ACCENT-differences in pronunciation in the same language DIALECT-covers differences in vocabulary and grammar VARIETY-aspects of language variation (differences in pronunciation,

grammar, vocabulary) REGIONAL VARIATION-difference in language between places SOCIAL VARIATION-difference in language between classes, gender, age RP-received pronunciation, BrE accent also known as Queen`s Eng., BBC Eng., Oxford Eng., 1900-1950s, used by upper class, little speakers but often imitated, related to good education, wealth etc. NRP-non regional pronunciation, lacks local characteristics/features, today used by young educated people ESTUARY ENG-1984, compromise between RP and popular London speech GA-general Am, mixture of educated speech of Northern USA, it has no recognizable local features LINGUISTICS-general study of language PHONETICS-part of linguistics, study of sound in human language, can be divided into: ARTICULATORY PHONETICS-deals with how sounds are produced AUDITORY PHONETICS-deals with how the ear-the listener receives the speech signal ACOUSTIC PHONETICS-deals with physical nature of speech signal PHONOLOGY-study of selection and patterns of sounds in a language SPEECH-continuous float of sounds with interruptions to breathe and organize our thoughts SEGMENTATION-process of dividing speech into smaller unites SEGMENTS-result of segmentation, individual speech parts MINIMAL PAIR-two words identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme occurring in the same position, two words distinguished by a single sound (book-look) MINIMAL SET-set of words (book-look-cook-hook-took) PHONEME-a meaning distinguishing sound with a contrastive function; the smallest and contrastive unit of sound which can be used to change meaning ALLOPHONE-different realization of the same phoneme, doesn`t change meaning EGRESSIVE PULMONIC AIRSTREAM-air going out of the lungs INGRESSIVE PULMONIC AIRSTREAM-inhaling while speaking RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-chest; lungs, bronchial tubes-lead the air to trachea PHONATORY SYSTEM-throat; windpipe-TRACHEA (the air is pushed thru the trachea), larynx-inside are the VOCAL CORDS/folds-men have them longer because they have the deeper voice, bigger amplitude-lower cords, glottis-opening between the vocal cords and arytenoids cartilages, when open-voiceless sounds, when closed-voiced sounds, Adam`s apple-the front side of the larynx, OESOPHAGUS-behind the trachea, food passage, closes the entrance to trachea, EPIGLOTTIS-prevents food from entering into trachea ARTICULATORY SYSTEM-head; three resonating cavities: pharyngeal cavity-above the larynx, nasal cavity, oral cavity; main articulators-places in the mouth where sounds can be produced-PHARYNX-tube which begins above the larynx, 7-8cm long, it forks into the beginning of the mouth or nasal cavity, sounds produced here are called pharyngial, VELUM-soft palate, when raised closes the entrance to nasal cavity and the only way the air can escape is through mouth-oral sounds, when lowered the entrance to the nasal cavity is free-nasal sounds, velar sounds are produced in velum, UVULA, HARD PALATE-palatal sounds are produced here, ALVEOLAR RIDGE-between teeth and palate, alveolar sounds, TEETH-dental sounds, LIPS-bilabial sounds, labiodentals sounds-upper teeth touch the lower lip-v,t, TONGUE-tip,blade,front,back,root, JAWS, NOSE Vowels and consonants are differed by their distribution and not by how they are produced

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION-you use square brackets, shows small details in sound production PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION-/ /, shows only phoneme contrasts

DESCRIBING VOWELS- by shape and position of the tongue, 1.vertical difference between the upper surface of the tongue and the palate, 2.part of the tongue which is being raised the highest, LIP ROUNDING-rounded-u, o, spread- i, e, neutral- PURE VOWELS-those which are constant, do not move DIPHTHONGS-RP, BBC, BrE-sounds which consist of movement or glide from one vowel to another, they are pronounced as one sound, 1st part of the diphthong is stronger and longer from the 2nd part, closing and centering vowels CITATION FORM-word pronounced in isolation, they can be: MONOSYLLABIC-word consisting of only 1 syllable, POLYSYLLABIC-more than 1 syllable

PROMINENT-the stressed syllable stands out, what makes a syllable prominent-loudness (the loud one is stressed), length (the long one is stressed), pitch-tone, how high the tone is (the syllable where the pitch changes is stressed, low to high and other way around), qualitythe different one is stressed, is the weakest, short vowels are stronger, long vowels stronger, diphthongs are the strongest 3 LEVELS OF STRESS-PRIMARY STRESS-results from the pitch movements, SECONDARY STRESS-usually in compounds, more prominent than the unstressed syllable but weaker than the primary stress, UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE-has no prominence of his own How to decide on stress placement: morphologically simple or complex, grammatical category, how many syllables a word has, phonological structure of a syllable COMPLEX WORDS-basic form/stem+ affix, compounds, 3 ways in which an affix can affect the word stress:1.playful-word is pronounced just as if the affix wasn`t there, 2.personalityaffix receives the primary stress, 3.magnetic-primary stress remains on the stem but is shifted to a different syllable, SUFFIXES 1.receive the primary stress-ese,ee,ette,esque, 2.do not influence the stress placement-able,age,al,en,ing,ish,like,less,ly,ment,ness 3.the stress remains on the stem, PREFIXES-they almost never receive the primary stress, compound nouns-made of 2 nouns, the 1st element will receive the primary and the 2nd will receive the secondary stress, e.g. homework, 2nd element receives the primary stressadjective as 1st element+ed morpheme (bad tempered), 1st element is a number (first class), function as adverbs (north-east), function as verbs-have adverbial 1st element (down grade) WORD CLASS PAIRS-2 syllable words with identical spelling (object N,V, present N,V) If word functions as an adjective the primary stress will be on the 1st syllable, and if it functions as a verb the stress will be on the 2nd syllable MINIMUM SYLLABLE-single vowel in isolation.centre of the syllable is the vowel ONSET-everything that precedes the centre of the syllable CODA-everything that follows the center of the syllable SYLLABLE - ONSET + RHYME (PEAK+CODA) Phonological structure: STRONG have a rhyme (has a syllabic peak, it can be: long vowel, diphthong, V+CODA) WEAK short vowel+no coda, it is never stressed SYLLABIC CONSONANT-a consonant which carries syllabic peak-,special ,seven worm ASSIMILATION OF VOICE: VOICELESS-p,t,k,s,,,f,h,, VOICED-b,p,g,k,z,,,v,nasals, lateral, vowels, semi-vowels

PLOSIVES-b,p,d,t,g,k, manner of articulation-1.CLOSIN PHASE-the articulators are brought together and form a barricade, 2.COMPRESSION PHASE-the air is build up behind the barricade, complete stricture 3.RELEASE PHASE-the air is released, plosion-the sounds produce noise 4.POST RELEASE PHASE-voicing-b,d,g, or no voicing-p,t,k, place of articulation-b-p-bilabial, d-t-alveolar, g-k-velar, OCCURRENCE-initially-pot, medially-absurd, finally-absurd ASPIRATION-BrE, p,t,k, in initial position followed by a vowel, tea, pea

FRICATIVES-f,s,,v,,z,h,, produced when the air escapes thru a narrow passage making a hissing sound, a friction when the air passes the passage, continuant sounds CONSONANTS we can continue producing these sounds without interruption for as long as we have enough air, PLACE OF ARTICULATION-labiodental sounds-f-v (voiceless-voiced), alveolar s-z, post alveolar -, glottal h, OCCURRENCE initial-four, medial-stop, final-this, usually in medial position, when in initial or final position it indicates that the word has a foreign origin AFFRICATES-,, complex sounds, start as plosives and end as fricatives, have characteristics of both plosives and fricatives, HOMORGANIC SOUNDS-both sounds are produced with the same articulator (in the same place), post-alveolar (palatal) sounds, OCCURRENCE-initial-judge, medial, final

ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH-rhythm, assimilation, elision, contractions, linking, juncture, intonation RHYTHM-repetition of certain patterns, in connected speech it is made of word and sentence stress ASSIMILATION-a phenomena when a phoneme is realized differently as a result of being near some other phoneme belonging to a neighboring word (sounds are changed because of the surrounding sounds), usually in connected speech, mostly affects consonants, final cons affects the initial-progressive assimilation, initial cons affects final-regressive, 3 types: 1.ASSIMILATION OF PLACE-involves change of place of articulation, regressive is more common, this shoe, that person, 2.A.OF MANNER-change in the manner of articulation, much less noticeable, only in very rapid speech, 3.A.OF VOICE-within morpheme boundaries, pets (t,s voiceless, but kings-kingz because g-voiced, s-voiceless) ELISION-a phenomena when in certain circumstances a phoneme may have a zero realization: 1.avoidance of complex consonant clusters (George the 6th`s throne) 2-loss of weak vowels after p, t, k (today) 3.loss of weak vowel when it is followed by n, l, r and n, l, r become syllabic (tonight) 4.loss of final v in preposition of before cons (waste of money, lots of them) CONTRACTIONS-can`t, I`ll LINKING-a phenomena where sounds are linked in a special way 1.linking r in BrE, a phenomena when a word spelling suggests pronunciation of r and the next word begins with a vowel, the r is pronounced, four eggs 2.intrusive r-a ph when the r is pronounced even where there is no justification in spelling (Cuba is a country) JUNCTURE linking and intrusive r-a relationship between one sound and the sounds that immediately precede or follow it INTONATION-a part of suprasegmental phonology, it extends over several phonemes, pitch/tone of the voice, form of intonation-level tone, moving/changing tone-rising (questions), falling (statements), function of intonation: 1.ATTITUDINAL-enables us to express our emotions, feelings and attitudes 2.ACCENTUAL- helps us to produce effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed (a woman,without her,man is nothing) 3.GRAMMATICAL-signals the listener to better recognize grammar and syntactic structure of what the speaker says (those who sold, quickly (,) made a profit ) 4.DISCOURSE-signals the listener what is to be taken as new info and what is already givenall 4 working together

LATERAL SOUND-L is a cons which is produced with a complete closure in the center of the tongue and the alveolar region with the air escaping along the sides of the tongue, place of articulation-alveolar, occurrence-all positions, love, eel, bottle CLEAR L-lip, leg, DARK L-bottle, allophones of the phoneme L

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION-strict separation of places where particular realization can occur, clear L never occurs before cons or before a pause, dark L never occurs before vowels

APPROXIMANTS-semi-vowels, r ,j, w, articulators approach each other but they don`t get sufficiently close to each other to produce a cons (plosives, fricatives), place of articulation for r-post alveolar, articulation for r-tip of the tongue approaches the alveolar ridge but never makes contact with it RETROFLEX R-the tongue is curled backwards with the tip of it being raised, distribution-all positions, rage, ear, divorce, r is always surrounded by vowels, for production of r we have slight lip rounding, 2types of accent:1. RHOTIC-pronounces r in the final position, car, ear, GA 2.NON-RHOTIC-does not pronounce r in final position, RP, BrE J and w are phonetically considered to be like vowels but phonologically they are considered to be cons, articulation of j-like front close vowel i but shorter, w-like back close vowel u, place of articulation-w-bilabial, j-palatal