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Aquinas's Moral Theory Author(s): Ralph McInerny Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of Medical Ethics, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Mar., 1987), pp. 31-33 Published by: BMJ Publishing Group Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27716553 . Accessed: 12/04/2012 01:23
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Moral
theories
Aquinas's
Ralph Mclnerny
moral
theory
(1225-1274)
aspect;
their knows.
truth Such
can
be
decided
truths may
indeed
theoretically theology.
Thomistic
complete I shall here
moral
philosophy,
while
into moral the moral
God revealed them, but in their case belief can be replaced by knowledge. De fide truths, like the
incarnation cannot well If what has and been be known and general trinity to be true in this life. revealed can resurrection, as de fide truths contains we would be known, expect of pagan in the the up teachings Thomas this happens, holds; Exactly philosophers. of Aristotle, in the writings interest his insatiable hence as truths which to show latter
on the philosophy of Aquinas, but first a word of considering his moral philosophy without possibility
his moral theology. discussing Thomas As a Christian, accepts as true because they propositions a great number of revealed have been
as by God. A proposition is defide if (a) it is accepted true (b) because God has revealed it and (c) there is no
way independent that Christ believes persons resurrection. three Thomas Thus, that there are and divine, is human in God and that there will be a general to decide its truth. feature of the de fide neither can that,
while
something
by appeal
to
such
some propositions be known to be false. Although Christians have described faith dramatically as the
as acceptance Thomas Aquinas true of what among actions that is known them. as one these are ordered love to one's to be false, is not human
De fide
also God. be
such of practical considerations, as to how are in effect judgements precepts can A certain kind of action the end is to be achieved. or bad to the degree as good that it is be assessed too are subject to the end desired. But ends conducive the beginning to moral the actions appraised agent. human not for appraisal. which with Good agent; ends Aristotle, of attaining the means to the nature of reference As with are and means ends are those are and means sought and are them, the human the are
about
The injunction about the is such a truth. What as oneself neighbour to Moses were which of the Decalogue given precepts revealed Are on Mount Sinai? obviously they not truths? one seems that is to charity the injunction While incumbent upon theft the believer are moral as believer, it would seem
ends bad
Human
Law. ismeant is what This thus fitting. by Natural are synonymous actions and moral actions a human as counts action? What Aquinas. done Not with every to a human deliberation, consciously, or activity that can truly event act. as a human counts person are what when dropped, falling of man' activities but not that human come under acts. acts. the It is one
odd
to think
the prohibitions
of murder,
lying,
maintains
religious and large the Ten Commandments or believer are moral person, any human principles of he is guilty as true. Either should not, recognise is necessary. or further confusion precision gross and revealed' not does Thomas 'being identify is a necessary revealed de fide'. though Being 'being of being de fide and some truths not sufficient condition have been revealed which need not have been because
upon that by
Thinking are moral human actions, sway of thought to be growing, beard thing for Socrates's to grow a beard. for Socrates Human we
all other
it is another
we do, acts are teleological; that is, whatever are responsible Actions do for some end or purpose. and the question we are answerable for them, because
Key words
Moral theories; moral theory of St Thomas Aquinas.
32 Ralph Mclnerny
disparate
and
But
clearly
some
of rational human
are objectives to pass studies to cure order superordinate were some human
One objectives. to get the degree in subordinate act. What end we actions it. there cited is such two an reasons of would all and if there that a have
are had.
are
for which
ultimate
persons ultimate
practical virtues. in the third sense, moral activity some well It is now clear that single 'Performing of man's ultimate kind of act' is not a good description end.
in its various activity then have as its good will the of the speculative intellect, of and the virtues intellect,
be good ones would the bad ones those which Thomas Aristotle, end of all we do. holds
that
Aristotle
is to act of human action The ultimate objective the well but that turns out to mean achieving rationally These virtues virtues of rational activity. (in the plural) or can be ranked in terms of dignity in two ways, either of the in terms Virtues of priority and necessity. use of our mind and wisdom such as science speculative are more as perfective is of the activity which desirable such to man form. Moral in its purest virtues, peculiar as temperance and justice, will be more come first; if they do not, circumstances the acquisition virtues of speculative will like Aristotle, obtain. Thomas, ultimate consisting to mean which It the human end, in contemplation. that there is some is the human is sometimes good, This our should activity necessary conducive are unlikely of speak happiness, not be and to to the as taken of this
thinking
we a name so. First, for it, viz have it is the assumption of legislation Second, can overt acts the for be regulated which is thus taken or to be the ultimate Aristotle itmakes of human commanding prohibiting. for assuming end
commonweal, for criterion takes sense action The of that human these is. good
or perfection is peculiar
to
a thing is If you know what agents. a basis have it is a good for deciding whether a knife of its type. If a knife that is for cutting, is a good one. the eye If the eye is for seeing, a function one. Does man well is a good have sense? function? Thomas's on his of affirmative answer Is there some peculiarly human
the virtue to
qualification. an objection
to say: stealing and spoiling the and cheating are peculiar to human and, since beings as immoral, are generally such activities regarded to the human is no guide human behaviour distinctively procedure environment But of course the distinctively human function good. can be performed or badly. That well is the point of as performing of virtue it well. The activities speaking mentioned are precisely instances of performing it
between earlier distinction a man. can be truly a number of activities Quite to human are not peculiar or ascribed which beings
proper to them. All of the following may be true (a) Socrates is falling, (b) Socrates is hungry and (c)
Socrates tells Xanthippe he is going to the Agora to
engage in dialogue. The subject of (a) could be any physical body, of (b) any animal, but only humans in (c). engage in the kind of activity mentioned
human Peculiarly activity the analogy of the examples the human consists good rational The variety activity difficulty of things, well. is that and we 'rational are back activity' again humans the do can mean a to the point of do is truly on Thus, activity. in the previous paragraph, in performing quite simply is rational
reply to talk of acting for ends and of rational objection: as peculiar as perfective to men, talk of virtue activity law. What it remains it is since Alas, formal, purely with of the good different notions compatible radically life. I may define with virtues connected rational activity undertaken of are some There another's to my classical is in relation ignorance, advantage, conception no way to to others telling etc and of as taking untruths may We the law take there is in the are are
even if whatever that saying as rational describable activity, are infinitely and we various,
do things humans seem not to have a unified achieved view. One thing we can do is sort out some major meanings It can first of 'rational activity'. as such, of all be taken to mean the activity of thinking an activity the way Sometimes which things aims are. at ascertaining the this Call theoretical truth about thinking. an eye to like other
you
justice.
disagreement by argument. on a natural The Thomistic doctrine a response to that view. Thomas effect objection common embedded which no adventurous that what to be incoherent. of nature He human of to know. on holds guidelines in the very one can claim. is difficult fail
directing
is engaged in with thinking some than other activity thinking, Call this practical Activities thinking. which come under
which
activity to express a settled way of performing used we can say that the human well. Thus, good
rational
Reflection is to maintain
Moral
theories:
Aquinas's
moral
theory
33
them on an analogy with the first and self or speculative use of of the theoretical precepts we form will be an instance notion of the Any notion, 'being'. Any and use judgement in the of same we make sense be the
and lying. Thomas theft, adultery to the effect that these are kinds always destructive and of everywhere the good and
general
relate
specific
is 'good' and the first nongainsayable concept that the good should be pursued and done and precept The is the evil avoided. theory does not say that 'being' first forms anyone is of a being. and affirmation simultaneously word that the first idea he utters, only is not 'An So too one's first sentence its true'. contradictory But all human cannot discourse be is
as the selection of the term 'law' suggests, First, are taken to be presupposed these precepts by positive are in conflict laws which with law, such that positive them are not morally A law may binding. incorporate a natural law its prohibition degrees extensions distinguishing sanctions. Such character and murder against by an eye to punitive do not of course share in the with precepts which are always
is embedded extension
embedded
of a generalised kind that knowledge in various in a given culture is an ways of those very general and universally binding law. law alike. It does that No not at all follow all morally well more will all moral for ideal or since Once know
agents. recognised by all human for the precepts The basis of natural law seek, ends we naturally instinctively goods we a number Thomas of such recognises inclinations. First, in this there is the nature we
are natural which precepts the theory from of natural ordered persons peoples, concrete Natural positive. societies look for will look The alike.
share with
and inclination regard we have a natural things, to preserve For us to be is to live, so ourselves in being. us to seek nourishment. nature in this sense inclines Second, we share a nature with all animals and in this an inclination to reproduce and ourselves regard have our rational nature to raise our young. inclines Finally, us to live in society the truth, particularly and to pursue are goods about God. The of these inclinations objects we moral cannot inclinations our pursuit The most and direct desired evil not want, are not given what what Thomas we are. These means natural by natural law are directive of be done rationally
task, for societies, is to make the moral persons, and this can be done in numberless ways. can law precepts be either negative
moral
are more easily negative applicable are wrong acts which in their kind. they prohibit an action is seen to be an instance of this type, we The like
to do. Positive what we ought precepts or 'Be just' are not so easily applicable. acts may be instances of just action alone does courage, constituents and not and of
'Be brave'
law. The
of natural precepts of these naturally desired goods. that good should precept, general means as that we on of should they bear is the note
not to perform. tell us which wisdom these temperance, of the human good are infinitely but entail diversity both only permit It is the and actions which always moral The and
cultures.
ideals which Thomistic The first and positive. less formally prohibitions
natural of practical of food and sex should be regulated by reason pursuit For one thing, it is impossible for us to is self-evident. it is such goods For pursue another, unconsciously. these natural clear that without rational direction, inclinations fulfilled. must they take would The are more precepts into account bring guidelines desire by by likely formulated to fc>e thwarted by natural of the sway would of than reason reason. counsel
stage
stages. law precepts, negative level of positive law or codes: admit of here both exceptions. of singular sense of the
there Finally, application, the prudential decisions, (in the classical of natural term) order. Neither knowledge
inclinations
can ethics legal code nor a reasonable actions will be good. Good action is the product of not and is character character, simply knowledge, acts of a given kind until our hearts formed by repeated are moral for inclined virtue, the right to good a person reason to exercise and in Thomas into account. is the Michael in P Grace Professor of Dame, of Notre Catholic insights and action. Given is enabled enjoy influence thinkers. and doing good to do the it. right character, deed
for that the good is, it is false to suggest man is to thwart the attainment of goods men naturally these in so pursuing will consist Virtue desire. role in that their constitutive desired goods naturally human is fostered. and fulfilment well-being law that Thomas of natural the precepts on a level of less generality than 'Pursue recognises or 'Do good and avoid evil' are the prohibitions virtue' Among
The moral
continues Catholic find taking
philosophy
of St Thomas
today Friend arguments on and well
Aquinas
both foe non alike worth
the University