method Sketching Preliminarily in Outline Gothic Spacing of Words, Punctuation, etc
Development
of Proper
32
34
35
CHAPTER
Letters Should be
III.
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING.

23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
30.
Drawn Throughout, not Copied
The Kind of Pen to Use The Kind of Ink to Use The Kind of Paper to Use How to Handle the Pen for OflEhand Lettering The Outline Gothic for Offhand Work
Other Offhand Styles
37 38
40 40
41
44 46
50
52
Some
31.
Special Directions about the Use of the Pen Proper Size for Offhand Lettering
CHAPTER
The Single-line Title The Choice of Style and Size How to Lay Out the Line
Degree of Finish to Give a Title
IV.
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES.

32.
54
.^j
33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

38. 39.
57 58
The Design
of
Grouped
Titles
Various Considerations to be Observed in Designing Example of How to Lay Out and Execute the Design A Title may be Variously Treated
59 60
62
64
CHAPTER
V.
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES, INCLUDING PHOTOREPRODUCTION.

40.
General Statement
41. Lettering
on Maps
42. Architect's Lettering

43. 44.
66 66 68 69
71
Lettering on Working Drawings for Manvifacturing Lettering for Photo-reproduction
45. Lettering for

46.
Patent Office Drawing Lettering for Advertising Purposes
74
75
T/tBLE
OF CONTENTS.
ix
CHAPTER
VI.
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING.

PAGE
General Statement 48. Single-stroke Gothic may be Taken as the Basis for all Design 49. The Preservation of Type Style
47.
50. 51.
52.
79
60
81
The Old Roman Letter The Effect of Changing Proportions and Spacing
Other Considerations in Design Open- and Closed-body Letters
83
84
85 87
53. 54.
The Limitations
of Letters
88
CHAPTER
'.
VII.
MECHANICAL AIDS TO LETTERING.

General Statement. 56. Practical Points about Executing a Ruled Letter 57. Drafting-room Practice in the Use of Stock Titles Reproduced
55.
91 92
in Blue-prints, etc
58. Lettering Triangles
93 94
LIST
OF FULL-PAGE PLATES.
I.
II.
III.
Modem Roman Capitals Analyzed. Modem Gothic Capitals Analyzed. Modem Roman and Gotliic Small
Analyzed.
Letters and Numerals
Gothic Capitals and Small Letters and Xumerals Italicized. V. Stump Writing and Single-line Gothic. VI. Illustrations of Roman and Gothic Letters Formed into
IV.
Roman and
Words.
VII. Illustrations of Spacing. VIII. Single-stroke Upright Gothic and
its
Variations for Working
Drawings. IX. Various Offhand Styles for Working Drawings and Illustrations
X.
XI. XII.
Showing their Application. Working Drawing Title Shown
in
Various
Stages
of
Sketch Development.
A Working-drawing Title Treated in a Variet)' of Ways. A Working Drawing Showing the AppUcation of Offhand
Titles
Lettering and Dimension Figures. XIII. Titles on Working Drawings Taken from Original Sources.
XIV.
on Working Drawings Taken from Original Sources.
XV.
Letters Authorized
by the U.
S.
Geological Survey.
XVI. Letters and Conventions Authorized by the U.

XVII. XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI. XXII.
XXIII.
S. Geological Survey. Alphabets Suitable for Architectural Drawings. Architectural Titles. Illustrations of the Effects of Photo-reproduction. Illustrations of Advertising Lettering. Various Designed Letters. Modem Roman-Gothic Alphabet of Capitals and Small Letters and Numerals. Old Roman Alphabet of Capitals and Small Letters.
FREE-HAND LETTERING.
CHAPTER
I.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.

I.
Good Lettering
is
not Mechanical, but is Good Design.

is
The
called
lettering
which the draftsman in practice
upon most frequently to make consists of a rapidly executed statement, upon a drawing, descriptive or otherwise the style most suitable, therefore, is a simple
;
one which through practice he learns to do
readily.
is
Now and
for,
then a design of a group of lettering
called
such as
we
find in the
titles
is
to working drawings,
but more frequently even this

in
very plain and executed
some one
style throughout.
is
The beginner
apt to approach the subject with the

is
misconception that lettering
a form of mechanical
is
drawing, that the use of the straight-edge

that the various letter
in order,
forms and the spaces between
them can be
figured out
by measurement
large
unf ortionately
this
books on lettering have been apt to encourage

misconception
by containing
alphabets,
very
FREE-H/IND LETTERING.
rigidly analyzed as to proportions, etc., with little ex-
planatory matter attached, so that the impression

left
is
that mathematical exactness
is
most important.
from type
is
In this respect, ordinary printed

not an instance of good
lettering,
lettering
for
the forms come
together as best they

result.
may and do
not produce a uniform
This lack of harmony can easily be detected by

;
any one who has keen perceptions
it is
easy to discern,
for example, whether or not, in certain advertisements
that come under our notice daily, the

letters are set
Roman and
from an
Gothic
up
in type or reproduced
original
drawing.
Fundamentally good
lettering
will
be
good design.
Just as the designer of fabrics or wall-paper takes his
forms and distributes them over prearranged spaces in

a uniform and pleasing manner, so the letterer takes his
more
rigid
forms,
his
letters,
and
distributes
them
gi^'e
uniformly in his prearranged spaces so as to
combination pleasing to the eye.
Good
of
design in lettering requires
first
that
we have
simplicity in style.
There are no more striking instances

bill-board,
good lettering than are to be found on the
street-car
and other
advertising.
If
the student will the

or
take the trouble to investigate,

letters
he
will find that
used most frequently are the simple
Roman
II).
Gothic,
more often the
latter (see Plates I
and
is
The second
in the effect.
requisite in
good lettering
uniformity
This can be explained best by taking a
line of lettering as
an
illustration
line 5 let
,
us say, on
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.

Plate VII.
The separate
letters should
size,
appear to be of
the same height, the same

also
and the spaces should
appear to be uniform, not to mention that each
letter
must be
of the
same alphabet
style.
Both conof treat-
siderations, simplicity of style
and uniformity
of
ment, are accomplished through the aid of judgment and

taste,
combined with accuracy

although not
hand and eye

stire letter
in the
detection of small differences.

are
rules
To be
forms
somewhat,
entirely,
standard.
No
will
can be followed which are practical and which

all
invariably produce the same result with
forms in
various combinations,
notwithstanding that books on

all cases.
the subject strive to find rules to cover
They
are largely unsuccessful because they lead to dependence
upon measirrement instead of upon the -unaided
eye.
facil-
A knowledge
of free-hand
drawing is essential to
is
ity in lettering because the eye
then trained to see
form and to judge

skillfully
of effects; moreover, lettering to
be
done should be treated much as a free-hand

is
drawing
treated,
that
is,
the more finished kind,

deals
first
by a
step-by-step
effect
process which
with the
broad simple
and proceeds to the
details gradually
To use a concrete and extremely simple illustration: The development of a letter should proceed in a method similar to that in which we should draw a straight line between two
in the order of their importance.
given points; the
first
thing to do
is
to get a sense of to
direction between the points
by passing the hand
and
fro
and indicating
it
by a few tentative
strokes here
others, connecting
series of
and there; these can be added to by

them, the whole being not a
or less connected direction
;
line
but a
more
and overlapping marks giving general
this
can be refined by repeating the process,
working in a more and more restricted area until the

line
assumes as
is
much
exactness as desired or that the
draftsman
capable of attaining.
The treatment
of
the line is typical of the process in
any free-hand drawfirst
ing
no matter how complicated; the motive comes

details afterwards.
and the
An
isolated letter should
be
drawn
in this
way;
in the
same way a word or
line of
words, or a combination of lines and styles.
2.
Illustrative
Example.
letters of
Let
it
be required to draw a few large isolated

II.
the Gothic style shown on Plate

step-by-step
Fig. i illustrates
the
process
of developing the letters.
They
are to be taken singly.
The
several stages, moreover,
from a to g must be considered as purely arbitrary; whether the letters are carried through these or a greater
or less ntimber of stages will depend or the
is
upon the judgment

chief thing to note
is
skill of
the draftsman.
The
that the development in each case

of
it is
so
handled that
but one phase

first
treated at
a time, the largest feature
and the
smallest details last.

is
The
this
is
first
and most
important
a;
feature
proportion;
is
indicated in
b,
a suggestion only of the form

as a
next given in
as well
refinement of
the
proportions
letters
showing
occupy.
more
definitely the
maximimi spaces the
Flq.
f-TT
J
"T*
LL... M
li_
j^
L 1
jr
d
T|
j-:--s
'-
~>
IT
/-T"
'/.A
e
L
d
c5)
,r^
f
^/
';
HBCK
A
is
more complete shape to each

this
letter is given
at c;
body-
after
at
d a suggestion of
is
the weight
of
added.
Uniform weight
shows
insured
by paying
of
atten-
tion to scaling the thickness only in scattered places.
In
the
letter
further
refinement
final
form
outline
and weight, while we have the

in/.
careful
The
shown
line
is
introduced to show incidentally
how
itself
the heavy body of the letter

in three stages.
may be
put in in ink,
First a strong wall of ink
is
put
around the inside
of the outline,
then
if
the letter has a
very heavy body, intermediate strokes
may
is
be intro-
duced as in the B.
This development
analogous to
the method used in any free-hand drawing.

If
the
Roman
letter
form were the subject
of such
an
exercise
it
would be perfectly
a, b,
feasible to carry it
c,
through
the
first
three stages
and
in the
same treatment
as employed for the Gothic letter; a stage analogous

to d might begin to indicate the characteristic style
of the letter, of
it.
and the remaining stages to the development

comprehensive treatment of
called,
is,
The advantage
the drawing, as
it
of this
may
is
be
as briefly stated
first
above, that the essential facts are treated
and as
each
new
feature
taken up
it
allows the draftsman
to see
and correct
his errors as
they develop.
The only place for mechanical treatment in ordinary' lettering is in making the limiting lines; even the skillful
draftsman
will
do
this except in
very small work;
certainly the beginner should never fail to rule at least

two,
if
not more, limiting
lines for all letters.
3. Brief
History of the
Roman and
Gothic Letters.
The
it
uninitiated are apt to think that type as
we have
now from
the foundry in the simple pure

is
Roman and
Gothic styles
a fixed letter having some authoritative

It represents,
claim to being standard.
however, only
a stage in the growth of forms more or
less variable,
and
some
intelligent
understanding of the reasons for this
will help the student in arriving at
a proper attitude
towards lettering in general.

It is generally believed, although it
cannot be proved,
origin;
that the alphabet
is
of hieroglyphic
left
and Egjrptain
the oldest manuscripts date back
to us
many
centuries b.c.
come from Egypt and The hieroglyphic charbecome symfrom these we get the
acters express ideas, later such characters
bols of single sounds,
and
it
is
alphabet and letter forms.
In the earliest four or five centuries of the Christian

era there were
scripts,
two
distinct
hands
visible in the
manu-
one the majuscule, analogous to our
capitals,
and the other the cursive or running hand.
Throughout
the centuries these hands reacted upon one another,
each becoming modified through the influence of the

other,
and
later they
formed the basis
for type.
Of
course the invention of printing soon put an end to the
systematic work of scribes, although such writing
still
first
survived for a long time for choice works.
The
FREE-H/1ND LETTERING.
printed books
appeared about 1450
a.d.
and were made
in
Germany; imitating
as they did
the
hand
of the
scribes of the fifteenth century in that country,
they then
naturally partook of the heavy

prevalent.
of the
black-faced letters
The
early
Roman
types were in imitation
Caroline minuscule, prevalent about the ninth
to the eleventh century, and which from that on
became
universal in Latin Christendom.
In the early
Roman we
also see distinct evidences, in
the thick and thin

of the quill
lines, of
the imitation of the strokes
used by the early scribes
the reed was not in

quill.
use in Western Europe later than the early part of the

sixth century,
when
it
gave place to the
The
stiff-nibbed quill used
by
these early scribes
was held
nearly perpendicularly to the paper, but inclined to
the line of the writing.
The down
strokes were
made
etc.
heavy, including the inclined ones in the M,
W,
N,
The
letters are characteristically square,
and although
original,
the present letters vary somewhat

their skeleton is
still
from the
based upon the square form.
The
Gothic, unlike the
Roman, never reached an authori-
tative form; every letter has a variety of shapes, any
one allowable so long as it expresses the characteristics of

the style, which
is
mainly that of a uniform body
letter.
It is interesting to note, in this connection, that
hand-
writing, although the parent of the first type forms,
forsaken
by
its offspring,
was which grew independently and

of
steadily in the effort to arrive at a fixed legible form;
handwriting,
on the other hand, shows varied phases
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN /IND GOTHIC LETTERS.

growth and decay; a " universal
various
forms were gradually developed and

;
hand of the day " was evolved

decay took place,
then, through
causes,
writing
becoming
more
illegible \mtil,
through a reform movement, type
forms are imitated.
We
can note this to-day in the
upright and roimd handwriting succeeding Spencerian.
Small letters were not in evidence in the early manuscripts

;
they came in gradually and long after the capital
forms, becoming fixed, however,
by the ninth
century.
The broad
capital letter,
known
as the Rustic, prevailed
in the manuscripts of the fourth
the miniscule only became general
was developed
in its
most perfect
it is
and fifth centuries; by the ninth. This form by the master
printers of Venice,
and
to this period of the Renais-
sance in Italy that

these forms.
we
turn for the best examples of
The
scholars
and printers
letters
of this period
took as their models the pure Caroline forms of the old

manuscripts, and the
Roman
since.
used by them have
not varied appreciably
Thus we
which,
see that letters
have gone through
stages
letters
of evolution like other forms,
and to-day we have
while more or less apparently rigid,
are yet
capable of a certain variety under the fancy of the

designer,
earlier
who
;
is
free to devise
new forms
as he
was
in
days
this is in fact being constantly done.
4.
The Roman
Letter.
The alphabet most
familiar to-day
is
the
Roman, but
for the draftsman, partly because it is so familiar to
lo
calls
every one and therefore

accuracy,
it is
is
for a higher degree of
the most
little
diffictdt to
execute acceptably,
and hence
were
more.
it
not so
used by any but the most expert; difficult it would undoubtedly be used
The Gothic is much simpler and is used most commonly by the rank and file of draftsmen; however,
essential to
it is
an adequate knowledge
of lettering that
will investigate
the
Roman be
understood, therefore
we
it first.
Plate I shows the alphabet of capitals, called

printer upper case because these characters
lie
by the
in the
upper and
less
accessible part of the type-case as it
stands inclined in front of him.
Plate III shows the

;
small letters of this style and the ntimerals
the
first
are
called lower case because in type they lie nearest

printer's
the
hand
in the lower part of the type-case, since
they are more frequently used.
The small
letters are
scaled to go with the capitals, but the numerals, for
convenience, are drawn to a different scale.
On
Plate I the
letters
vary in
size,
both as to width
and in a few cases as to
height, in order to
convey an
The letter which may be taken as a standard of reference, and called of normal size for convenience, is the H; it occupies the fuU rectangle
impression of uniformity.
of space allotted to
it.
The proportion
bets
is
of the letters in these first
two alpha-
that in
distinguishing
of the letters
common use, and this, for want of a better term, we will call standard. The height
is,
for convenience, divided into six equal

parts,
and the widths are scaled and designated by units

one of these divisions
;
of the value of
for example, the
is five
units wide
and
six units high.

letters
However,
it
must be understood that the

tion
;
have no fixed proporartist's free
this is to
be particularly noticed in the
designed alphabets (see Plate XXI).
The
letters
may
etc.,
take an infinite variety of shapes, weight of body,
within certain not easily defined

ard
proportions
is
limits.
The term standchosen for
purely an
arbitrary term,
convenience, and
is
applied to our present type-letter.
Some
style of letter should
have careful analysis by the
student,
and
this is chosen for the purpose.
5.
Variations in the Different Letters.
The
letters
fill
will
vary in width because those which
do not
width;
their rectangle of space, as the
does,
would
look smaller in size than the
if
made
of the
same
to preserve uniformity of effect they

slightly
must be
For ex-
made
wider than the normal
letter.
ample, the letter
A must
be spread out at the base

C, D, etc.,
because
it
only occupies half of the rectangle of space

it;
allotted to
Hkewise the B,
must be widened
somewhat, each to a different degree.
The
and Q
are widened most because they only touch
by tangency
the rectangular limits.
The
touches
letters will
vary in height, because where a letter

it
its
upper and lower limits only by tangency
would look shorter than the

tangent to them;
it
if it
actually were
made
in
must be made sUghtly
taller,
12
fact
must exceed both upper and lower limiting lines among these we have the C, G, and O. Letters such as
A and
V, etc.,
would
also
have to exceed the

;
limits
if
their angles are

in the plate,
is
made sharp
to overcome this they are,

this practice
shown somewhat blimted;

to the above are the
not universal, however.
The exceptions
L and the
and one
F,
which are made narrower than normal because of their

shape, having in each case a vertical stem
hori-
zontal
member.
in a line of lettering causes
To make them really of normal width them to seem to be spread

it
out too much, so they are actually narrowed somewhat,

the L most, because
has no horizontal
member
in the
middle to help
fiU
up the space
as has the F.
to
The
of
letters
are further modified

is,
produce an effect
stability;
that
those letters which have distinct

will
upper and lower parts
appear more stable and of

is
good form
if
the lower section
made
larger
than the
upper; for example, the lower lobe of the B, the two

lower arms of the X, the lower leg of the K, the lower
horizontal stroke of the
of the S also
is
E and
the Z; the lower ctirve
larger across
and higher than the upper.
If difficulty is
experienced in feeling the force of these
variations,
drawing out a few, in one case ignoring and
in another taking account of them, will doubtless serve
to
make
The
the defects apparent.

vary in
their several variations;
it will
letters
that
is,
when combined
together to form words
be foimd
that slight modifications in size can be introduced here
CONSTRUCTION OF ROM/IN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.
13
and there to advantage;

ceding an
for
example, an L just preif it
can be made narrower than
were
fol-
lowed by an
word.
or were
itself
at the end of a
Hne or a
The amoimts
of
the several variations of
letters,
as they are recorded
on the
plate,
should not be regarded
by the student
in
as having
any
significance further
than
to call attention to their existence relatively and to aid
forming a correct perception of variations.

not be
considered
as
They
should
measurable
quantities;
different proportions of letters
would
call for variations
in the degree of these variations.
In practice the eye
should be cultivated to estimate the amount of variation

necessary; indeed this will be found indispensable in
practice,
where the small
size of
the lettering often done

also
will preclude
any calculation and where time may

factor.
spoiling the
be an important
figuring
To burden the mind with

sponis
out variations will result in
taneity of design.
In the very small lettering which

letters of
quite
common, say
a height of an eighth of an
inch up to three eighths, the variations, although necessary

in a small degree, are entirely incommensurable.
6.
The Roman Letter
is
not a Fixed Type.

is
The Roman alphabet

of this letter
not a fixed type in which

attainable.
exact proportioning of parts
is
The
ancestors
form from that which we now find in the printer's type or in modem good
different
had a very
examples.
They have been modified and changed by
14
different authorities.
We cannot
point to
tration of a perfectly correct
Roman
type, but to
any one illusmany,

the result of
varying slightly in some cases, quite radically in others.

Prof.
Jacoby says:* "The
modem
form
is
modifications mainly introduced in the eighteenth cen-
tury
by some EngHsh
and shape
type-founders."
Variations are evident in the widths of letters, the

size
of the serifs, in the relation strokes,
between the
light
and heavy
F,
together with some changes
in particular letters, the length of the middle bar of the
E and
the shape of the lower jaw of the G, the tncHna-
tion of the legs of the K, sharpness of the points of the A,

V, M, etc. as
;
even such a radical change

forms not true
ellipses,
is
attempted
making the
but ovals with
the widest part slightly above the middle of the letter.
7.
Further Analysis of the
Roman
Letters.
The heavy stems

width of one
unit.
of the letters are

If
made a normal
the body varies in thickness, as
in the B, C, G, etc., the

is
maximum
;
width at the middle
slightly greater
it
than one unit
if it
were made exactly

this
one
would look narrower, because
width
is
not
maintained throughout the body, but only at one point.
The S and the
U are exceptions,
effect of
for in these the curved
bodies pass into straight portions for a distance great
enough to maintain the

the rest of the
letters.
uniform weight with
*" Plain Lettering," by

Engineering News Pub. Co.
Prof.
Henry
S.
Jacoby;
pub. by the
15
The serifs
are
made
three-quarters of a unit wide
and
of a thickness of the
Hght stems; they are joined to the

curve, the quadrant of a
serifs join
vertical stems
circle of half
by a tangent
;
a unit radius
where the
oblique
stems these arcs become elongated,

tangent to the
serif
still
however, being
serifs
and to the stem. and
The
can be
varied, to a degree, in their width,
their relation to
the width of the heavy
body
also changed, to suit the
fancy of the designer.

It is interesting to
note that
if
the form of the curve

is
connecting the
serif to
the stem
elongated vertically
to be tangent to the middle of the height of the stems,
we have a very
which
is
different letter
from the Roman, but one

of
quite a
9).
common form
made
of the
ornamental
letter
(see Fig.
The
serifs
are here
same width at the top

it will
and at the bottom, but
in the case of large letters
conform to good design to
make
the upper
serifs
narrower,
by a very small amount, than the lower ones. The large spurs on the E, F, L, T, and Z do not join the body of the letter like the serifs, by tangent curves;
the imiting curves meet the horizontal strokes abruptly.
If
the letters were to be very

if
much
widened, the spurs
would look better
made
to approach
The mid-horizontal
strokes of
them by tangency. the B, E, F, H, and R

if
are put slightly above the center of the space;
they
the
were put at the exact center, the effect

observer would be that they were below.
made upon
Try
is
it
with a
few
letters constructed
both ways.
The P
an excep-
its
tion to this, for otherwise
upper part would look

lower part of
dwarfed.
To preserve an
the B, E, K, and
effect of stability, the
extend slightly farther to the right

;
than the upper part
for similar reasons .the legs of the
cross
above the center of the space, and the lower

is
curve of the S
the plate upside

differences.
made larger than the upper. Turn down and note the amotmt of these
The inner and the outer edge of the curved part of letters, as B, C, O, P, and the upper part of the R, are
formed by arcs
of regular closed curves
with vertical
and horizontal axes; the inner ones approach the outer If the letters were proportioned very wide tangentially.
they might meet them abruptly, but the form shown
on the plate
is
the one most
common on
;
the plate,
also,
the vertical axes of the outer curves are slightly larger
than their horizontal ones except the U.

tangent to the outer slightly to the right and
vertical axes of the latter.
Note that
the
in the case of the C, G, 0, Q, etc., the inner ciuves are

left of
The curved forms

drawing, but
are apt to give the most trouble in
much
of the usual difficulty
may be
avoided
by
following a sketch method, previously outlined, for
their
development.
very brief indication of form
first attention, with chief emphasis upon symmetry and without necessarily a careful clean line; next, a more complete suggestion of form may be given
should receive
by connecting up the
sketch-strokes into a
somewhat
17
continuous curve, and so by degrees, following the same

step-by-step process,
strokes
filling in
between the disconnected

of the
and
refining the
symmetry and balance

lines are
form, the careful clean line of the finished curve
may be
developed substantially as
developed in a free-
hand drawing.
The
and S need some
especial
comment.
The
general tendency of the tail of the
R
it,
should be outward
towards the foot of the
letter as
opposed to vertical;
perhaps a safe guide in drawing
whatever the profirst
portions of letter adopted, would be to see
that a
tangent to the outer curve at

curvature
is
its
point of changing
very slightly inclined from the vertical, and

the inner curve
then
outer.
to
make
harmonize with the
The compound curve which comprises the

give trouble, but this
is
apt to
may
be somewhat lessened by
basis in sketchof the curve
using an
ing;
of the
same proportions as a
however the upper and lower parts
of the S
are not duplicates of the corresponding parts
of the 0; they are flatter
and the necessary modificaIf
tions
must be introduced
needed as a
is
in finishing.
a single-stroke
letter is
basis,
note that the point of chang-
ing curvature
in the center laterally, but slightly above
the center vertically.
The
inclination of a tangent
which
might be drawn
at this point
would depend entirely

;
upon the proportions of the letter dealt with

approach a horizontal position as the
but
it
it
would
letter is
widened,
should not reach the horizontal in any case, or
inclined
much less be common faidt

8.
downward towards the

be frequently seen.
left,
that
may
Analysis of the Small Letters.
On
into
letters.
Plate III are the small letters

capitals.
drawn to harmonize
with the
The small
ascending,
letters
may
t,
be divided
three
classes:
descending,
and
short
The ascending, except the

to
have a height
equal
the
capitals,
and the descending are the
same
in total length.
The height
is
of the short letters
relative to
the others
not fixed; authorities differ
as to the best proportions, but they usually vary
between
about "one-half and two-thirds the height

Prof.
of
the capitals.
Jacoby recommends
which he describes
six-tenths,
a quantity ap-
proximating the value obtained by using the 'golden

cut,'
ftdly in
his
book on "Plain
let
Lettering."
In large lettering the designer should
proportion, weight of body, requisite prominence, etc.,
be the deciding factors in settling upon this
ratio.
Those
on the plate are

capitals.
made
six-tenths of the height of the
The width and height
of the small letters are related
to each other in the same
manner
as the corresponding
of the
dimensions of the capitals.

letters is divided into six
is
The height
short
equal parts, and one of these
used
as
a unit both for width

n, or
and weight
is
of
body.
u,
lower part of the h
taken as a
standard
to
it.
letter,
and the others are made to conform

pecuharities as to variations which
The same

occur
letters.
19
in
the
capitals
occur
also
in
the
small
Two
forms of a are shown; the
first
may be
con-
sidered the standard form.
The g
analogous
is
a letter which will probably afford considerif
able difficulty in construction;
treated in a
manner
S,
to
that
suggested
for
is,
the
capital
the
difficulty will
be lessened; that
construct the upper
and lower regular closed curves

to the lower hut not
to the
X,
first
and separately and

is
then connect them by the small curve which
tangent
upper oval.
z
The
o,
s,
V,
w,
and
are
miniatures of their
respective capitals in every respect.
g.
The Roman Numerals.
The Roman numerals

Plate III.
are
shown
shorter
at the
bottom
of
They
are
made
and narrower,
lessened
for
want
of space,
than they should be to harmonize with

I.
the capitals on Plate
Their width
is
by taking
as a unit one-sixth of the height of the short letters
instead of one-sixth of the height of the capitals, which
would be the proper procedure

custom seems to
capitals,
call for
in
practice.
General
a numeral the height of the

;
but slightly narrower
some consider that they

let
should be shorter than the capitals,
us say by about
one
unit,
where capitals and small

is
letters are together
used.
There
good ground
for this contention, for
by
contrast with the small letters the numerals are apt to
appear too large
if
they are made as
tall as
the capitals.
20
lines
Some
of letters illustrating this point are
shown
on Plate VI.
The numerals have the same

tions in width,
letters do.
peculiarities as to varia-
height,
and weight
of
body that the
It is well to
ing an ellipse or
as
draw the round forms by sketcha basis the same as for the S.
and one
below and above
3
An
alternative form for the base of the 2
for the top of the 5 are suggested
the respective figures.

first is
Of the two forms of

it is
shown, the
con-
the standard, although
more
difficult of
struction.
The skeleton
figure
of the 3 consists of
little
two regular ovals

of the
tangent to each other a
above the middle

axes.
and having
8 6
is
vertical
and horizontal
The
also based
on the same construction.
The
position.
and 9 are duplicates of one another reversed in The inside curve in each of the curved forms
the curves in the capitals, a regular oval of
is also, like
different proportions
from the outer one, but having the
same
axes.
10. Proportions of
the
Roman
Letters Vauy.
Proportions of any
letters,
whether
Roman
or not,
can
in
of course
vary according to the lettering to be done

space.
any given
is 5
The normal width

6
;
of the letters
on
the plate
and the height

lie
desirable proportions for

this ratio
common
use would
between
and the
ratio
of 4 to 6.
With a
variation of width, the weight of stem
may
CONSTRUCTION OF ROM/tN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.

vary independently; the vary
less
latter, for
21
equal legibility, will
than the former.

stems
if
The
lighter
increased
up to a
certain point
of thicloiess, relative to the
heavy stems, change the
we have what is known as a Roman-Gothic form (see Plate XXII)

character of the letter, and omitting the serifs
H AB C
HABCK
HABCK HABCK
The effect of changing the widths of the Roman letters, and also the weight of body, is shown in Fig. 2. All of
the letters are of the same height; line
a, c,
and
e are
each of different widths of letter with a proportionate

increase of thickness of
heavy stem;
lines b, d,
and
show the same width
of letters as the preceding lines
22
respectively, but
have a body one and one-half times as
heavy.
The The
letters in line c are like those
shown on Plate
I.
limits either
way
of narrowing or widening are

legibility.
simply those controlling

11.
The Gothic
Plates I
Letter.
and
III
show the Gothic

to
capitals
and small
letters;
they are
and are a as a heavy body and as a
much easier very common form
make than
;
the
Roman
in practical lettering both
single-stroke letter
it
the student
should give the preference to
and study
it carefully.
The proportions shown
are the
same as those
in the
is
Roman
letter except that the
weight of the stem
reduced to three-quarters of a unit on account of
its
uniform thickness.
It is to
be observed that weight
of stem, as influencing variations in width, is here illus-
trated.
The
light stroke
on the outside
of
some
of the
Roman
width of
letters
causes a different effect in the total
letters
from what
it
would were
it
heavy.
In
the Gothic alphabet, for this reason, the A, N, R, U, V,
W,
X,
and Y are made wider at the base than the
corre-
sponding
12.
Roman
letters.
Analysis of the Gothic Capitals.

This
is
an alphabet
of the
of uniform
thickness
of
body.
when heavy bodies are used, are cut off perpendicularly. The C, J, S, etc., are frequently ended by horizontal limits, but it
of the letters,
is
The ends
members
not good standard construction.
23
An
alphabet similar to this one

letter,
is
often used, namely,

;
the block
consisting entirely of straight lines
the
curved forms are turned into rectangles with the comers

cut at angles of 45.
At
best, however, it is
an awkward
such
the
and mechanical
It
letter,
a poor substitute for the Gothic.

free offhand letter
if
were better to substitute a

is
as
described in Chapter III for the Gothic,
latter in its
curved forms
is
found to be too
difficult.
The construction
of the Gothic letters parallels the
Roman
in all but a
few particulars.
of the
letter.
Note that the upper angles

wide across as the body of the
of the
and N are as
The lower angle

limit to
is
also as wide as the stem, but that of the

is
M, V, and
cut
off,
so as to
make a sharp
the forms, a broader base relatively than the

letters have.
Roman
The V
of
is like
;
the
reversed and has the
same sharpness
the
apex
the upper vertex of the angle of
W
The
is
slightly sharper
than the two lower ones.

in curvature
tail of
the
is different
from that
of the
Roman, coming
as
it
does squarely to the limit-
ing
line.
;
Several different forms of this are also to be

line,
found
one curves tangent to the limiting
ending in
a vertical edge at the point of tangency, or an incUned edge slightly beyond it, and another form is straight at
the lower part, with only one short curve where the upper part.
it
joins
13.
Analysis of the Small Letters and Numerals.
The small letters and numerals are shown on Plate
III.
24
of the
The same fraction n or h, as in the

as in the
width of the normal

is
letter,
capitals,
taken as the unit of
thickness of body; the proportions are otherwise scaled
Roman
small letters.
No
special
comment on
the forms other than those given for the

necessary, except to note the following:
a, b, d, h, etc.,
Roman
are
In letters like
where one part
of the
body meets another

is
part
it
will
be by entire tangency of the one with the
other, so that the thickness
where the two overlap
equal to that of one stem.
The numerals have the same general form as the
Roman, and on the
plate are not
made
to correspond
with the capitals for the same reason that the numerals were made smaller.
There
is
Roman
use
another form of
it
which
is
in
common
but
is
not standard; in
the curved upper part joins the

line instead of
lower by an inclined straight

potind curve.
by a com-
14. Italicized
Roman and
Gothic Letters.
Plate
IV shows the Roman and Gothic alphabets when

For the sake
are
of variety the proportions of
slightly,
italicized.
the
capitals
changed
being
narrowed;
those of the small letters remain the same.
The niimerals
are constructed according to the suggestion contained

in section
9,
namely, somewhat shorter than the capitals.
Italicizing a letter is
fatilts
thought by some to render

it is
slight
less noticeable,
and
probably the truth to
some
extent, because
we
are not as familiar with these
25
combinations of direction as we are with those in the

vertical letter.
The main
limits
fair
slant of the letters
may vary between certain

shown
is
governed in part by
legibility; that
average.
The
bisectors
of
the angles of letters
having inclined sides have the same slant as the main

stems of the other
letters.
The
slant of the axes of the curved forms differs
from
this slightly; it
maybe
by
conceived of as derived, from
the vertical letter
pulling out at the opposite

it
comers be
the circumscribing rectangle until

or a rhomboid;
becomes a rhombus
the curved forms like
and C
will
tangent to the middle of the sides of this parallelogram.
In sketching these letters free-hand,

tial requisite
it is
a very essenall
that the slants should be uniform in
stems.
To
facilitate this,
the beginner
it,
is
advised,
if
he
finds difficulty in estimating

lines at
to rule light parallel
random throughout the
lines of letters to act as
guides for the eye in arriving at the proper slant.

If
Roman
upright capital and italicized capital are
to be treated in the
same
line,
then for equal weight

trifle
and proportion the

than the upright.
italicized
should be a
shorter
Stump Writing. Stump writing, as shown on Plate V, is a form of free inclined letter somewhat similar to the Roman small
15.
letters
;
it is
well adapted to offhand lettering.
Its chief
difference
from the
Roman small letter lies in the absence
26
of
most
of the spurs
and
serifs
and the substitution
of
curves for the horizontal serifs at the ends of letters;

in a line of lettering these
do not form connection with

but each
is
neighboring
letters,
however,
separated
It
from the others as in the

with a
Roman
The
(see Plate VI).

is
serves very well where a neat-appearing letter
desired
it
minimum
of drawing.
proportions,
will
be noticed, are the same essentially as the

letters,
Roman
small
the chief exqeption being where the finishing

carried
a, d, h,
curve
is
beyond the normal

1,
limit of the letter,
as in the
m,
etc.
The capitals to go with this alphabet are the Roman shown on Plate I. The numerals are of a free style and can be used appropriately with these letters; the
regular
Roman
numerals can, of course, also be used.
i6.
The Proper Ratio

between the
of
of
Small Letters to Capitals.
In section 8 mention was

relation
made
of the
customary
sizes of small letters to capitals.
That the force
the different proportions

is
appreciated Plate
VI
Line
added.
It
shows
may be the Roman

dif-
and Gothic
letters
formed into words, using these

i
ferent relations.
illustrates the
is
standard or one
Line 3
to six-tenths, while line 2

illustrates
three.
one
to
one-half.
probably a more practical ratio of two to
The numerals
in line
are
shown the standard
of
height equal to the capitals, while in the remaining lines
they are shown in the more appropriate relation (where
CONSTRUCTION OF ROM/IN /IND GOTHIC LETTERS.

small letters as well as capitals are used), which
is
27
about
is left
one unit shorter than the
capitals.
The student
feel
to study the plate carefully

different treatments.
and to
the force of the
CHAPTER
SPACING.
17. Spacing is a
II.
Problem in Design.
is
Proper spacing
exceedingly important and, like

is
proportions of letters,
eye rather than
best
obtained
by the unaided
or matheratios
matical
scale.
by adherence to a system Some authorities do give

and
rules
for
proportioning
letters
for
spacing.
These
only approximate to truth and good effect and cannot

really
be depended upon in
all cases.
18. Spacing
It is a
Depends upon Several Variables.

fallacy to believe that the clear disis
common
tance between letters
a constant;
it
varies.
Proper
spacing of letters reqtiires variation
according to the
different combinations of letters, the weight of

of the different letters combined,
stems
and to some extent
upon the average space between them. To be specific, it depends upon a due regard to the following:
(a)
Equivalence
of
area in spaces
bounded by the
imaginary upper and lower limiting lines and the sides of

adjoining letters; these areas should appear equivalent
in all cases.
28
SPLICING.
(b)
29
The
clear distance between letters,
which exercises
;
a modifying effect upon these space areas

example, that the V, A, and
the
fact, for
W spread
out at one part
more than another, not

(c)
filling their full
rectangle of space.
The weight
of the exterior lines of letters,
which
If
also has a modifying effect
upon these space
areas.
the exterior lines are light, as in some of the

for
Roman
letters,
example the
letters
N, they will tend to
magnify the space
between
over what
it
seems to be with heavy
adjoining stems.
(d)
The average space between
letters,
which makes
it
is.
irregularities of spacing less
apparent the larger
On
geographical
maps where the space between

accuracy in spacing
is
is
two
or three times the width of the normal letter, or even

greater,
sufficient
attained
by
making the distance between the centers

constant, except perhaps in the case of the
of letters a
M
H
and W.
19. Illustrative
Example.
Let the rectangle of space between an
and an N
be taken as a basis of comparison.

the
If
an
its
succeeds
or
any
letter
which recedes from
rectangle of
clear distance,- the space
between them must be lessened

is
accordingly;
the amount of lessening due to this
governed by
the
way
in
which the
letter recedes.
L and T
are
exceptional
forms, exposing as they
The do
different spaces
between themselves and other

It is
less
letters
from those in any other combination.

therefore, to cut these
quite feasible,
down
in
width
even in some
30
cases than they are in the alphabets
on Plates
and
II,
where they precede

large
letters
whose form
This
will suggest too
an intervening space.
etc.
may
be illustrated
by LT, LV,
hna'Hqh D HJ H B, N
LNjy,QH
Fig. 3
shows a few
lines of letters
taken at random
to illustrate uniform
and harmonious spacing.

figure,
it is
No
rules
were applied in making up the

through the tmaided eye, and
only the judgment
therefore not to be
It
supposed that
very nearly
it
cannot be improved upon.
shows
all
the different combinations of letters
that can occur, sufficient at least to be representative.
The numerical
values,
scaled
after
the
letters
were
drawn, are in terms of the same unit used on Plates I
SP/tClNG.
31
and
II,
namely,
one-sixth
of
the height.
They
are
meant
to call attention to differences only.

line
i,
Scaled in
millimeters, the space values are:

4.16, 4.16
6.4, 4.16, 4.16,
mms.
nims.
line 2, 4.16, 3.52, 3.52, 6.4, 5.12
mms.
lines, 3-85. 3-^Z, 4.i6, .64

3.2, 4.16
mms.;
line 4, 3.2, 3.51, 2.4,
Let us look at the areas of the spaces between the

letters
measured only approximately
in
square milli-
meters.
75 sq.
We
find those in line
to be 84, 105, 105, 75,

75, 115, 115, 84,
mms.
respectively; line
2,
86 sq.
mms.
very
line 3, 77, 88, 75, 82, 91 sq.
mms.
line 4, 150, 108,

is
143, 113, 68 sq.

little
mms.
The average area
96 sq. mms.,
in excess of the unit, or 84.
The maximum
is
difference
between any space and the normal imit

of
T,
66
sq.
mms., or three-quarters
N.
left
the space between
and
Excluding the L and
where there
the
space
outside the letter form
much maximum difis is 2 1 sq.
ference between the spaces
and the normal unit
mms., or a
little
over one-sixth of the area between the
and
N.
The
inference to be
drawn from
this is that it
substantiates the claim that
when
is less
laid out
with a view
to uniform effect the spaces are nearly uniform in area.
Of course the uniformity
in evidence the narleft tin-
rower the average spacing, because the spaces
occupied by letters count for more in the space areas.

If
the
T and the L were put

would be too
closer to their
neighbors,
then, independent of the effect on the equivalence of

area, they
close for uniformity in the line.
Notice that the
V and A have
zero clear distance
32
it is
between them; in narrow spacing

to
quite necessary
make
their Hmits
even overlap.
The same may be
said of the
R and
V.
theory as to a definite clear
distance should not be allowed to interfere with freedom

in design.
The tmiform weight of the stems of all these letters makes the problem of spacing easier than it is in the case
of a varied
it
stem
letter,
such as the
Roman
in the latter
would be found that the areas
of spaces
would be
a
less
tmiform because of the modifying effect of the

It is not so easy to arrive at
variations in the stems.
determination as to the proper value of such spaces.

Plate VII
is
given to show the application of these

the footnote
principles of spacing to lines of lettering;
to the plate gives sufficient explanation of the

of the treatment.
meaning
20.
Development of Proper Space by Sketch Method.
The
safest rule in careful lettering

is
space values
to
by which to get use sketch methods and by correction

lettering to such a finish as
is
and adjustment to bring the

appears well;
until
the eye
trained to appreciate
final
unaided the small differences the
result will not
be
likely to
be
satisfactory.
Fig. 4 illustrates
way
to do the sketching.
it is
This
figure shows, as nearly as
purposes of reproduction, the
mechanism was
built
up,
possible to make it for way in which the word when the limits, beginning
fixed.
and ending,
of the
word were not
The
first line,
SP/tCING.
33
assumed to be made in pencil, gives a of space and width of letters, beginning

proceeding towards the right.
brief indication
at the left
line
and
The second
shows
giving
how
a more careful calculation has been
made by
the letter spaces a treatment that suggests form.

lines of the first stage are
still
The
preserved to indicate the
'TI
-T--r
TT-
y-r-yv'T
1
Fig. /L.
T-rrT"
.U.
/r"i-
u
'n
1/
:j
I b.i.
.1
J-'/\-T'"JJ^
\[/zz\\
7'
LV..1.J
ij._.Li
.A
SlE..L.jd
M
and
spaces,
still
HABîSM
displaying underneath the
first
is
amount of the correction. The third line shows a somewhat final determination of the values of letters
tentative
efforts
at
shaping.
The corrected
line is
result
shown
in
heavy
efforts
stroke.
The fourth
freed of the elementary
are
by erasure of the pencil, and shows how the letters both more carefully shaped and the thickness of
34
FREE-H/iND LETTERING.
there.
body suggested here and

qtiite possible
At
this
stage
it
is
with a skillM hand to begin to ink the
letters in their final form,
but an additional Hne

is
is
shown
This
i,
in
which a more complete sketch in pencil
made.
last line
corresponds in finish to line e of Fig.
the
remaining stages being completed in ink.
While no mechanical aids are necessary in laying out

lettering,
yet
it
is
qtdte in order, particularly for the

destructive of dependence
sort,
beginner, nor
eye, to
is it
upon the
have handy a mark of some
say the straight
edge of a piece of paper, marked with the width of the
normal
exist
letter,
and
also
a normal space,
i.e.,
which would
to check the
between two vertical stems, and as the sketch
progresses apply the scale

calculation
factorily.
now and then
and to
see
if
the values are varying satis-
21. Sketching Preliminarily in Outline Gothic.
In
Fig. 4, the
preliminary sketch-work was done in a
single-stroke letter.
This
is
a good plan to follow in the

;
preliminary work of any design
the simpler the elementhe designer hampered
tary forms are made, the less
is
in his layout of spacing and sizes of letters; the nicer

differences in spacing
due to weight of body and so on In the

the only letter in
can be settled at a later stage of the work.
word mechanism the

stages of the layout.
I is
which the
weight of body needs to be provided for in the earlier
When the Roman letters
are the subject of the design.
SPACING.
35
the serifs must be allowed for

space.
will
of
by
sttfficient
additional
letters
The minimum
space
between any two
be something
serif,
slightly greater than twice the width
for these should not touch one another in
any
case.
22. Spacing of
Words, Punctuation,
etc.
The spaces used between words and

the letters of a word;
also after,
punc-
tuation marks should be larger than the spaces between
the former can vary according
to the space at the disposal of the draftsman, the limits
being governed by the proportions

letters.
of
the
separate
It
must be remembered that

of words;
increase of spacing
increases
prominence
in
the same manner
increase of spacing between words conduces to greater

legibility.
it
To
give an idea of the value of
word
spacing,
may
be
stated, as a
rough suggestion, that in ordinary

one letter plus
cases of continuous lettering the space can vary between
a double normal space and the width
of
two normal spaces.

After a comma, semicolon, or colon the spacing should
be greater than between words in the body of a sentence

the increase, however, should not be very great.
the same space
is
If
allowed, measuring from the punctua-
tion mark, that would be allowed between in the sentence,

it
two words
ot the
will
;
be sufficient in the case

for the colon
it
comma and
greater.
semicolon
should be slightly
The maximum spacing should occur after a period, and
36
should be greater
following
by at least one normal space than that a comma, and may be anything above that
arise,
consistent with unity in the reading matter.
The question may

spacing between
of cotirse is controlled
what
constitutes
a good
letters
in
a word?
The minimum
A's,
by
those two letters which will
come
bility.
closest together, like
two
O's or
two
and from
legi-
this it
may
increase to
any value consistent with

draftsman
It is probable that the
will ciiltivate
a certain very limited range in relative value of space,

relative, that is, to
the proportions of the letters chosen,

It is
and
it
will
always prevail in his work.
very con-
venient to do this so that the minimtmi of attention
can be given to this part of the subject, the rest concentrated upon the letter forms and treatment.
practical
Good
spacing
is
illustrated
on Plate VI.
CHAPTER
III.

23. Letters Should be
Drawn Throughout, Not Copied. The draftsman should know how to handle his pen
Most
of the lettering
free
as
well as shape his letters.

will
done
be finished in ink, although only the
commercial
letter is
put in directly without any previous pencil
treatment
such a
letter as
shown on Plates VIII and IX.
For the beginner

ing of the
it is
desirable to
make a
easily
careful renderfirst
Roman and
Gothic forms,
in pencil,
where change and correction can

familiar with
be made, then
later also carefully in ink, so as to
become thoroughly
In rendering
them
in all their details.
these letters on a large scale in ink, careful penciling
should be the preliminary step, and this followed as far

as possible in the inking.
The
faults
of
letters,
however, are not obviated by
inking, rather
are
they emphasized,
and
and
in
addition
many
inked
minor
faults not apparent in the penciling, because
of the gray lines, stand out boldly

letters.
is
clearly in the
Therefore,
while
the
it
most
complete
recog-
pencil letter
advised before inking,

is
must be
nized that the drawing of a letter
really not complete

37
38
Again, no matter
it
until the letter is all finished.
how
carefully the penciling
may
be done,
is
impossible
The drawing must proceed from the beginning to the final touch at no stage can it be
to copy
it
perfectly in ink.
taken for granted that the drawing has ceased and copy
work begun; shght adjustments
will
be found necesfill-
sary to the end of the work, even sometimes to the
ing in of the heavy-bodied letters, in which one woiold
suppose,
if
anywhere,
the
process
would be purely
mechanical.
24.
The Kind
of
Pen
to Use. will
The best pen to use

of
depend somewhat upon the
kind of letter to be drawn, but aside from this the touch

draftsmen
differs,
and what would respond to the
handling of one would be a poor tool for another.

find a
stiff
Some
pen better than a
soft one; it
depends upon
the ability to control the pressure upon the paper.
For
fine
work on a small
scale,
neater than ordinary

lettering suitable for
lettering
upon working drawings,

crow-quill is a
a small map, for example,
up to three thirty-seconds of
very good instrument;
an inch high, a
it
make very clear and fine lines, and can also be spread out to make a relatively broad sweep of black
will
line
about one thirty-second of an inch broad.
For
ordinary lettering a
Gillott's
No. 303 will
be
found very satisfactory.

to the
Any pen will be
less responsive
hand
of the
draftsman when either too new or
too old,
its life
at best being but a short one.
A new
THE USE OF THE PEN MND OFFHAND LETTERING.

pen, which
is
39
apt to give a fine wiry line with abrupt
transition to the heavier strokes,
can be worn down
by
scratching
upon some rough substance;
little old,
on the other hand, the pen
will refuse to
when a make
If
the fine strokes and will have points of weakness rendering

it
uncertain, so that
it
it
had better be discarded.

if
used on rough paper
must be coarser than

will, either of
used on
ink.
smooth paper,
else it will catch
and spatter the
Bristol-board or tracing-cloth
them, permit
the use of a fine pen.
There are two other grades of

ing, the
Gillott's
pens for letter-
No. 192, a finer,
and
the No. 404, a coarser grade.
The commercial
some kinds
for
of
stub pen is a very
good one to use for
rough
lettering,
2
on a working drawing,
example; such styles as
and 4 on Plate VIII come
under this head.
For rather
letters
large,
offhand lettering, with the small

(.2
about
mms.
of
an inch) or more high and

style,
of
the
single-stroke
Gothic
a ball-pointed
pen
may
be found very convenient. than

5
For a similar
style of
letter, less
mms.
high, the Gillott's
No. 303 will
do very
a
well.
It is best, perhaps,
little
for the beginner to experiment

of stroking,
on pens, learning the proper kind pen to

at the
his handling.
the capacities of the different pens, and then suit his

final choice of
For the offhand
lettering
shown
bottom
of Plate
and that on
will,
Plate
IX
the pen used should be such a one as

full
without perceptible pressure, make the
weight of
stroke desired, and should be held squarely with the

paper, the pen-handle, that
is,
being perpendicular to
the line of the lettering and immediately in front of the

person.
in
slight inclination
towards the right

is
is
feasible
making
inclined letters, although this
not necessary.
25.
The Kind
of
Ink to Use.
There was a time, not long ago, when the best ink
for drawing
was that groiind up from the imported
India-ink stick, but

satisfactory in
now
the liquid drawing-inks are so

it
most respects that

needed.
does not pay to
grind
what
is
Higgins' Waterproof Drawinguse.
ink
is
the one in
common
It should not
be
left ex-
posed with the cork out.
After dipping the pen in
each time, the bottle should be closed to keep out the

dust and prevent evaporation.
A draftsman may
consider
it
more convenient
it
to use
it is
a fountain pen sometimes,
filled
with liquid ink;
not very satisfactory, however, as
does not flow freely
enough and clogs up the pen

trouble.
outlet, giving frequent
The ink
it is
will of course clog
up an ordinary pen
rather rapidly, and the latter should therefore be wiped

frequently;
a good plan to get into the habit of

filling.
doing
it
just before each
26.
The Kind
of
Paper to Use.
In the drafting-room of a manufacturing establish-
ment, architect's
the paper that
is
office,
or
any other commercial concern

its fitness for
used
is
chosen for
mechan-

ical
41
drawing, and in the main works

Tracing-cloth
equally as well
for free pen-work.
takes the ink very
well
except that,
being relatively non-absorbent, the

it
ink tends to pile up on

suitable paper
I
in
wet heaps.
is
The most
that which
is
on which to do lettering
the
the smoothest, the Linen Record papers or Whatman's

Hot-pressed, but best of
all
good
Bristol-boards,
the Reynolds' or the Strathmore boards.
The cheaper
cardboards deposit a chalk on the pen and are not at

all
satisfactory.
The
possibilities
of
making a good
erasure should be taken into accotint also, some papers
working much better than
others.
The above recom-
mended ones
27.
are very satisfactory in this respect.
How
to
Handle the Pen
for Offhand Lettering.

is
Although a ready familiarity with letter-forms

essential to facility in offhand lettering, yet
there
are
reasons
why
the latter
may
to advantage be practiced
is
before careful lettering in ink on a large scale

It
is
done.
necessary to cultivate a steady and controlled
handling, which
different
styles.
may be
gained by a practice of the

strokes used in the offhand
kinds of short
First rule light limiting lines in pencil as guides
for the
height of the capitals and the small letters.

least in the case of the small letters,
These should, at
be invariably used even in practical work.

Referring, for a time, in
letter,
what
follows to the offhand
such as on Plates VIII and IX, we see that vertical

elliptical
and inclined straight strokes together with the
42
forms, whether
several,
made up
separate
of
one continuous stroke or be
should be possible with perfect control of the
hand.
These
forms
should
practiced.
Keep
a small piece of trial paper tacked to one side
of the drawing-board;
on
this,
after filling
the pen,
a start of the line should be made, cleaning out the
pen with a rag and

satisfactorily.
refilhng
if
found not
to
work
Try the stroking as shown
in Fig.
s,
the straight lines
Fig. 5.
i]:niiirif:ffiHlffi:zffiQ^^
slant of about 20!
mxK^B:
first
;
it is
the simplest kind that can be used and
is
the
basis of the matter on Plate VIII.

difficult
At
first it will
be
of
to
make
the continuous
first
straight
strokes
uniform width;
to aid this,
hold the pen so that
the plane of the pen axis and the line to be
made
are
perpendicular to each other, then touch the paper, press-
ing the nibs of the pen apart to the proper width before
starting the stroke;
after starting, continue the
lift
motion
uninterruptedly until the end, and
the pen just an
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHÎND LETTERING.
43
instant after stopping motion, else the line will taper
out to a fine point.

If
a lump tends to accumulate at either end of the
line it
can generally be avoided by carrying
less
ink in
the pen, combined with a briefer hesitation at the begin-
ning and the ending.
Whole-arm motion,
in
too,
may
be
found helpful in preserving uniformity
the weight
and the
tion,
direction of the lines.
If difficulty is
experienced in preserving proper direcstrokes, rule
whether for the vertical or the inclined
light pencil-lines at frequent intervals to serve as sights
for the eye to follow.
Next, try the curved strokes, preserving the direction
shown by arrow-heads,
uniform weight
still
if
keeping equal spacing and

possible.
of strokes
Practice
making
the elliptical forms with one continuous stroke, as this

is
the ideal
way
to treat the offhand letters.
The weight
is
of the stroke is of the
governed by a certain minimtun pressure

if
pen on the paper; pen
the pressure
varied, a
sidewise motion of the
will give a different
weight of
stroke from that shown
in the straight lines of the figure.
In these exercises the accurate spacing of strokes should receive as

for,
much
attention as
any other
feature,
is
although not important here, the practice
bene-
ficial
as preparing for the almost equal spacing of the
strokes in the combined letters, for example the n
and the
m, and the equal spacing of the letters from each other.
A useful
more
form to give
this practical work,
and rather
is
interesting
than meaningless
stroking,
that
44
FREE-HyfND LETTERING.
figure,
demonstrated by the
into their
which
is
to divide letters
component
parts,
practicing each part sep-
arately for a time

letter;
and then combining them into the

better appreciated.
desired to
the significance of the different parts of the
letter is in this
If at
way
any time
it is
make a
simple form of
letter like these,
but with a body heavier than can be

stroke of the pen,
it
controlled
with one
is
best,
if
possible, to use a fine outline
with space between the
strokes to be filled in afterwards. strokes

is
The use
of contiguous
very apt to result in irregularity, which must
afterwards be corrected
by touching up;
still
this is
it
is
sometimes absolutely necessary.

best to
if
In such a case,
work the second
stroke against a wet Hne, for,

free
dry, black
on black covers up defects in the
running of the pen.

Considerable practice
is
necessary in order to gain
proficiency in offhand lettering,
and a thorough preideal of perfection in
liminary groundwork in exercises, such as in the figure
shown, are very profitable.
The
is
an offhand
result
is
letter is
never reached, but an acceptable

there
obtained
when
an evident controlled
freedom and intelligent handling, the errors in handling

being imiformly distributed and not occurring strikingly
here and there.
28.
The Outline Gothic
for Offhand
Work.
The outUne Gothic in the figure just discussed, and as also shown on Plate V, is a type of letter which can

hardly be improved upon for an offhand
45
treatment,
both for ease in execution and

of all of the letters into strokes is
is
legibility.
An
analysis
shown at the
top,
but
it
only introduced as a suggestion of
how to
treat them.
Different
in skillful
ways
for the sequence of the strokes is
shown
hands a continuous stroke will

but
it is
suffice for
many
of the letters, E, C, 0, S,
almost impossible to
for the
make a
vertical up-stroke as
would be necessary
V, U, etc.
The student
is
advised to practice the letters
singly, following this analysis
and that
of Fig. 5.
good groimdwork in proper stroking

letters is
in these separated
worth hours
of subsequent practicing in prac-
tical application to
drawings, for habits once formed will
persist.
In beginning the subject,

first
much
less practice is
required than at
uninteresting,
letter, too,
is
supposed, but being dry and

this
not apt to attract the student;
may
be practiced as an equally good ground-
work
for
any
of the other styles
shown on Plate IX.
On
Plate VIII are certain well-known and
common
rest of
variations
upon the
straight Gothic letter
they indicate
sufficiently,
in the few examples shown, how the
the alphabet
may be
treated without the necessity of
having
is
all
the letters present on the plate.
The student
advised to use discretion in the distribution of these
variations in a line of lettering, because a too lavish
use of
whole.
them may
result in
weakening the
effect of the
of
The extended and compressed forms have their spheres usefulness, and the student will find that he can soon
46
pass from the one to the other
when
occasion requires;
however,
it is
advisable to cultivate for general use one

this
proportion,
and
one rather bordering on the extended

letter
form.
very short
can be used a
if it is
only
made
sufficiently wide.
The
legibility of
letter is increased
more by a
slight increase in
width than by one in height.
The extended form should in partictdar be used in the

dimension figures on a drawing.
The lower
line of Fig. 5
shows an analysis of one of
the variations just mentioned; a certain angularity of the curved forms

inclined
is
to be noted
the ovals, too, are
made
and pear-shaped.
there should be
The inclined Gothic will have the same characteristics

as the incHned letters on Plate IV;
sufficient inclination of
stems to avoid the effect of a
vertical letter carelessly
made.
Otherwise the amotmt
of the inclination
is
governed by legibiHty; 20 degrees

slant.
from the
vertical,
however, gives a good general
The remaining
features of inclined letters were dis14.
cussed in connection with this plate in sec.
The
footnotes to some of the other plates are in the upright
and inclined Gothic.
Plate
VII
illustrates
one of the
variations; Plate XIII, a back-hand
form of the Gothic;
Plate XI, the inclined.
29. Other Offhand Styles.
On
Plate
IX
are several other styles of letters for
offhand work.
No.
is
but slightly different from
the single-stroke Gothic just discussed, but in the small

letters the oval
47
forms are simplified, and one who, after
practicing
sufficiently,
becomes convinced
of
his
in-
aptitude to
make
clear
round forms can resort to
this
with promise of better success.
The
capitals can also
be treated in the same square construction.
Some may find the

4,
7,
swelled-stroke letters of lines
2, 3,
and
8 suit
their
hands
better,
but the uniform
strokes just described should be mastered in a measur-
able degree
titles, etc.
first,
for use in larger uniform letters,
in
Nos. 3 and 4 go together, also 7 and
8.
They
are
shown,
although nearly
alike,
because the difference
in direction of inclination involves a difference in the
swinging of the strokes.
In the swelled-stroke
relative to the line
letters
the position of the pen

as for
made should be the same

after
it.
the other offhand styles discussed, but motion should
begin and end somewhat gradually paper and cease gradually on leaving
touching
the
Keep a strong
pressure equally uniform, and cultivate a uniform

of bearing
way
down
at the begirming
and a
is
lifting
up
of the
pen
form
at the ending of strokes.

of letter
It
true that in this

noticeable than
minor defects are

forms.
less
in the
more
rigid
few useful exercises for

kind of letter are shown
preparation in making this

in
Fig.
6.
The
chief
difference
between the upper

is
group of two and the lower group
that the strokes in
the lower group are swelled uniformly, while those in the
upper emphasize the lower parts
of the letters;
this,
48
FREE-H/iND LETTERING.
carried even farther in the matter of concentration of
weight,
No. 5
spill
is
illustrated in the footnote to Plate VI.
is sxiitable
for a
heavy
bltint
pen that
is
apt to
the ink, or for a
stiff
pen which does not obey the
handling readily, or the ball-pointed pen.

No. 6
is
quite a favorite with some
who admire
the
Fig. 6.
Style 2.
Analysis of the strokinq on Plate ^

^
VIII.
Style 3.
Style
7-
Roman
letter;
it
is
distingtiished
from
its
parent by
having no
fillets
to connect the serifs with the stems.
The small
Plate V.
letters
It is
be of the sttmip form shown on made, of course, with the minimum of
may
handling, the heavy strokes with one sweep of the pen,

their imperfect ends afterwards trued
up with the
letters
serifs.
It is
undoubtedly one of the best appearing
upon
49
a drawing, but
to
it
requires special aptitude in lettering
do
it
rapidly enough to suit the requirements of

Fig. 7
is
practice.
introduced to show the kind of
Fig.
practice stroking for the style where the

for the small letters is used.
stump writing
The numerals used

styles
in connection with the offhand
need not necessarily partake of the characteristics
of the latter.
An important
is
is
thing to observe in niunerals
on a drawing
width than
than
its
that they should be fairly legible and, as

effected
before mentioned, this

of height.
is
more by
increase of
is
Therefore a figure that
broader
height
more common on working drawings;
examples 9 and 10 show figures applied to a drawing. Consult Plate XII for a very broad figure.
Fig. 8 gives
an analysis
of the strokes
used in making
drawings.
the simple single-stroke figures on working
A
.
more
careful treatment
by
dividing
up
figures into
more parts can be used when desired on larger work.
On
hand
Plate
XVII
more
will
be found other
free styles of off-
letters,
used, however,
by
architects;
they
50
are copies from the authorities

under each.
whose names are printed
In some such ornamental styles as these
the defects of unsteady handling are not so likely to be

offensive
;
particularly
is
this true of style
e.
But lack
of facility
which
is
thus disguised must be replaced by
Fig. 8.
PPP 22a 333

V
a rarer quality, judgment in the appropriateness of the
variations to the general make-up.
30.
^
Some
(a)
is
Special Directions about the
Use
of the Pen.
Kind
of penciling for inked letters.
The
penciling
which
used prior to the inking should be of the lightest
possible,
and
soft so that it
can be easily erased, and the

it
eraser, too,
one of the soft kind so that
will not injure
the ink or paper.
For
offhand
lettering
;
the
only
penciling used should be for the guide-lines
for careful
large lettering the penciling should be as complete as

if it
were to remain in pencil except as regards the black-
ness of the lines.

possible,
The paper should be kept as pure as
even a
minimum
erasing of the pencil -lines,

SO that the ink will take freely.
Si
Ink
will
not flow freely

is
upon a dark
greasy.
(6)
pencil-line because the lead
more or
In
less
Filling
in the
thick
stems of
letters.
filling
in the thick stems of letters

like
the
pen should be used
a brush.
fine outline is first
drawn
ideally with
steady continuous
retain the ink
strokes;
this
furnishes
a wall to
in Fig.
i.
and should look Hke the

strokes
Continuous paint-brush-like
within
the
wall,
are
of
is
next
drawn
the
if
long
way
letter
each
member,
body,
Fig. i
touching
until
each
other
is
the
If
not too thick,
the whole
stroke
filled.
for a very thick
a middle
may
be
taken,
as
in
of
and allowed to dry before completing the

process
is
rest.
This
desirable because
it
does not disturb the
paper by tearing up the
fibers.
short strokes, usual with beginners,

blots likely
The scratching by will do this, making
and leave
its
ear-marks generally throughout
the surface.
In a broad and general way, use the pen
as a painter uses a striper in sign-painting.

(c)
How
to correct errors in inking.
First wait for
the mistake to get thoroughly dry, then always use a sand

rubber, or in other words an ink-eraser (never a knife).
Rub
lightly in all directions,
and by slow degrees
clear
the paper thoroughly in the immediate neighborhood

of the error,
not being troubled because
it
cleans off
off
somewhat more
than the mistake.

finally
Next clean
burnish
the
sand with a pencil-eraser, and
down with
the ivory end of a penknife or that of a regular knife
52
Pencil in as
if
eraser.
for
new work and then ink

filling
it
over, manipulating the
pen with extra care over the
erased portion and
also
when
in has to be done
.
the ink
is
more
its
liable to
spread here than elsewhere,
overrunning
boundaries.
Erasing-shields can
be purchased and are very handy

it differing
for small errors;
they consist of a piece of thin sheet
brass having holes in
holds the paper

of
down
tight
in shape and size. It and prevents the cleaning
a surface larger than necessary.

{d)
Points
about
lettering
on tracing-cloth.
It
is
convenient to sUp a piece of fine cross-sectioned paper
underneath the cloth to furnish the guide-lines or to

rule the Hnes in pencil
on white paper and
slip this
under.
surface
The smooth
pen,
in
side of cloth holds the ink wet
on
its
longer than paper, hence use less ink at
any time in the
and particularly in making additions to strokes and

a mistake
trimming up.
If
is
made,
use, as before, the ink-eraser
very carefully; no burnishing upon the cloth will be
found
necessary',
in fact it
is
impossible.
Not more
than two or three erasures over the same place can be
made
before
at best
it will
on even the smooth side of the cloth
give
wav
31. Proper Size for Offhand Lettering.
The
letters.
size
smtable for offhand letters for working
drawings depends of course upon the proportions of the
narrow small
letter
can be one-eighth of an

inch high or even
letter is used, less
suffice.
53
slightly higher, whereas,
if
a broad
will
than one-sixteenth of an inch
Beginners are apt to err on the side of a letter
too large.
also those
Those on Plate VIII show a good
size to use,
shown on the working drawing on Plate XII. The footnotes to the various plates show suitable prac-
tical sizes.
CHAPTER
IV.

32.
The
Single-line Title.
Consider
find
of
now a kind
in
of careful lettering
which we
line
instanced
caption to a drawing, one

subject.
words to designate a
appropriate letter for this purpose,

treat it?
What constitutes an and how is it best to
Titles of course involve, in a measure, design.
We
will
not speak now, however, of the designed letter
found so commonly in advertisements, where the best

lettering is to be seen to-day,
but simply
of
of those points
of design
which involve the choice

an invariable way.
some very simple

There
is
letters treated in
a system
which can be followed and which will insure intelligent

treatment and appropriateness to the ptirpose intended.
Such a
title
we
find,
for example,
S.
across the top of
working drawings or that of the U.
Geological Survey
maps
so familiar to every one.

title,
In designing a
ftmdamental
a student must keep in mind the

of
requisites
appropriateness.
The
ten-
dency in beginning always seems to be to make lettering

too prominent.
to use
is
Just what size and character of letter

it
governed by the requirement that
should
54
DESIGN OF LINES ^ND OF TITLES.
55
keep
its place,
and that
place, is
one generalty of lesser
prominence than the drawing.

not be striking, but legible and neat.
The
lettering
should
33.
The Choice
of Style
and
Size.
Assume the
applied
to
styles to
be chosen from among the very

I
few well-known ones illustrated on Plates
to VII
and
working drawings or maps.

of
To-day the
is
marked The day
characteristic
good
lettering
is
simplicity.
if
of ornamental
lettering
past,
it
ever
really existed outside the covers of the imported of alphabets, also that of the letter
books
drawn
in perspective
as
if it
stood out from the paper and the place where it
properly belongs.
The design
of the letters themselves,

tO'
appears in slight modifications and in adjustments
one another in their places in words.

letter for
No more
fitting^
a single-line
title
can be found than the Gothic

it
illustrated so
abundantly on Plate VII, and

it is
must be
conceded that
also the simplest.
The
calls for
choice of style will depend
somewhat upon the

S.
character of the drawing.
The U.
Geological Survey
italics,
Roman and
Gothic letters together with
exclusively;
the working drawing of the engineering-
establishment usually includes these together with the

other simple styles which are slight variations
upoa
to-
them.
The display
or
show drawing may have

is
slightly
more ambitious treatment, although it do more than make the letters heavier.
not usual
The
is
architec-
tural drawing will display a letter which
the product
56
of
a
more
artistic
hand than
expression
to
the foregoing.
The
forms
architect likes to be free in
his treatment,
and not
infrequently
gives
rather
weird
entirely out of the conventional, but characteristic of

his profession, a letter such as
we
see
on Plate XVII.
this
is its
It
is
not always sure to be
legible,
and
chief
fault,
it is
but because
it is
rather traditional in the profession
accepted with
less criticism
than
it
probably wotdd
receive elsewhere.
Titles are generally
put wholly in capitals.

large
For a
little
more compact treatment

greater than
if
and small
capitals are
latter being
sometimes used, the relative height of the

very
small letters were used in their place.
We
much
less
frequently see titles composed of capitals
and small
be
letters.
For much matter in small space,

is
however, this arrangement

easily read, probably
very
efficient,
for it can
more any
easily
than
if
capitals of
equal proportion and treatment were employed.

It
is difficult
to give
directions as to size of let-
ter, for
the effect depends largely upon treatment.
Per-
haps
it is
safe to say that the limit in height of the letters of
on a working drawing can be taken as one-half

inch, this
an
when a
light
body and narrow

of
letter is used,
i,
of the proportions,
for example,
the letters in
if
Plate
XI and
;
the limit for weight of body,
a Gothic
or
Roman
It
is
letter,
one-sixteenth of an inch, in the case of
a short broad
letter.
fall
probable that one will
by habit
into
making
letters of a generally similar proportion
and even with
57
a tendency towards the same kind of spacing, so that

choice reduces to a question of
of lettering
is
what length the
line
going to be or of the amount of wording
to go into the line.
34.
How
to
Lay Out
the* Line. for a title is fixed in length;
Sometimes the space

about what
as an exercise for practice

of
work
it
should be.
An
idea
size letter will
do for a given space can be
determined by
sketching roughly on a piece of trial

lines.
paper without limiting
Next, the balance of the line can be ascertained
by
counting the
letters,
finding the approximate middle
of the line, possibly even the quarter

points.
and three-quarter
This
is
accomplished by counting both words
and
spaces, also
by the
position of the largest letters,

I,
M and W,
and the
smallest, the
in the line,
and allow-
ing for them.
After this the
method
of developing the line should

of a word, as
be entirely analogous to the development

discussed in sec. 19.
is
preeminently the safest and most expeditious.
The gradual sketch development The
first, last,
and middle
letter
may be
lightly drawn,
then
those in between, as was the word mechanism.
The
spaces between words can always be used as equalizing

factors,
being expanded or contracted to suit the length
of the line.
In the
first
rough layout the single-stroke Gothic

is
may be
used whatever
to be the character of the letter
58
finished.
when
the
I
After allowing for any extraneous
dif-
ferences, as in the addition of sptors to a
Roman
which
letter,
needs to be allowed for; the weight of
its
it
body
does
decides the space reqmred
by
this letter,
xLot in the case of the other letters.
35- Degree of Finish to Give a Title.

Titles are frequently
is,
rapidly and directly
made more or in ink. To do
less offhand,
that
this well
without
careful preliminary penciling reqiiires considerable practice.
The
is
single-stroke Gothic letter, of capitals throughit
out,
frequently used in such cases;
should not reit.
jquire
more than a few minutes

titles
to put in a line of
Of
course the treatment looks offhand and does not have
the appearance of the
on the U.
S.
Geological
Survey maps, but
for the requirements of general office
icvork it is adequate.
title
put in to look as
if
engraved or printed from

its
type requires exquisite care in

of
handhng
such can-
not have too careful preliminary penciHng.

finish to
The degree
Neat exact
impart
will
depend
also
upon the character of
the drawing to which a

exact letter;
title is
attached.
drawings for photographic reproduction require a neat

this should
be treated with the careful
penciling mentioned, copied carefully also with a very

fine pen, possibly a crow-quill, rendering in a fine conto^xr,
with attention mainly to the outer edges of the

This contour can afterwards be
filled in
strokes.
with
coarser pen or brush.
DESIGN OF LINES /IND OF TITLES.

General working drawings, for
alone,
office
59
and shop use

Broad,
possible
permit only of a very free treatment.

;
sweeping, and continuous strokes are in order
if
the
it is
is
full
weight of the stems of the
letters
if
not, then
necessary to add to
is
attained that
them while wet imtil the strength demanded by the letter. Touching
up
36.
of lines is generally impracticable.
The Design
of
Grouped
Titles.
grouped
title is
such a one as
we
see
on Plates
and XI, where a certain amount

rated into
lines,
of information is sepa-
generally grouped in the lower right-
hand comer
of a working drawing, occasionally in the
upper middle part.
Maps, the drawings of architects,

for shop use contain these.
of the subject-matter
and the working drawings
To make a neat-appearing group

of the subject-matter into lines
requires considerable taste and practice.
The
division
may
not require
much
the
discretion
if
the
title is
not extended; the
title of
sheet, the firm
name, address, and connectives generally
compose the material, each naturally requiring a separate

line.
After arranging the lining of "the

that the best all-arotind effect
of treatment.
It
is
title,
be assured
obtained by simplicity
may
be remarked, in passing, that the

this
generality of titles
upon working drawings ignore

all
one fimdamental principle of
design; the
first effort
seems to be directed to choosing a different style of letter

for each line
and obtaining prominence
of certain fea-
6o
tures
letter
by
elaborateness of alphabet.
single style of
can be used in the make-up of a
title,
and
it
can
be diversified with sufficient difference in effect to suit

the most fastidious.
The fewer
styles
used in any case
the neater will be the design.
37. Various Considerations to be Observed in Designing.
There are a number of things to be observed in the

designing of a
will
title
to completely
severally
fill
its
purpose, which
now be taken up
(a) Simplicity of
and
discussed.
contour shape.
Notice examples of
good lettering to be met with daily in our advertising

matter;
we can
see
that the groups possess simple

to the extremities of the suc-
shapes; tangents
cessive
drawn
and prominent
lines enclose a simple geometrical
figure, rectangular, trapezoidal,
or one of simple ctirves,
the figure sometimes actually lending a certain special

interest to the group.
If,
in grouping lines of letters,
they are spread apart and
made more
scattered, perhaps
by
virtue of
marked
differences in lengths of line, these
tangents will not enclose a simple but a rather complex

uninteresting figure, disturbing the tmity of the subject.
Notice the shapes of the
titles
shown on Plates
to design
and
title
XI.
layout
It
is
probably a
good rule in sketching the

these
of
such
titles
as
the
without regard
afterwards and
to the connectives,
suiting
their
putting
them
in
treatment to the room
at their disposal.
The shape should be given by the
principal Unes.

(6)
Proper
relative
prominence of
lines.
The
it
chief
feature in the title should be brought out with sufficient
prominence to catch the eye at a glance but
should not
be so large or prominent as to entirely dwarf everything else. Other lines will also reqtiire more or less prominence.
Each
line
should take
its
place in the general

its
scheme, none attracting more attention than
due.
In a short
title of
a few
lines it is
not
difficult to
decide
upon the
extensive
relative
titles,
prominence of the
lines
parts.
In more
to require
of
if
two or more
may seem
about
equal prominence, yet, from
considerations
design, should not be treated exactly alike or, even
treated alike, being of quite different length, would vary

in their prominence.
Such points as these should be
appreciated.
(c)
Matters affecting prominence of words.
Change
in
the prominence of a group of words making up a line

of lettering
can be effected in a variety of ways and by

for
combinations of these ways;
example:
change in change
proportions of letters, particularly in the width;

in the spacing of letters
and words
change in the weight
and treatment
alphabet style or
of the
body
of letters;
change in the
by
slight variations or ornamentations,
and
lastly,
italicizing.
This, it
may
be observed, within be more prominent
a group of lines of upright
letters, will
than the
rest,
even though of the same kind of alphabet,
and treated the same.
Some
of
of these features of course affect the appearance

line
the words in a
more than others
just
how much.
62
relatively,
is
a matter to
be' settled
by experiment.
is
Any one
of
them applied
to a very slight degree will
effect a noticeable change, because
what
done to one
letter is repeated in
many
letters of the line,
and
it
in the
aggregate
becomes noticeable.
if
Therefore
can be
readily seen that
several of these expedients are used

it
together each must be dwarfed over what

qtiire
would
re-
to be
if
used alone.
is
The tendency of a beginner

to give altogether too
in
designing groups of lines
much
prominence to important features, hence the reason for

giving this caution.
{d)
Uniformity of treatment.
The whole
title
should
receive equal finish in treatment.
To draw one part

is
very carefully and to make another part offhand with

the intention of lessening
in design.
its
prominence
a mistake
The
title
should be treated either

if
all carefully
or all offhand.
Again,
all
all
capitals are used in the
prominent features,
capitals should prevail elsewhere,
with the exception that some one line alone

varied.
may be
capitals
thus
In
title
mainly of
' ' ,
capitals,
and
small letters
may
etc.,
be used appropriately for the imof
important
connectives
the "
"by
the, "
" manu-
factured by,"
unless perchance they appear fre-
quently in the
its
title
if
separating almost every line from
neighbors,
when
used this treatment would appear
to be broken up.
38.
Example
of
How
to
Lay Out and Execute the

group
title
Design.
The method
of laying out a
should be the
DESIGN OF LINES /tND OF TITLES.
63
same as that used
for the
Hne or
its
for the word,
but
it is
here described again so that
sHght variations may-
be thoroughly understood.
Plate
X shows the way to proceed in

be
used,
separate
the development
of a design.
Before deciding upon the style of alphabet

the
or
title
alphabets to
matter of the
into lines, giving the connectives

;
each a separate
title
line
this is not invariable, however, as
3,
line c
title
on Plate XI, shows, or the same subject in b of
4.
The arrangement
plate,
is
shown
lines.
in the
first line
of s of the
together with an approximate
estimate of the
center of each of the
With some conception now
of the general
make-up,
sketch with very brief suggestive treatment, the whole title

in single-stroke motive, as the group
first line of
number
on the
the plate shows.
To
allow perfect freedom,

lines,
this
may
be done without limiting
these attached
to
fit
afterwards,
and then the
letters
trimmed
them.
The
limiting lines
shown on the
plate are an attempt
to suggest this kind of treatment.
After trimming up and balancing, as was described

for the single-line title, the effect
is
that of
number
3.
Here the proportions
of
the letters and the spacing
have been determined quite accurately.
Now
the
since so
is
many
things determine the effect of
lines, it
well to experiment on the treatment to be
adopted for the several lines as
shown
in
number
4.
The
shown
two halves
in
of the title
3
on a
vertical division-line
number
might be treated differently and afterwards
64
a choice
made
of the
one which, upon being worked

This
up
to a finish, promises the best.
may
be done
in pencil, in
which
of course each of these stages de-
scribed
is
supposed to be treated.
is
Finally, the complete title
shown
at
number
5,
arrived at
title.
by the method described

is
for the single-line
The above
a comprehensive
method
of designing,
permitting the designer complete freedom in the de-
velopment of his motive.

tell his result so
No
designer can exactly fdr-
that he can begin and draw each Hne
or, further still,
each letter carefully from the beginning
tmtil all are done.
39.
Title
may
be Variously Treated.
is
The beginner
advised to practice upon the possi-
bilities of variations in
title
by sketching a number
4,
of layouts roughly, to the degree of finish of niimber
and
using several forms of
titles,
then to pick out the

careful
best one or several

finish.
upon which to impart a

in the
What may be done

treatment of a
title is
way of
slightly varying the
shown on Plate XI.

same
and
height,
In
and
2 the respective lines are of the
and the
proportions of the letters also are the same except in

line
c.
The
difference
is
in
effect
of
the promof
inence of the lines

alone.
accomplished by weight
slight
body
Note what a
difference
is
really
made.
In 3 the whole scheme of the
title is
different.
65
change in
in
c,
size of letters is also
shown on the same line

significance of
It is true that
yet, because of the difference in

it
the words,
is appropriate.
i
"of" in
but
the line "City of Ithaca" in

in 3 the smaller
and
c
2 is
made
small,
letters of line
occupy more space
and they
also begin the line.
Nttmber 4
shows an arrangement and treatment
suited for the working drawing for shop use
when the
experience
lines,
it
minimum of time is allowed; it is such may be put in directly in ink after gaining
in lettering.
will
a form as
The
is
difference in
prominence of
be noted,
;
effected mainly
is
by
differences in heights
of letters
the weight
that of the single stroke of the
pen.
Number
is
shows also an offhand treatment where shows visibly the ear-marks of the
a more ornamental letter than the single-stroke Gothic

desired.
The
title
offhand treatment.
Note that in the
first
is
four of these
the same style and treatment of letter

is
used, yet there
no lack
5,
of variety;
all capitals
in
one
only two styles of letter are used and the other capitals and small
letters uniformly.
Other facsimile reproductions of

Plates XIII
sec. 43.
titles
are
shown on
and XIV.
These are discussed in detail in
CHAPTER
V.
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES INCLUDING PHOTO-REPRODUCTION.

40. General Statement.
All drawings for technical purposes, such as survey
maps, working drawings, and the

lettered to
like,
require to be
some extent, sometimes

legibility,
carefully with very
great finish, in other cases as rapidly as possible consistent
with
directions
and data even being

is
written occasionally
his work.
when the draftsman
hurried in
The
different purposes for
which drawings
the
are
made
control the character of the lettering,

professions
different
having their own characteristics

treatment of the drawing.
in this as well as in that of the
In the large drafting-rooms of manufacturing estabhsh-
ments, a certain style of letter
is
apt to be demanded
a part of the rules
on
all
drawings, and this
is
as
much
as those controlling the general make-up, conventions,

etc.
The following summary
of general suggestions
may
furnish a fitting introduction to a few of these branches.

41. Lettering on
Maps.
The survey maps made by civil engineers, of which those made by the U. S. Coast and Geological Surveys
66
LETTERING FOR yARlOUS TECHNJC/IL PURPOSES.
67
stand as the best patterns, contain lettering which,
although plain,
of
is
yet finely executed and are examples
about as careful lettering as are to be found anyPlates
where.
XV
and XVI, giving the requirements

S.
and conventions
serve to
of the U. of
Geological Survey, will

this
is.
show what kind

is
work
The handling
careful pre-
required
of the best
and demands very
liminary penciling.
When
maps, such as these, stand
as permanent records and are to be consulted and fol-
lowed by
many
people in their original form or reprothis latter)

,
duced in an engraving (particularly

time required to do careful work
the extra
for.
is
compensated
Prof. Jacoby in his book on "Plain Lettering" (pages 66 and 67) gives some very useful directions with regard
to map-drawing, and
we cannot do
better than to quote
him:
"The
longs.
position of the various
names should be
so
chosen as not to leave any doubt as to where each be-
Names
of places are preferably of
put immediately
its
to the right
the convention which designates
location, or as near to this as the preceding rule
and the
position of the names and conventions will permit with-
out the appearance of crowding.
They
are
all
arranged
in lines parallel to the lower border of the drawing."
"The names
cotmties,
of
divisions,
like
districts,
townships,
and
states,
should have the letters spaced to

the larger portion of the division,
make the names cover
the lines being graceful sweeping curves extending in

the direction of the greatest length and placed approx-
68
imately along the middle of the width.

of communications, like roads or canals, rivers or creeks are placed
The nanles
and those of
increased,
If
by
their sides, the spaces
between
the
letters
and words being considerably
latter
is
proportionally
more than the former.
space
equally available on both sides, the letters are

.
placed with their bases towards the convention.
A
its its
very long stream or line of communication
may have
name
length.
repeated,
if
desirable, at different portions of
In
all
cases the lettering should be arranged
so as to be read
by the
least possible
change in the
position of the observer
before
him.
when the map lies squarely The spacing of letters when separated
five units will
more than four or

if
be
sufficiently precise
their distances,
center to center, are the same."
42. Architect's Lettering,
The
lettering usual
on architectural drawings
artistic sort, is quite
is
of a
very free and sometimes
Hkely also
to be of the careless rapidly executed styles spoken of

before.
Very
Httle time is spent

;
upon the
lettering of
the working drawings

of the
Plate
XVII shows
a few examples
more common
each.
;
letter
forms used on these drawings,
taken from the authorities whose names are printed
under
certain
is
freedom
largely
and uniqueness
artist,
is
noticeable
the architect
an
and
becatise
of this abhors the rigidity of the of letter;

letters,
common
type form
for him,
must mould themselves to
suit his fancy,
spreading out, exceeding their limiting
LETTERING FOR
lines
l^/IRIOUS
TECHNICAL PURPOSES.
69
is
and changing shape, the same freedom that
allowed in the use of other decorative forms.
A favorite with architects

the old
is
a letter on the order of

plate,
Roman, shown on the above-mentioned

in
treated in outline with an open body, the serifs freer
and wider than
the classic form.
Another
letter
much used
The
is
that illustrated in
on Plate XXI.
letter
requisites for a
good practical architectural

use
like those in
common
may be
described as extreme
artistic
lightness of body, legibility,
and an
freedom in
shape and proportion.

It
was
just said that very little time is generally spent
upon the
receive
lettering
on the working drawings.
These
much
less care
than the assembled elevations,

it is
but this does not negative the fact that
experience
which begets
is
rapidity.
The apparently The nature

In the
careless letter
apt to be the result of considerable experience and
facility
with the pen.
of the lettering used
on architectural drawings does not from that in other

elevations
lines.
differ in other respects

titles
to the assembled
we
note a very frequent irregularity in shape,
the information not being built upon a central line of
symmetry, but staggered
(see Plate
is
XVIII).
Another
form very popular to-day

XVIII.
43. Lettering on
to
make the
lettering con-
tinuous in lines of equal length, as also shown on Plate
Working Drawings
for Manufacturing.
The character
of the lettering used
on working draw-
70
FREE-H/tND LETTERING.
ings has been already described in sees.

It
28
and
29.
only remains to
call
attention to examples and to
give a few additional practical points. Plate
XII shows a drawing with the usual
descriptive
figures.
lettering attached, consisting
mainly of dimension
Clean steady strokes in this are essential to clearness.

Letters
and
figures should
bliirr.
not be
made
so small as to
is
run together and

use a broad one.
If
a small figure
necessary,
Where cramped
line
for space, it is better
to place the figures entirely outside of that space and

refer
them to
it
by a free-hand
should
the
having an arrow-head
plate.
on the end, as instanced in several places on the
Treatment
following
be uniform
throughout in the
style,
size,
if
way:
same alphabet,
for
and
All
proportion of letters and figures should prevail
possible
and tmless cramped
room
in occasional places.
capitals in one place
and capitals and small
letters in
is
another should not be used unless the intention
to
make
a certain feature
more prominent.
Capitals
and
small letters
probably look the best

is
for
descriptive
matter, although this

If
a question of taste.
the usual symbols of one dash for feet and two for
inches are used, they should be large enough to be under-
stood clearly, should be large also at one extremity,

tapering to a fine point at the other.
Separate some-
what the
inches
to
figures standing for feet also
from those for
avoid confusion.
It
is
qtiite
dispense with the symbol for feet, replacing

to further avoid
common to it by " Ft."
any misunderstanding-
of the figures.
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES.
71
Two
it
limiting
lines should
always be put in in pencil

is
where as much as a word or more

scattered over a drawing;
to be spelled out
is
improves the appearance where there
lettering
separating the words quite
well also helps the appearance.
Plates XIII
and XIV, taken from
original sources,
show some
to be
titles
treated in an offhand manner,
much
as the lettering on Plates VIII and IX, and are
what are
met with frequently on working drawings. They are not, however, necessarily recommended as good examples to follow in design. They are more fully
discussed in sec. 57.
44. Lettering for Photo-reproduction.
There
is
a technique of lettering for photo-reproduc-
tion which deserves
some
attention.
In the
first
place
the paper used should be very smooth so that the edges

of all strokes are clear;
if
possible choose a
;
stiff
paper
which
is
either clear white or bltiish white
the yellow
tinted papers do not give as good results.
Tracing-cloth
can be used also when necessary.
Erasures have to be
made very
carefully
whether on the paper or on the

lines,
cloth, in order to
avoid irregular
but there
is
one
aid possible which cannot be used in general drawing,
namely, Chinese white for cutting out or trimming up.
The water-proof black ink

is
is
the best
for, if
Chinese white
it,
used to trim with, the black will not be drawn into
giving blurred edges.

light
The penciling should be very

if left
and
easily erased, because,
on the drawing,
72
it
is
apt to be reproduced together with the ink-hnes
and has to be routed out by the engraver.

Theoretically, the greater the reduction, the clearer
and sharper
realized.
If
will
be the
result,
but in practice this
is
not
there are very fine lines present, these, on
great reduction, will break

lines are
it
and appear ragged;
also, if
very closely spaced, they are apt to nin together
has become the general custom of draftsmen, there-
fore, to
work
for a one-half reduction,
meaning that the
result is to
original.
be one-half the width or the height of the

are
Occasionally drawings
made
This
for a
one-
third reduction,
meaning that the
result is to
is
be twoa matter
thirds of the length of the original.
optional with draftsmen, however.
There are two general processes for reproducing

drawings, the photo-lithographic
line
and the
zinc
etching.
The former
from
stone.
is
an imprint made upon and printed directly
The
latter is
made by photographing the

and subjecting
it
subject
upon a
sensitized zinc plate
to the action of
weak
acid which eats
away the
zinc
where the
deposit,
lines are,
last
forming the matrix for a copper
which
becomes the plate when further

will,
it
prepared.
directness,
The photo-lithographic process

give a clearer,
finer
result,
by
is
its
but
only
suitable for a
relatively small
whereas the zinc process

almost indefinitely.
Plate
number of impressions, can be made to reproduce
XIX
is
intended to illustrate some of the pecu-
liarities of
reproduction
by
the zinc process.
Two
lines

of
73
lettering are reduced to
two
different
sizes.
The
letters
and
in
the right-hand comer,
one from
each of the above

of the
original,
lines,
are reproduced the exact size
showing,
among
other things, what a
large
reduction
was made.
Both were made with
water-proof ink and a brush without any careful preliminary penciling.

this is
For certain kinds of reproduction

follow, because
an excellent plan to on a large
much freedom
on
of handling
scale
can be indulged in without
sacrifice in the result.
Slight irregularities in lines
a large scale are lessened by great reduction.
For general work, however, the example at the

Letters should not be
left
hand of the sheet shows the difficulties encountered.

drawn
for a reduction
which
is
to
be
less
than one thirty-second of an inch high, for they

should lines which are
less
are apt to blur in parts, nor

parallel
be spaced so as to reduce to
than one sixty-
fourth of an inch apart, for similar reasons.
Where there
on a drawing
will
are
marked
differences in weight of lines
it will
be noticed that the reproduction

;
does not preserve the relative thicknesses
the finer lines
be relatively coarser than the
original.
In drawing
then, for reproduction the draftsman should calculate
the effect which his work will have

certain
when reduced; a
be
observed
coarseness
of
treatment
should
consistent with the scale of the reduction; fine lines
should be
made
coarser than
if
they are to be repro-
duced the
original size.
Only practice can be depended
upon
to give knowledge of the complete requirements.
74
The plate shows very clearly the effects of reduction upon certain fatilts of handling. Filled-in comers is one The plate of them and unevenness of Hnes is another.
also
shows how directions for reduction are specified to

It is best to give
the engraver.
specific size to
which a
drawing
the
is
to be reduced,
and
this in inches, because
engraver can then measure the same upon the
grotmd-glass plate of his camera.
Otherwise he would
his negative,
have to
If
figure out the size to
make
it is
and
this gives
an opportunity for
is
error.
a drawing
reproduced,
often found conve-
nient not to do any lettering, but in its stead to have the

letters
stamped
on, or letters
which are already printed

It is a
cut out and pasted on in the proper places.

great saving of time in some cases.
45. Lettering for Patent Office Drawing.
Drawings accompanying applications for patents in

the U.
S.
Patent
letters,
Office require to
be lettered with
brief
reference
occasionally
with
descriptive
matter.
The
rules governing the
making
strict.
of the
draw-
ings are in
some respects quite
The
following
2,
quotation from the " Rules of Practice " revised Jan.

1903, covers the
matter of lettering:
figiu-es of
if
"Letters and
reference
possible,
must be
carefully
least
formed.
They
should,
measure at
one-eighth of an inch in height, so that they
may
bear
reduction to one twenty-fourth of an inch; and they
may be much larger when there is
sufficient
room.
They
75
must be so placed
sion of the same,
in the close
and complex parts
of the
drawing as not to interfere with a thorough comprehen-
and therefore should
rarely cross or
mingle with the
lines.
When necessarily grouped around

little
a certain part, they should be placed at a
distance
where there
broken
lines
is
available space,
with the parts to which they

surfaces,
and connected by short refer. They

and when
shall
it
must never appear upon shaded

is difficult
to avoid
this,
a blank space must be

it
left in
the shading where the letter occurs, so that

perfectly distinct
appear
and separate from the work."

to about 3" wide,
The
large reduction of drawings to a size appropriate

i.e.,
for the pages of the "Gazette,"
demands a very bold

used by the U.
S.
legible letter.
The
style
which
is
Patent Office draftsmen when they

is
prepare drawings for inventors
the stump form shown
on Plate V, with capitals

ard set by these
is
like 6
on Plate IX.
The standthan the

stroke'
followed largely in outside practice.
A bold-face
letter is
letter stands the reduction better
single-stroke Gothic,
and some form
of graded
therefore more appropriate than this.
46. Lettering for Advertising Purposes.
This form of lettering

chiefly to
calls for discussion briefly,

is
and
very
emphasize the fact that good lettering

simple.
It
plain
and
Plate
XX
is
introduced to illustrate
in sec.
i
this concretely.
was stated
that the best
examples of lettering to-day are to be found among

advertisements.
It
is
here that the problem
is
pre-
76
sented
very forcibly to make
strong
impression
upon the reader by catching

saying
his attention quickly
and
much
in little space.
Notice what very plain
letters are
used in most of the examples on this plate, yet

is
on the other hand what freedom and scope

in them.
Illustrations A, C,
allowed
and F contain some

yet in
of the very
simplest,
slight
plainest
letters,
notice
variation from the Gothic
imparts a
is
how new
the
in-
terest to the letters.
In C the style
very similar to
its
the offhand style shown on Plate VIII;
prominence
consists in the proportions of small letters to capitals
and in the compactness
of the line.
It
was drawn
to
show how a
large
small space, yet
amount of matter might be put in a by italicizing it its prominence, in the

lettering, will
midst of other very prominent

to hold its
interference.
permit
it
own thoroughly and tell its story without The A by its black ground and bold
.
white face
azines,
is
striking
it
and
is
well
adapted
to
mag-
where
has to compete with other claimants
for attention.
The
letter
used in B
is
based on the
antique
Roman shown on
Plate XXIII.
The antique
is
Roman, together with such

example,
will
variations of which this
an
are favorites with
designers
to-day.
In
D
do
be recognized an old form

class
of letter belonging to the
much ornamented
yet,
we used
to see,
and in
fact
in the imported books of

it
alphabets.
,
As shown
here
is
modernized, however, and several forms of
ornamental adjuncts are suggested as appropriate to

go with
it.
77
These
last are of
more use when the
letters
are to be reproduced in color
by lithography.
four illustrations con-
The design
sists chiefly in
feature in the
first
arranging the matter in the allowed space

of effect.
it is
with the
maximum
and
But
this is in itself
no
mean
task,
likewise
not a mean one to make

standard
effect of
appropriately the slight variations from the
forms used, which alter quite noticeably the

the several lines from what they would be
ters
if
straight letfirst,
were employed.
The
Gothic
letters,
probably
for
and the Roman

ing lettering.
this in the
next form largely the basis interested reader

is
advertis-
The
asked to notice
examples which come under his attention

slight variations
daily;
the
found do not hide the
type form.
to
The
illustrations
E and F
lettering
are introduced
show how the advertising
may
take upon
general
itself
the characteristics of ornamentation.
As a
rule,
ornamental lettering has a very limited use in ad;
vertising
ful
E shows about
the length to which the fanci-
may
be carried, even this to no considerable extent,

It
for it is not highly legible.
ought to be explained
here that the illustration was purposely placed across
the page so that the neighboring lettering through boldness would not detract from
its legibility
and
interest.
In F we have also ornamentation, but mainly of the surroundings of the letters rather than of the letters
themselves.
It
shows a kind
of
unique "layout" and
suitable for lithographic
and newspaper work, where we

In these
last
see it illustrated very frequently.
two
78
illustrations it is evident that the artist
and designer
is
necessary in order to do the work in hand; in no class

of lettering is there, in all of its phases taken together,
so
much freedom
composed
of
allowed the draftsman, in scheming out

;
his effects, as in advertising

is
the fact that the bulk of

is
it
very plain letters
a testimonial to their
that design, in
value,
and the student should
realize
lettering at least, does not consist in ornamentation, but
rather in a nice fitting of
means
to ends, the end always

its chief requisites.
containing legibility as one of
CHAPTER
VI.

Some
lettering;
of
our best brush
artists
do not consider
it
beneath their dignity to occasionally design groups of

they would not do this
if
they did not con-
sider it as a
worthy
field for
the expression of their
fancy, or that letter forms were so rigidly fixed that
they had but to scale them and their spaces.
Artists
have a keen sense of values and are strongly opposed to

mechanical treatment.
first-class
An
inspection of some of their
in
show how the fancy has scope both proportioning and spacing even when rather simple
work
will
letter
forms are used.*

its
The beauty
of the
work
is
at
once apparent in
ensemble, the nicety of relation

of
between the
lettering as
letters
and space areas making a piece

floral
much
a unit as a piece of
design can be.
Artistic sense
and the
ability to design is
something
inspiration-
which cannot be
ally
easily taught, it
must come
from within; the teaching which can be done does
not ,lead to conformity to rules or rigid limitations;

* See Frank examples.
Chateau Brown's
" Letters
and Lettering,"
7g
for
8o
only suggestions can be given for the apt to apply,
adding their own originality and
initiative.
It is pro-
posed, therefore, to collect here a few hints in the matter

of designing letters
which may, perhaps, not only be

to design, but an inspiration
rigid in their
helpful to those
who intend
to those
who
will
be more mechanical and
treatment, showing
them how
helpful
is
is
the attitude of
the artist and
how much
latitude
allowed the designer.

possible.
Nothing more than suggestions are

48. Single-stroke Gothic
may
be Taken as the Basis for
All Design.
In designing lettering to
fill
a given space,
it is a,bso-
lutely necessary, as a fundamental requisite, to treat the
space in some such comprehensive

lined in the beginning of
of
manner as was outthe book for a word or a Hne

of
words.
The proper proportioning

is
wording to
considera-
space available, so that the space areas may be uniformly

or appropriately distributed,
tion,
the very
first
and may be outlined somewhat
irrespective of the
style of letter to be adopted; indeed the reqtiirements

of ratio of letter area to space area
may be
the determin-
ing factor as to
what
or
style of letter should
be used.
The space must be taken

whole, that
as a unit and, considered as a
layout
final
distribution
in
made which comIn Ueu

Gothic
of a
letters
prehends
the
result
each stroke.
single-stroke
more
definite
conception,
may
be used with which to lay out this basis

It is a
of the
design.
very simple, easily made form, and a
number
The
of
tentative
layouts
can be made with
it,
choosing the best from
among the number
for finishing.
style or type of letter

fill
may
next be chosen which
will best
out the skeleton form of the Gothic.

the
space
The
lettering
in
may
be conveniently divided
separately, but,
into masses also
and each mass treated
generally speaking, the
method
of design
must be comin the
prehensive
the designing cannot begin with a complete
finish at the top, proceeding little
by
little
same
manner to the bottom,

inevitably lack unity.
for, if so treated,
the result will
49.
The Preservation
In designing
of
Type Style.
that
is,
letters,
in originating forms or in
modifying the existing well-known types, uniformity in

the style must be observed as a prime requisite.
Those
who have
book
will
studied carefully the earlier pages of the
understand what type style means, but a
few additional explanatory words
may
be appropriate.
;
The Gothic
letter
has a body of uniform thickness
any
change in the
way of proportion,
is
thickness of the uniform
body, and so on,

parts of the letter there
is
in order, but as soon as different

of different weights,
body are made
a characteristic change in the letter which must

all
be accompanied by a corresponding change in

letters
the
of the
set
used in the design.
The Romanpointed out as
Gothic letter on Plate
XXII may be
coming under
both
this class; it has the characteristics of
of these styles.
Now, were spurs
to be
added to a
82
_
or an
in the last-mentioned alphabet, it woiild

serifs
be
necessary to add the

else
complete in
lettering
;
all
the
letters,
an incongruity in the
would be at once
striking
apparent to even the tminitiated
it
would be as
an incongruity as dotting a
letters
capital I or
mixing in small
therefore be
where capitals
prevail.
An
all
embellishment or
modification in the stem of any letter
must
accompanied by a Uke change in

set
;
the letters of the
similarly a swelled
body letter
like
S or G, as in the
the
Roman,
alike.
requires all the c-urved forms to vary in weight
With
these
points
upon the type
style,
student
may
be assisted in supplying the letters variously
missing in the alphabets shown throughout the plates.
Frank Chateau Brown, in
his
book before
referred to,
presents the matter of type style very clearly

says:
when he
"An
important consideration in the design of an

is
.
alphabet ...
ally treated.
.
that the letters should be systematic.
There
is
no reason why we should not

if
cross the breed in lettering,
thereby
we can improve
not
look
the
stock.
An
is
alphabet,
however,
should
hybrid.
The
so,
artist is free to
do what he can, but the

if
.
test of success
that his creation should look as
it
.
must be
and could not have been otherwise.

letter of
Each and every

the space
an alphabet,
also, is susceptible
it
to such modification in shape as

left for it
may make
it is
best suit
by
its
neighbors."
Again, in the
asked, shotdd
letter,
matter of design in general: "Why,
the artist trouble himself about a hand-drawn
when he has ready to his use type, which
is so
much

truer
83
and more perfect ?
Truer, perhaps,
it
may be, in the

it is
sense of being
more mathematically
;
exact, but
not
necessarily as truly uniform in effect

letters of the type-fotuider
for the unyielding
may, and
if
come together as best they they come awkwardly he can't help it.
and indeed he should."
Letter.
for the beginner in designing,
The designer
50.
can,
The Old Roman
As affording suggestions
attention
letter as
is
called to a careful comparison of the

I
Roman
shown on Plate
If
and the Old Roman,
so called,
on Plate XXIII.
the student has access to various
authorities for this letter, he will be able to note quite
considerable variety in them.
This form
is,
as has been
already mentioned, a very
common and
differ.
popular one
to-day and
is
a good starting-point for the designer.
Notice wherein the two alphabets

tion
In the transiinfinite
from the one to the other there

Notice, too,
may be an
variety in the forms.

graceful letter the Old
Roman
Note
is
is
what a smooth and as compared with the

reasons for
this:
present-day type-letter.
serifs are large;
the
there
a lack of rigidity in the forms,
that
is,
there
;
is
a wide variation relatively in the widths
of the letters
the free swash-tails of letters like
R and Q
are
prolonged into graceful curves,
overstepping the
the upper and
size,
it.
rectangular boundaries of the letters;
lower parts of B, K, R, S are quite dissimilar in
breaking up symmetry while not entirely destroying
From
this letter
it is
a very easy step to the freer form
84
of line 2
on Plate XXI.
One does not

came
find the
Old
Roman
small letters illustrated as often as the capitals,

into use later.
partly because the small letters
The lowest
forms of
with,
see
line of the plate gives
examples of different
letters of this
alphabet which are to be met

of
and by an observance
type style one
is
able to
how
the various modifications apply to the other
letters of the alphabet.
The Old Roman may be

faced, that
is,
either heavy-faced or light-
the ratio between the heavy and the light

limits.
strokes
may
vary between wide
Lines 4 and 5
light.
on Plate
XXI show how
they appear when
51.
The
Effect of Changing Proportions
and Spacing.
be imparted to a
A very decided
total change
may
given piece of lettering through simply a change in the

proportions of letters,
weight of body, and spacing,

style
while
keeping
the
same
throughout.
This
is
exemplified even in the
more
rigid titles of Plate
XI.
Any
word
desired
contrast
can be obtained between the
several Hnes.
Often in advertisements
may
be seen one
of
only, or one
words of plain
style,
word followed by a line strong and vigorous in
but few
their effect,
first
the relation of body to space areas in the
case,
and the contrast
in the size
and proportions
of letters
in the second, being the chief design features.
As
to the
influence of these features relative to each other no

principles of value can be given;
there are so
many
variables
and
differing
conditions
that
experiment

alone can determine the effect desired.
It
85
would afford
an interesting exercise
groups, using the
for the student to design a few

it
same material and varying
after
such a manner, experimenting upon the differences in

effect obtainable.
52. Other Considerations in Design.
In taking one of the familiar type forms to modify or

act as a basis for design of letters, the chief object
is
to
add
interest to the letters
and increase the prominence.

will
Embellishment or ornamentation
do
this,
but only
up
is
to a certain point.
If it is carried
too
far,
the interest
less
destroyed because the letters become
legible.
This does not
mean
that shapes of letters cannot be

;
varied through quite wide limits
it is
safe to
do this as
long as the characteristics of the letters are preserved.
Additions to the outsides of

scrolls,
letters, in
the
way
of
ornaments, shade-lines, lines to suggest a solid

standing in
space,
letter
should
be sparingly used;
last.
they are of doubtful value as designs, particularly the
Chief interest resides in a letter which has a pleasing
shape
in
itself
without
extraneous
ornamentation.
Shade-lines, however, are probably
more common than

do add a
any other form
of finish;
rightly used they
certain easily obtained prominence; notice the letter o

of Masters of Plate
slight variation
of a
XX.
As an example
of
what a
fundamental type form
may
do
in the
way
of adding interest, note line 7 of Plate
XXI.
This
is
a very slight variation from the Gothic letter
86
II.
shown on Plate
Also note line 3 of Plate VII as a
similar variation of Gothic.
Ornamentation
may
take the shape of extraneous
features just mentioned,
varying the contour shapes

letters,
and
form
directions of
stems of
or of embellishing
the body of stems, within the contour.

of
The
last is a
ornamentation but
is
little
used in this country to-
day, and
to be sharply distinguished
from that
illus-
trated in imported books of alphabets.

in the
On
Plate
XX
word Actor we
see
an example of how
it is
modem
ornamentation runs when

has very
as
it
used.
The ornament
in other
little
characteristic interest of its own, but only
lends a variety to the

it
body
of the letters
floral
words,
does not partake of the
or scroll form.
Could any addition in the way of ornamentation improve

the word
"Power"
is
in the
first
example on the plate?

its
The answer
stroyed
if it
likely to
be that
force
would be de-
were ornamented.
In choosing an ornamental letter for a design the

artist's taste in fitting
the letter to
its piorpose is
the
only
at
ing,
is,
safe
rule.
Ornamentation
generally,
of
makes
force.
interest,
but
the
it
sacrifice,
is
Design
letter-
true,
may
in itself consist of
ornament, that
consist of orna-
the piece of
in
work when done may

letters
ment
which the
can properly be subservient and

;
not necessarily very legible
they need to be iinravelled
like other intricacies of the design.
The discussion
however,
is
of
this highly artistic class of lettering,
not
properly within the scope of this work.
87
lettering
Between the extremely plain advertising
and the ornamental

infinite grades,
lettering just
spoken of there are

its
and each should be suited to and
require-
ments.
As
set
to varying the contour shapes

also,
directions of
stems of letters
there
is
almost no
legibility
limit except that
by the requirements
and
is
of
and the preservawhich the bein
tion of type style,
this is the field in
giimer
design.
encouraged to practice at
of
first
assaying
As examples
a few of the more conservative
variations of this character, note the alphabets

Plates
shown on
to
pre-
XVII and XXI;

These variations,
these will afford suggestions for

further,
him.
in
addition
serving type style, cannot be concerned alone with the

single isolated letter, of
but should lend unity to the
effect
whatever
is
comprehended
in the line; simply pro-
longing the free ends of letters, for example, the H, N,

etc.,
at random,
does not constitute design.
53. Open- and Closed-body Letters.
A
is
form
of letter often used, particularly

letter like
an open-body
by beginners, 4 on Plate XVIII or as the

be without the varia-
word Actor on Plate

pression that
in design it is
it is
XX would
tion within its contour.
There seems to exist an im-
easy to make.
if
As a form
to use
it is
very useful
it
properly applied, but

easily
mistake to think that

well
;
is
drawn when done

because both sides
it is
one of the
difficult forms,
of the contour line
have to be considered in the drawing.
88
It
is
not by any means as strong in
effect,
imless
color be used, as a solid-body letter of equal weight
would be therefore
;
in using it
among
this latter class
due account has to be taken

in
of this fact.
But
if
time
execution
is
ample, most
excellent
combinations
with black-faced letters can be made, and a group of

such lettering possesses more interest than one with
either used alone.
54.
The Limitations
of Letters.
Letter forms are not standard and fixed, but they have, on the other hand, certain
limits,
more or
less well defined
governed by usage and public demands, as

it is
much
as anything else, which

clearly in
well for the designer to keep

if
mind and
respect
he wishes to be success-
ful in his results.
The preservation
of these limits.
of
type style and legibility are two

is
îolation of these
It requires
equally as of-
fensive as
bad handling.
some knowledge,
SHght
however, of letter forms in general to be thoroughly conversant with the conditions governing type style.
violations of this
may
not be noticed by the uninitiated
and
classified as such,
but
it
is
quite likely to give to
him a general impression

In
all
of
weakness in the design.

too,
Letters have a certain character
each
its
own.
the variations which
may
be indulged in this must
be preserved.
start with.
it still
Let us be
specific.
off
Take a Gothic
a
little
;
to
We find
the top cut

off,
we
also find
further squared
as the
in the
word Mas-

ters of
89
if
Plate
XX or No. 7 on
far, relative
is
Plate
XXI
it
but
the top
is
broadened too
to the spread of the legs, the

destroyed,
ceases to appear
character of the letter

to be an A.
Again, take C; the curve

off
may
it
be flattened
and the ends cut

the
shorter
and
shorter, as the
is
still
in
word
if
essence
of
Plate
is
XX, but
a C,
whereas
the round form
kept but the ends of the
curves be allowed to overlap each other, the character

is
gone,
it
ceases to be a legible C.
Consider the case

before alluded
of enlarging the serifs

to.
on a
Roman
letter,
Fig.
9 shows
how
the whole character of the letter
ALTER ALTER
is
Fig.
changed by making the
serifs
tangent to the stems
further
down
their length.
line
It is
is
shown
in
two stages
of
evolution.
letter.
The lower
no longer the
Roman
all
Certain considerations, such as these, govern
letters,
and they even extend
their influence into the
realm of ornamental design
lettering.
There are certain

will
limits, too,
beyond which
letters
be weakened, a certain strength of character gone.

sizes or
Strong contrasts between
weights of body in
groups of letters will tend to weaken some of them,

whereas,
if
used alone, they might not be weak.
Stability
90
in the shape of individual letters, before

its limits,
spoken
of,
has
and
to
if
exceeded conduces to weakness in the
effect;
for
example, the cross-bar of the
H may
be
elevated
any reasonable extent above the

it
center,
but the
moment
the
is
lowered
it
becomes weakened.
lobe the
Again, take
smaller, a
B,
by making the lower
weaker
letter is sure to result; its
one limit
then
lies
in the fact that the lower lobe must be equal
to or greater than the upper.
The
limit set in varying the proportions of letters,
together with weight of body and that set in spacing,
has been before stated to be that of
legibility.
The
author remembers an old form of puzzle consisting of
words elongated in height to

inclines the printed
many
times their width

angles.
If
and printed over each other at right

matter so that
then can be read.
one
it is
foreshortened,
it
Letters should be readable without
inclining the page.
Spacing can be reduced to the width
of a fine line provided the letters
do not touch each
other and thus destroy legibility, the exception to be
noted of
letters
coiu-se in
the case of ornamental and designed
such as those on Plate XVIII.
CHAPTER
VII.
MECHANICAL AIDS TO .LETTERING.

While the correct way to

doubtedly free-hand,
letter satisfactorily is
un-
yet mechanical
treatment
may
be sometimes necessary, or the draftsman, not having

experience enough or
self skill in
free-hand work, finds him-
compelled to resort to mechanical treatment.

Quite a good deal of effort has been expended in
devising
handy means
of laying out letters mechanically.
They
are fairly successful for the purpose, it
must be
confessed.
The construction
of
certain
alphabets in
Prof. Jacoby's
book can be very
easily followed, although
he himself advocates rendering them free-hand.

trouble with these various methods
signally
is
The
fail
that they
when
letters are to
be made quite small, as they
generally are in practical work.
Aids
letters
mechanically
may
they
take
several forms.
The
may
be
laid out
with the rule and compass in
pencil, copied in ink, or
may
be sketched free-hand
or, still further,
in pencil
letters
and copied mechanically,
the
may
be stamped from rubber stamp or printing91
press
and worked over with ink free-hand.
92
56. Practical Points about Executing a Ruled Letter.
method
of lettering
by mechanical -treatment but

is
with least dependence upon the instruments

out the work free-hand in pencil, inking
it
to lay
with the rulingpractice

of
pen and compass;
it
is
very
In
common
class
among
letter
mechanical draftsmen.
too
this
ruled
much
care cannot be expended
upon the
pencil lay-
out; the better the draftsman, therefore, the better the

letter
even
if
ruled.
When letters
are thus laid out in pencil
some consistent
is,
plan should be followed in copying them in ink, that
a plan which will insure correct interpretatioit of the

pencil-lines.
letters
This
it is
is
more
it
essential in the case of ruled
than
is
for free-hand treatment, because

is
when
ruling
in
progress
very
difficult
to
interpret
the letter shapes and to correct through the handling
any defects in the forms; one very naturally depends upon the straight-edge and ruling-pen to do the work
correctly.
In the curved forms, the bane of the in-
experienced, extreme care in the centering of the com-
pass
is
in order
in
work
of
any
size it is
probably safest
to lay out the

lines crossing
center in the penciling with straight

circle
one another and a small free-hand

it
to
mark
the intersection so that
can easily be foimd.
It is
perhaps best to copy a free-hand curve with located
centers, in this
way, than
it
is
to lay out the curves

in pencil, because the
entirely
by mechanical methods
also here
former permits of slight adjustments.
The same advice can
be given that was given
for free-hand treatment in the
matter of building up

the Gothic letter of moderately heavy body
93
by
fine
contour
lines, in
preference to adding to the

If
first
stroke
until it acquires the proper weight.

is
a contour line
used, there
is
chance before
filling
in,
by whatever
In
filling
>
method, to inspect the forms and correct before too
much
careful
work has
to be rubbed out.
is
in such forms, a brush or the writing-pen
probably
is
more expeditious than the ruling-pen; there

the former less likelihood of blotting.
It is
also in
an open question whether any person with ordian acceptable free-hand
nary capacity may not make of himself, with well-directed
and persistent
It is quite
effort,
letterer.
probable that
many
fail
because of a hastily
it
formed impression that they cannot do
and from
spoils
that time on depend entirely upon some mechanical

treatment.
Dependence
upon
such
gradually
It is to
whatever latent capacity
may
exist.
be strongly
with
urged upon the timid to try to acquire a

the
pencil
if
facility
and pen free-hand.
This
may
is
be accom-
plished,
time for separate practice
not available,
by cutting away gradually from dependence upon mechanical aids; keep the mind continually alive to the
proper development of the letter forms;
gradually use
more and more free-hand treatment

ing
it will
be surprispractice.
how
this sort of facility will
come with
Use
57. Drafting-room Practice in the
of Stock
Titles
Reproduced in Blue-prints,
etc.
is
Since careful lettering takes time and time
money,
94
it
has become customary in
many
mantifacturing and
engineering establishments to use a stock form 'for the

lettering
ings,
which
is
to appear repeatedly
upon the drawtitle is
the main
title for
example.
The
printed
upon a piece
the drawing
in
of tracing-cloth to
be inserted beneath
when a
blue-print
is
made, or
it is
printed
good black ink on the tracing-cloth by means of a

still
regular printing-press, or
again,
what
is
more comlettering,
mon, the tracing
is
stamped with the required
using a rubber stamp for the purpose.
The draftsman
goes over this afterwards with the pen, copying the
stamped
letters;
it
is
a matter occupying but a few
moments' time, because the ink from the stamp guides

and absorbs up to
its limits
the India ink from the pen,
rendering careful contotiring iinnecessary.
To
illustrate
these forms of reproducing lettering Plates XIII
and
XIV
are introduced.
title
The
first
one,
on Plate XIV,
directly
shows a
printed from the printing-press

It
upon the
laying
cloth.
contains so
of
much matter
that a
considerable
it all
amount
time would be consumed in
out free-hand.
also one of this class.
Number i on Plate XIII is Number 2 on the same plate

letter throughout.
is
shows a mechanically drawn
As a
time-saver the stamping process
thoroughly successful.
58. Lettering Triangles.

It
may be
thought by some that this survey would
not be complete without some mention of the lettering

triangles in
common
use.
These, also, properly
come

under the head
of
95
mechanical
aids.
They can be obany given by
tained at the stores, and consist of a combination of

angles suited to the various inclinations in
alphabet,
the A,
K,
N,
etc.
They
is
are regarded
some
as quite useful.
Their range
limited, however,
being suitable only for certain
proportions of letters
near the standard; letters of very different proportions
grow awkward in
their
form
if
made with them.
En-
couragement should not be given to these aids; the

usual 30 and 60 and the 45 triangles will be found to
give better service, the
unaided eye being depended
upon to
scale inclinations.
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PLATE
I.
XIIl.
AMERICAN BRIDGE
EDGEMOOR PLANT.
A. B. Co. Conii*. No.
CO.,
.In
Charge of._/!^6fi?/?j....
Made by.3L^.r,
Checked by-
Data.:J?/i?/^?.Rev..^/?.^.
Date.^/^.7/^^.-Rev,.
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Order No
FURNHGE
Sheet
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FRONT COLUMN fo'ÔRE BIN

CaLnRHDD FuelÎrdn Gdmphny CdLD PUEBLD
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Pittsburgh Ph Shiffler Plhnt

ni.
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ror " Ore Bins ^ FumaceE Colorado Fuel S lrorj Companif
Pueblo
Colo.
American Bridge Comoanu

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Pittsburg Pa. i/gn2Uffoz
.
See pages 65, 71, 93, 94.
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SHORT-TITLE
OP THE
CATALOGUE
OF
PUBLICATIONS
JOHN WILEY
Londoit: CHAPMA]S[ &
& SONS,
Limited.
New York. HALL,
ARRANGED UNDER
old
SUBJECTS.
Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk are at net prices only, a double asterisk (**) books sold under the rules of the American Publishers' Association at net prices subject to an extra charge for postage. All books are bound in cloth-unless otherwise stated.
AGRICULTURE.
Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding
Principles of Animal Nutrition
i2mo, $i 75 8vo, 4 00 i2mo, i2mo,

8vo,
Budd and Hansen's American
Horticultural Manual:
Part I.^Propagation Culture, and Improvement Part II. Systematic Pomology
Downing's Fruits and Fruit-trees of America Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage Practical Farm Drainage Green's Principles of American Forestry
Grotenfelt's Principles of
Modern Dairy
Practice.
to
(Woll.)
Kemp's Landscape Gardening

Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied
Home Decoration
Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops Insects Injurious to Garden Crops. (In preparation.) Insects Injuring Fruits. (In preparation,)
Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils
i2mo, i2mo, i2mo, i2mo, i2mo, i2mo, i2mo,
50 50 00 s i 50 i 00
1 i
50
2 00 2 50
t i
50 50
8vo,
2 50
i
Woll's
Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen
x6mo,
50
ARCHITECTURE.
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres Architectural Iron and Steel Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings Skeleton Construction in Buildings Briggs's Modern American School Buildings Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 2d Edition, Rewritten Freitag's Architectural Engineering. Fireproofing of Steel Buildings French and Ives's Stereotomy Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection Theatre Fires and Panics
i2mo,
50 5 00 Svo, 3 00 8vo, 3 50 Svo, 2 00

2
4to,
Svo, 8vo, Svo,
3 50 3 00
4 00
Svo, 4 00 Svo, 3 50 Svo, 2 50 Svo, 2 50
i6mo, i2mo,
1 i
00 50
Holly's Carpenters* and Joiners* Handbouit i8mo, o 75 Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo 2 00 Kidder's Architect's and Builder's Pocket-book. (Rewritten edition in preparation.) Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 00 Monckton's Stair-building 4to, 4 00 Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 00 Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, i 5 Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 so Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches. 8vo, 2 00 Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 Sheep, 6 50 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture
Law of Contracts
Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance,
i2mo,
8vo, 5 00 Sheep, 5 50 8vo, 3 00 8vo, 2 50
Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small Hospital.

I
i
The World's Columbian Exposition
of
1893
.Large 4to,
25 oq
ARMY AND NAVY.

Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory of the Cellulose Molecule i2mo, 2 50 Gunnery 8vo, 6 00 and Marine Propulsion Chase's Screw Propellers 8vo, 3 oo Azimuth Craig's 4to, 3 50 Crehore and Squire's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 3 00 Cronkhite's Gunnery for Non-commissioned Officers 24mo, morocco, 2 00 * Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50 * Treatise on the MiUtary Law of United States 8vo, 7 00 Sheep, 7 5Q De Brack's Cavalry Outpost Duties. (Carr.) 24mo morocco, 2 00 Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook i6mo, morocco, i 25 * Dredge's Modern French Artillery 4to, half morocco, 15 oo Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships 8vo, 5 00 * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery i2mo, 3 00 Eissler's Modem High Explosives 8vo, 4 oq * Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification Smal]~8vo, 2 00 Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism i8mo, 1 00 * HoS's Elementary Naval Tactics 8vo, 1 50 Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire 8vo, 4 00 * Ballistic Tables 8vo, i 50 * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II 8vo. each, 6 op * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur,) 8vo, half morocco, 7 50 Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, morocco, i 50 * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places i2mo, 2 00 * Elements of the Art of War 8vo, 4 00 MetcaU' s Cost of Manufactures And the Administration of Workshops, PubUc and Private 8vo, 5 00 * Ordnance and Gunnery i2mo, 5 op i8mo, paper, Mtirray's Infantry Drill Regulations 10 * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying 870, 2 50 Powell^s Army Officer's Examiner i2mo, 4 op zSmo, morocco, i 59 Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War
* Bruff's Text-book Ordnance and
. .
Walke's Lectures on Explosives
Svo, Svo,
4 00
2
'00
* Wheeler's Siege Operations
and Military Mining
Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law WoodhuU's Notes on Military Hygiene Young's Simple Elements of Navigation Second Edition, Enlarged and Revised
i2mo, 2 so i6mo, i 50 x6mo morocco, i 00 i6mo, morocco, 2 00
ASSAYING.
Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.
i2mo, morocco,
Furman's Manual
Miller's
of Practical Assaying
Svo,
Manual of Assaying
i2mo,
Svo.
Svo, Svo,
50 3 00 i 00
1
O'Driscoll's Notes
on the Treatment of Gold Ores Kicketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining Wilson's Cyanide Processes
Chlorination Process
00
3 00 3 00 i2mo, i 50 z2mo, 1 50
ASTRONOMY.
Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers
Craig's
Svo,
4to,
2 so 3 so
Azimuth
Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy Gore's Elements of Geodesy Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy
Svo, Svo, Svo, Svo, Svo,
4 00
2
50
3 00
2 so
3 00
2 00
* White's
Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy
i2mo,
BOTANY.
Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special Reference to Biological Variation. i6mo, morocco, z6mo, Thom^ and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.) Svo,
i
25
2 25 2 00
CHEMISTRY.
i2mo, i 25 Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity Tables Svo, 3 00 Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis (Mandel.) (/n preparation.) Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. i2mo, 1 50 Austen's Notes for Chemical Students Bernadou's Smokeless Powder. Hitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose i2mo, 2 so Molecule Svo, i 50 Bolton's Quantitative Analysis * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements Svo, i so Svo, 4 00 Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy Svo, 3 00 Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.) i2mo, 2 00 Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers Svo, 3 00 Tests and Reagents
{Ldriance's
,
Copeland's Manual of Bacteriology. (.In preparation.) Craft's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Schaeffer.) (Merrill. ) Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Biu-gess.) Eissler's Modern High Explosives
i2mo, i2mo,
Svo,
i i
So
25
4 00
4 00
Svo,
ESront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)
8vo,
3 00
i
i2mo,
23
Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe-
Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.) Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Parti. Descriptive.
i2mo^ morocco, i2mo,

8vo,
(Wells.)
-z
50 00 5 00
3 00
System of Instruction in
2 vols.
Fuertes's
(Shortly.)
Quantitative
Chemical Analysis.
Svo, (Cohn.)
Water and Public Health Ftirman's Manual of Practical Assaying Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice.
i2mo,
Svo,
,
50 25 00
3 00
(WoU.)
(Mandel.) (Morgan.)
Eanamarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry.
Svo, Svo, Hopkins's Oil-chemists* Handbook Svo, Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. .Svo, Svo, jKeep's Cast Iron Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis i2mo.
Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. Hinds's Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory Manual for Students Holleman's Teit-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.) Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)
i2mo, i i2mo, 2 Svo, 4 i2mo x

Svo,
00
i2mo,
Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) Svo, Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) i2mo, Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State ControL (In preparation.) Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosyn thesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo, i 00 Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory i2mo, i 50 Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe. z2mo, 60 (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) Ma3<Hi's Water-supply. Svo, 4 00 3d Edition, Rewritten i2mo, i 25 Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) mcyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compoimds, (Tingle.). i2mo, i 00 i2mo, i 00 Miller's Manual of Assaying i2mo, i 50 Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry i2mo, i 00 Morgan's Outline of Theory of Solution and its Results i2mo, 2 00 Elements of Physical Chemistry mainly from a Chemical and Sanitary (Considered Nichols's Water-supply. Svo, 2 so Standpoint. 1SS3.) Svo, 2 00 0*Brine's Laboratory Guide in Chemical Analysis Treatment of Gold Ores Svo, 2 00 O'DriscoU's Notes on the of Chemical Technology. (Lorenz Bozart.) Ost and Kolbeck's Text-book
. ,
50 3 00 VS ^ 50 2 50 3 00 i 00 2 50 1 oo 3 00 i 00
(In preparation.) Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. Svo, paper, (Biddle.) (In Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution.
^1 eparation.)
50
Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels

Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing
(Austen.)
i2mo,
Svo.
Svo, Richards and Woodman's Air,Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint . Svo, i2mo, Richards's Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science
Cost of Food a Study in Dietaries Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer Ricketts and Russell's Skeleton Notes upon Inorganic Chemistry,
i2mo,
Svo,
(Part
I.
Non-metallic Elements.)
[4}
Svo, morocco,
Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy Part n. Iron and Steel Part ni. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and Constituents Thurston's Teit-book of the Materials of Construction TiUson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.) i6mo,
8'Ôf
8vo, 8vo,
their
8 00 2 00 3 50
2 50 5 00 4 00 3 00
8vo, 8vo, Svo, mor.,
i2mo, i 25 Wood's Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and_"an Appendix on the PresSvo, z 00 ervation of Timber Svo, 3 00 Elements of Analytical Mechanics Wood's Rustless Coatings. {Shortly.)
Specifications for Steel Bridges
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
i 25 4to, 5 00 i6mo. morocco, i 50 -i6mo, morocco, 2 50 Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book Crandall's Transition Curve i6inoi m,orocco, i 50 Railway and Other Earthwork Tables Svo, i 50 Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. z6iao, morocco, 5 00 Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879) Paper, s 00 * Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills, 4to, half mor., 25 00 Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 Godwin's Railroad Engineers* Field-book and Explorers' Guide i6nio, mor., 2 50 Howard's Transition Curve Field-book i6mo, morocco, i so Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embankments Svo, 1 00 Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, i 00 i6mo, morocco. 3 00 Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6zno, morocco, 3 00 Pratt and Alden's Street-railway Road-bed Svo, 2 00 Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, morocco, 3 00 Railroad SpiraL i6mo, morocco, i 50 Taylor's Prismoidal Formulge and Earthwork Svo, i 50 * Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams Svo, 2 00 The Field Practice of [Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. i2mo, morocco, 2 50
Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers. Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location
3X5
inches, morocco,
Cross-section Sheet
Paper.
Webb's Railroad Construction. Wellington's Economic Theory
2d Edition, Rewritten of the Location of Railways
i6inn. morocco,
Small Svo,
25 00 5 00
5
DRAWING.
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery Svo, z 50
* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing ** * '* " Abridged

Coolidge's
Hill's
Ed
Manual
of
Drawing
Svo, Svo, Svo, paper,
Durley's Kinematics of Machines
Text-book on Shades and'^hadows, and Perspective
3 00 i 50 i 00 Svo, 4 00 Svo, 2 00
Svo, Svo,
i 50 3 00
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. Part n.
Kinematics Machinery Form, Strength, and Proportions

of
of Parts
Peabody's Manuai of the Steam-engine Indicator Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines Valve-gears for Steam-engines
12 mo,
i i
8vo,
8vo,
8vo, 8vo,
5 2
Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers Pray'a Twenty Years with the Indicator Pupln's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles
(Osterberg.)
in
4 Large 8to, 2 Gases and Saturated Vapors.
so 00 00 50 00 so
2S
Reagan's Locomotives : Simple, Compound, and Electric Rontgen's Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice Snow's Steam-boiler Practice
Spangler's Valve-gears
I2ma, i2mo,
8vo,
2 so
5 00
2 00 2 So 3 go
i2mo, i2mo,
8vo, 8vo,
2 50 i2mo, i 00 Notes on Thermodynamics Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 00 8vo. i S" Thurston's Handy Tables Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols.. 8vo, 10 00 Part I. History. Stnictuce, and Theory 8vo, 6 00 Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 00 Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and the Prony Brake 8vo, s 00 Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice i2mo i so Manual of Steam-boilers Their Designs, Construction, and Operation Svo, 5 00 Weisbach's Heat, Steam, a i Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) Svo, 5 00 Whitham's Steam-engine I esign Svo, 5 00 Wilson's Treatise on Steam-boilers, (Flather.) i6mo, 2 so Wood's Thermodynamics. Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. .Svo, 4 00
MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.

Barr's Kinematics ot machinery Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures
Svo, Svo,
2 S"
Chase's The Art of Pattern-making i2mo, ChordaLÊxtracts from Letters i2mo, Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo, Notes and Examples in Mechanics Svo, Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working i2mo, Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe i2mo, Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing ijmo, Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for the Use of Colleges and Schools i2mo, i2mo, Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to, half morocco, Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics Svo, VoL L Kinematics Svo, Vol II. Statics
Vol.
7 so 2 So
00 6 00
2
2 00
i i i
i
so so
so so
so
2 00
s 00 3
m.Kinetics
VoL
Vol.
I
Svo,
Mechanics of Engineering.
Durley's Kinematics of Machines Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist
Flather's
n
of
Small 4to, Small 4to,

Svo,
Dynamometers, and the Measurement Rope Driving

13
Power
; .
.
i6mo, i2mo. i2mo,

Svo,
Goss's Locomotive Sparks
Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. Chester's Catalogue of Minerals

Dictionary of the
(Penfield.)
8vo,
8vo, paper,
Cloth,
4 00 i 00
I
2S
Names
of Minerals
8vo,
Dana's System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo, Tert-book of Mineralogy 8vo, Minerals and How to Study Them. izmo, Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo, Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography i2mo, Eakle's Mineral Tables. (Shortly.) Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, Hussak's The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.) Small 8vo, Merrill's Non-MetalUc Mmerals. (Shortly.) * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
Svo, paper,
3 so 12 50
i
00 so 00 00
4 00
i i
2 so ^ 00
o 50 5 00
2 00
Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals.

(Iddings.)
Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Docks Williams's Manual of Lithology
Svo, Svo, Svo,
3 00
MINING.
Beard's Ventilation of Mines Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia
i2mo,
Svo, Pocket-book form,
2 so
3 00
2 00
Map of Southwest Virginia Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and

Modern High Explosives Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses
Eissler's
Rock
Drills.
4to, half
morocco,
Svo,
Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States Ihlseng's Manual of Mining. ** Ues's Lead-smelting. (Postage gc. additional ) Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe O'DriscoU's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores * Walke's Lectures on Explosives Wilson's Cyanide Processes
,
lamo, i2mo,
Svo,
i2mo,
Svo, Svo, Svo,
Chlorination Process
!
Hydraulic and Placer Mining

Treatise
i2mo, i2mo, i2mo,
2s 00 4 00 2 00 2 50 4 00 2 so i so 2 00 4 00 1 50 i so 2 00
i
on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation
i2mo
25
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Gopeland's Manual of Bacteriology. (In preparation.) (Designing, Construction and Maintenance.; Folwell's Sewerage. Water-supply Engineering Fuertes's Water and Public Health
Water-filtration
Svo, Svo,
Works
Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection Goodrich's Economical Disposal of Town's Refuse
i2mo, i2mo, i6mo,
Demy Svo,
Svo,
Hazen's Filtration of Pubhc Water-suppUes

Kiersted's
Sewage Disposal Leach's The Inspection and Analysis

Control.
i2mo.
of
Food with Special Reference

a
to State
(In preparation.) Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten
Sanitary
StandSvo,
4 00
i
Examination
of
Water,
(themical and Bacteriological.)
i2mo,
2s
15

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Cornell University Library

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

JOHN WILEY & SONS.

Manual Training Schools and

8vo, 105 pages, 23 full-page plates.

NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS.

CHAPMAN & HALL,

ROBERT DRUifMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK,

outlined in these pages, will not find

proficiency in the subject

copy work seldom

does not lead to independent

and creative work.

Erroneous conceptions have grown

Variety will be found to some degree

the draftsman makes

Nor should he who undertakes the study be

couraged to think that a few hours of labor will develop

touch and judgment of values which are necessary.

dealing with forms having a character

while apparently departing but

from the fundamental type, and which, on the

other hand, can be treated with an almost infinite and

subtle variation without detracting from the result

done in the right way.

Without a measurable knowledge

derived accuracy of hand and eye and an

intelligent sense of proportion, it will

beyond the merely

by a sketch method, analogous to that

used in other free-hand drawing.

the conception that

that any mathematical or mechanical attempt at treat-

entirely impracticable in ordinary work.

single-stroke letter used

careful analysis of the stroking

and by practical points

about the handling of the pen and a description and

illustration of a variety of styles

The chapter upon the design

matter of interest to the thoughtful

not intended to form part of a regular course

for occasional reference only.

phase of the subject either overlooked or but slightly

touched upon in books on

Attention is called to the footnotes added to a number

about them, also to the references printed under each

venience in using the book for reference.

authorities have been consulted in the

Jacoby's book on "Plain Lettering," an excellent

ings," containing some good practical offhand styles;

Brown's "Letters and Lettering," probably

the most artistic treatment of letters which has ap-

peared up to the present time; from these the author

Sons for per-

mission to copy some styles from the recent treatise of

Lewis F. Day, "Alphabets, Old and New," and which

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.

Good Lettering is not Mechanical, but is Good Design Example

Brief History of the

Roman and Gothic Letters