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Research problems A. The need to communicate what will be studied in clear, concise, and unambiguous terms B. One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study C. General characteristics 1. Implies the possibility of empirical investigation 2. Identifies a need for the research 3. Provides focus 4. Provides a concise overview of the research D. Two ways of stating the problem 1. Research problems: typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research 2. Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study 3. Examples a. General research problem 1. The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students to mandated drug testing programs b. Statements and questions 1. This study examines the differences between males' and females' attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs. 2. What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students' attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs? E. Researchable and non-researchable problems 1. Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation a. What are the achievement and social skill differences between children attending an academically or socially oriented pre-school program? b. What is the relationship between teachers' knowledge of assessment methods and their use of them? 2. Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-based concerns a. Is democracy a good form of government? b. Should values clarification be taught in public schools? c. Can crime be prevented? d. Should physical education classes be dropped from the high school curriculum? F. Comparing quantitative and qualitative research problems 1. Quantitative problems a. Specific b. Closed c. Static d. Outcome oriented e. Use of variables 2. Qualitative problems a. General b. Open c. Evolving d. Process oriented G. Sources of research problems 1. Casual observation a. The relationships between the cognitive and affective realms b. The effect of positive and negative reinforcement 2. Deductions from theory a. Use of math manipulatives b. Learning and instructional style congruence 3. Related literature a. The use of math manipulatives in secondary schools b. The comparison of state and national dropout profiles 4. Current social and political issues a. Gender and race equity b. Inclusion policies 5. Practical situations a. Evaluating a specific instructional program

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b. Evaluating a specific school restructuring effort Personal interests and experience a. Teaching statistics from an applied perspective b. Effectiveness of non-threatening classroom assessments 7. Replication of previous studies a. Checking the findings of a major study b. Checking the validity of research findings with different subjects c. Checking trends or changes over time d. Checking important findings using different methodologies 8. Clarification of contradictory research results Quantitative research problems A. Three types of questions 1. Descriptive 2. Relational 3. Causal B. Identifies specifically the type of research, the variables and relationships between them, and the subjects C. Variables 1. A variable is a label or name that represents a concept or characteristic that varies (e.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, etc.) 2. Conceptual and operational definitions of variables a. Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition uses words or concepts to define a variable 1. Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction 2. Aptitude: one's capability for performing a particular task or skill b. Operational definition is an indication of the meaning of a variable through the specification of the manner by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled 1. Weschler IQ score 2. Income levels below and above $45,000 per year 3. Use of holistic or phonetic language instruction 3. Types of variables a. Three variable labels defined by the context within which the variable is discussed 1. Independent and dependent variables 2. Extraneous and confounding variables 3. Continuous and categorical variables b. Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect) 1. Independent variables act as the "cause" in that they precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable 2. Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being influenced by an independent variable 3. Examples a. The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student achievement (dependent variable) b. The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point averages (dependent variable) 4. Some situations do not lend themselves to the use of the terms independent or dependentbecause it is difficult to discuss them in causal terms a. The relationship between attitude and achievement, that is, do positive attitudes cause high achievement or does high achievement cause positive attitudes? b. The relationship between creativity and critical thinking, that is, do high levels of creativity cause higher levels of critical thinking or do higher levels of critical thinking cause greater creativity? c. Extraneous and confounding variables 1. Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher a. Not controlling for the socio-economic status of students involved in a study of the effects of instructional technologies b. Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study of computer-assisted instruction 2. Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent variable and exert influence of the dependent variable 6.

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Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling approaches b. Not using the same test to measure the effectiveness of two instructional approaches Continuous and categorical 1. Continuous variables are measured on a scale that theoretically can take on an infinite number of values a. Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100 b. Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very positive at 5 c. Students' ages 2. Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of specific characteristics a. Examples i. Gender: male and female ii. Grade level: K-12 iii. Socio-economic status: low, middle, and high b. The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories 1. Gender has two levels - male and female 2. Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high 3. Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to continuous variables a. IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and high is above 116 b. Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100 is an A

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Hypotheses 1. Hypotheses are tentative statements of the expected relationships between two or more variables a. There is a significant positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement b. The class using math manipulatives will show significantly higher levels of math achievement than the class using a traditional algorithm approach 2. Reasons for using hypotheses a. Provides specific focus b. Provides for testing of the relationships between variables c. Directs the investigation d. Allows the investigator to confirm or not confirm relationships e. Provides a framework for reporting the results and explanations deriving from them f. When supported provides empirical evidence of the predictive nature of the relationships between variables g. Provides a useful framework for organizing and summarizing the results and conclusions 3. Types of hypotheses a. Inductive and deductive 1. Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductively reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations 2. Deductive hypotheses are formed through deductively reasoning implications of theory b. Research or statistical 1. Research hypotheses are conjectural statements of the expected results a. Directional: a specific outcome is anticipated (e.g., the class using manipulatives will demonstrate higher achievement levels than the class using a traditional instructional approach) b. Non-directional: an outcome is anticipated but the specific nature of it is unsure (e.g., there will be achievement differences between the groups of children using co-operative group strategies or individualized instruction) 2. Statistical hypotheses are statements of a relationship or difference that can be tested statistically a. Null hypothesis: a statistical statement that no difference or relationship exists . This is purely statistical in nature

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This does not represent the outcome anticipated by the researcher c. See Table 2.2 for examples of research problems, research hypotheses, and null hypotheses as well as the relationships among them 4. Criteria for evaluating research hypotheses a. Stated in declarative form b. Consistent with known facts, prior research, or theory c. Logical extension of the research problem d. States an expected relationship between two or more variables e. Can be tested f. Is clear and concise E. Criteria for evaluating quantitative research problems 1. Problem is researchable 2. Problem is important 3. Problem should indicate the type of research 4. Problem specifies the population being investigated 5. Problem specifies the variables and the relationships between or among them Qualitative research problems A. Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or process) being investigated 1. Examples of issues a. Drug abuse in high schools b. Teacher burnout c. Alienation of children with special needs 2. Examples of processes a. How teachers change to a standards-based curriculum b. How students react to high stakes testing programs c. How students incorporate teachers' expectations into their studies B. Characteristics 1. Includes a single, central phenomena 2. Open-ended 3. General in nature 4. Evolving, that is, problems change as data is collected and reflected upon a. Foreshadowed problems b. Emerging and reformulated questions 5. Neutral with respect to what will be learned a. No predictions b. No expected outcomes C. Criteria for evaluating qualitative research problems 1. The problem should not be too general or too specific 2. The problem should be amenable to change as data are collected and analyzed 3. The problem should not be biased with restrictive assumptions or desired findings 4. The problem should be written in "how" and "what" forms to focus on describing the phenomena 5. The problem should include a central question as well as the participants and the site a. What is central phenomena for participants at research site?

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