Chapter 9 Manufacture Substances in Industry

Sulphuric Acid (H4SO4) USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

Produce chemical fertilizer (NH4)2SO4 & K2SO4. Soluble in water & can be absorbed by plant. Car batteries is used as the electrolyte. Used in the making of artificial silk-like fibres & rayon. Chemical like paints, dyes & drug as one of their component materials.

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry through contact process The process contain 3 stage
STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide from Sulphur

i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO2.
sulphur

S(s)+O2(g)SO2(g)

ii.

Sulphur dioxide is dried and purified. STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide

oxide V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur trioxide SO3. 2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g) ii. The optimum used are
a) b) c) Temperature:450-500C Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over vanadium(V)

iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. Sulphur dioxide
& oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in the converter.

STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid

i.

Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 to form oleum H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H2SO4.
SO3(g)+H2SO4(l)H2S2O7(l)
Oleum

H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)

ii. The 2 reactions are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly into H2O.
SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq)

iii. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the

reaction is vary vigorous/a lot of heat is given off. As a result, a large cloud of sulphuric acid fumes is produced, which is corrosive and causes air pollution.

The Contact Process

Sulphur

Oxygen
In the converter

S(s) + O2(g)SO2(g) Oxygen

2SO(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) Temperature: 450-500C Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

Unreacted 2% SO2 is flowed back to converter together with O2

SO2(g)+H2SO4(aq)H2S2O7(l) H2S2O7(l) H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)

Outline Of Contact process

SULPHUR DIOXIDE & ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Colourless & poisonous gas with a vary pungent smell. Sulphur dioxide escape into the air causes air pollution. It is an acidic dissolves in H20 to form Sulphurous,H2SO3.At atmosphere,
sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form sulphurous acidic.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

Oxidation of sulphur acid by O2 produce sulphuric acid,H2SO4, as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide = easily oxidised in the air to form sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide dissolve in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

AMMONIA & ITS SALTS(NH3) USES OF AMMONIA

In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate,

ammonia nitric, ammonia phosphate & urea. To manufacture nitric acid & explosive. In the making of synthetic fibre & nylon. As a degreasing agent in [aq] form to remove greasy stains in the kitchen.

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS

It It It It

colourless & has a pungent odour. is vary soluble in water & form a weak alkaline solution. less dense than water. easily liquified (at about 35.5C) when cool.

a) Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become alkaline. i. Turns red litmus paper blue. ii. Reacts with acid to form only salt & water in neutralization reaction.
NH3(aq) + HCI(aq) NH4CI(aq) 2NH3

+ H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

iii. Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.

Fe+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe (OH)2(s)
(Form ammonia solution) Dirty green precipitate

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY

Manufacture on a large scale through the haber process. In this process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen &

hydrogen gas in the volume ratio 1:3. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen gas is obtained form the cracking of petroleum/from the catalysed reaction of natural gas, CH4, with steam.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas. Temperature: 450-500C Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres Catalyst used: Iron fillings
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst again in the reactor chamber. The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a liquid in the cooling chamber.

Nitrogen

Hydrogen

N2 and H2 are mixed in the proportion of 2NH (g) 1:3 N2(g) + 3H2(g) Temperature: 450-500C In the reactor chamber Liquid In cooling chamber Pressure: 200-500 ammonia atmospheres Haber process Outline Of Catalyst used: Iron fillings
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Unreacted N2 and H2 gases

AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS

1. 2.

3. 4.

Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are necessary for growth and cell repair. Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from soil through their roots. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt which are manufacture as chemical fertilizer. Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
Ammonium nitrate

3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonium phosphate

2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

mmonium sulphate

ALLOYS ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN MATELS

1.

The atom of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes the metal to have a hight density

2.

3. 4. 5.

The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong. More heat energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that the atoms are further apart during the melting. This is why metals usually have hight melting point. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by vibration. This make metal good conduct of heat. The freely moving outermost electrons within the metals structure are able to conduct electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors. Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged orderly in a regular layered pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of atom slide easily over one another. This make pure metals soft, malleable and ductile.

Layer of atom slide Force

Metals are ductile

Force The shape of the metal change Metal are malleable

Pure metal = too soft, low resistance to corrosion, rush & tarnish easily. Improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of another element (usually metal) is added to form another an alloy. An alloy = mixture of two/more metals (non-metal) in a specific proportion. For example: a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin) b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon) The purposes of making alloys include the following: a) Increase the strength i. Pure iron= soft and vary malleable. A small amount of carbon is added to iron steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel becomes.

Pure aluminium is light but not strong. A small amount of copper & magnesium are added to aluminium, a strong, light & durable alloy call duralumin is produced. b)Improving the resistance to corrosion i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of carbon, 18% of chromium & 1% of nickel does not rush. These properties make stainless steel suitable for making surgical instrument and cutlery. ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy which is known as brass develops a high resistance to corrosion. c) Enhancing the appearance i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but also has a more beautiful white silvery appearance. ii. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has an attractive silvery, bright appearance is formed which is suitable for making coins.

ii.

Alloy High carbon steel Stainless steel

Composition 99% iron 1% carbon 80.6% iron 0.4% carbon 18%chromium 1% nickel 70% copper 30% zinc 90% copper 10% tin 90% tin 2.5% copper 0.5% antimony 95% aluminium 4% copper 1%magnesium 75%copper 25%nickel

Properties Strong,hard and high wear resistance Do not rust and tarnish, strong and durable Hard, do not rust, bright appearance Hard, do not corrode easily and durable Ductile and malleable, white silvery appearance Light, strong and durable

Uses Making of cutting tools, hammers and chisels Making of surgical instrument, knives forks and spoons Making of ornaments, electrical wiring and plug. For casting bells, medals, swords and statues Making of ornaments, souvenirs and mugs Making part of aircrafts and racing cars Making of silver coins

Brass Bronze Pewter Duralumin Cupronickel

Attractive, silvery appearance, hard and tough Composition, properties and uses of alloys

The formation of alloy

Synthetic Polymers

Polymer = large number of small identical/similar units joined together repeatedly. Monomer = smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer. Polymerisation = process of joining together a large number of monomers to form
a long chain polymer. Polymer can be naturally occurring/man-made(synthetic). Natural polymer = found in plant & in animals(starch cellulose, protein & rubber). 2 type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are add. polymerisation. Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo add. polymerisation.
Some Common Addition Polymers Name(s) Polyethylene low density (LDPE) Polyethylene high density (HDPE) Polypropylene (PP) different grades Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Poly(vinylidene chloride) (Saran A) Polystyrene (PS) Formula (CH2-CH2)n (CH2-CH2)n Monomer ethylene CH2=CH2 ethylene CH2=CH2 propylene CH2=CHCH3 vinyl chloride CH2=CHCl vinylidene chloride CH2=CCl2 styrene CH2=CHC6H5 acrylonitrile CH2=CHCN tetrafluoroethyle ne CF2=CF2 Properties soft, waxy solid rigid, translucent solid Uses film wrap, plastic bags electrical insulation bottles, toys

[CH2CH(CH3)]n

atactic: soft, elastic solid similar to LDPE isotactic: hard, strong carpet, upholstery solid strong rigid solid dense, high-melting solid pipes, siding, flooring seat covers, films

(CH2-CHCl)n

(CH2-CCl2)n

[CH2CH(C6H5)]n

hard, rigid, clear solid toys, cabinets soluble in organic packaging solvents (foamed) high-melting solid soluble in organic solvents resistant, smooth solid rugs, blankets clothing non-stick surfaces electrical insulation

Polyacrylonitrile (CH2(PAN, Orlon, Acrilan) CHCN)n Polytetrafluoroethyl ene (CF2-CF2)n (PTFE, Teflon)

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA, Lucite, Plexiglas) Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) cis-Polyisoprene natural rubber Polychloroprene (cis + trans) (Neoprene)

methyl [CH2methacrylate hard, transparent C(CH3)CO2CH CH2=C(CH3)CO2 solid 3]n CH3 (CH2CHOCOCH3)n [CH2CH=C(CH3)CH2]n [CH2CH=CClCH2]n vinyl acetate CH2=CHOCOCH soft, sticky solid
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lighting covers, signs skylights latex paints, adhesives requires vulcanization for practical use synthetic rubber oil resistant

isoprene CH2=CHC(CH3)=CH2 chloroprene CH2=CHCCl=CH2

soft, sticky solid

tough, rubbery solid

Uses of synthetic polymers

1. Advantages a. cheap, light-weight & translucent. b. easily coloured, easily moulded & shaped. c. non-corrosive, waterproof & good insulator. d. durable & long lasting [resistant to decay, rusting & chemical attacks].
2. Disadvantage a. Flammable When a synthetic polymer material catches fire, poisonous fumes are produce causing air pollution. b. Non-biodegradable When discharge, they cause litter problem and pollute the environment. c. Plastic container that are left aside in an open area collect rainwater which becomes the breeding ground for mosquitoes. d. There are limitation in recycle have to be separated out as the addition of non-recyclable polymers in the mixture affect the properties of the recycled polymers.

Glass and Ceramics Glass a. Transparent, hard but brittle. b. A heat & electric insulator. c. Resistant to corrosion. d. Chemical not reaction & resistant to chemical attack. e. Easy to maintain.

Type of glass Fused glass

Composition SiO2: 100%

Soda-lime glass

SiO2: 75% Na2O:15% CaO: 9% Other:1%

Borosilicate glass

Lead crystal glass (flint glass)

SiO2: 78% B2O3: 12% Na2O: 5% CaO: 3% Al2O3:2% SiO2: 70% Pbo/PbO2:20% Na2O: 10%

Properties Transparent High melting point Good heat insulator Low melting point, easily molded into desired shape and size Low resistant to chemical attacks Brittle Resistant chemical attack and durable High melting point Good insulator to heat High refractive index High density Attractive glittering appearance

Uses Lens Telescope mirrors Laboratory apparatus Drinking glass, bottles Electric bulbs Window glass

Cooking utensils Laboratory glassware such as conical flaks and boiling tube Lenses and prisms Decorative glassware and art object Imation jewellery

Ceramics

Traditional silicate ceramics = heating aluminosilicate clay [kaolin] at high temp. Special properties : a. Hard, strong but brittle b. Have high melting point & remain stable at high temp c. Heat & electric instrument d. Resistant to corrosion & wear e. Chemically not reactive
f. Do not readily deform under stress Ceramic uses : a. Construction materials i. Strong & hard = make roof tiles, bricks cement, sinks & toilet bowls. ii. Make refractory bricks because high resistant to heat. b. Decorative items i. Make pottery, plates & porcelain vases [do not tarnish easily & durable]. ii. Make bathroom fixture such as floor & wall tiles. c. Electrical insulator i. Make electrical insulator [toasters, fridges & electrical plug].
Materials Oxide ceramic Alumina,AL2O3 Beryllia, BeO Melting point/ C 2054 2574 Density/G cm-3 3.97 3.01 Elastic modulus/ GPa 380 370 Hardness/ mohs 9 8

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Zirconia, ZiO Non-oxide ceramics Boron carbide,B4C3 Silicon nitride, Si3, n4 Metals Aluminium Steel

2710 2350 2830 1900 660 1515

5.68 2.50 3.16 3.17 2.70 7.86

210 280 400 310 70 205

8 9 9 9 3 5

Composite Materials

1. A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that is formed

by two or more different substances such as metal, glass, ceramic and polymer. 2. Some common composite materials are:

a. Reinforces concrete b. Superconductor c. Fibre optic d. Fibre glass e. Photochromic glass

Reinforces Concrete 1. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to maintain. It is more important construction materials. 2. The reinforces is a combination of concrete and steel. Supercondutors 1. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but 20% of the electric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission. 2. Super conductor are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity at a particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible. 3. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to levitate a magnet. Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at about 552 km/h). 4. Superconductor are used to make chips for smaller and faster supercomputer. Superconductor also play an important role in high speed data processing in internet communication. Fibre Optic 1. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light wave. 2. Fibre optic is used in

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Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked by fibre optic cables. b. Domestic cable television network c. Closed circuit television security system. 3. Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number of instrument which enable the investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery. Fibre Glass 1. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a refractory rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre. 2. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire and water but is brittle. 3. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new composite material fibre glass reinforces plastic is formed. 4. Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is a. Extremely strong b. Light weigh c. Resistant to fire and water d. Can be molded, shaped and twisted Photochromic Glass 1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and a small amount of copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, photochromic glass is formed. 2. The photochromic glass has a special properties. It darken when exposed to strong sunlight or ultraviolet. 3. Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.

a.

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