Chapter 2 2.

Electrical and Thermal Conduction in Solids

An Overview
In thi h t I this chapter, we will treat conduction e in metal as free charges that can be accelerated by an applied electric field, by which the electrical and thermal conduction in a solid will be studied.
Electrical conduction involves the motion of charges in a material under the Influence of an applied electric field. By applying Newtons 2nd law to e motion & using a concept of mean free time between e collisions with lattice vibrations, crystal defects, impurities, etc., we will derive the fundamental equations that govern electrical conduction in solids. Thermal conduction,i.e., the conduction of thermal E from higher to lower temperature regions in a metal, involves the conduction e carrying the energy. Therefore, the relationship b t Th f th l ti hi between th electrical conductivity and th the l t i l d ti it d thermal l conductivity will be reviewed in this textbook.

CONTENTS
Electrical Conductivity of Metals: 2.1 Classical theory : The DRUDE model 2.2 Temperature dependence of resistivity 2.3 MATTHIESSENs and NORDHEIMs Rules. 2.4 Resistivity of mixtures and porous materials 2.5 The H ll Eff t d H ll D i 2 5 Th Hall Effect and Hall Devices Thermal Conductivity: 2.6 Thermal conduction Electrical Conductivity of Nonmetals: 2.7 Electrical conductivity of nonmetals Additional Issues: 2.9 Thin metal films 2.10 Interconnects in microelectronics 2.11 Electromigration and Blacks equations

2.1 Classical theory : The DRUDE model

Goal: To find out the relation between the conductivity (or resistivity) and drift velocity and thereby its relation to mean free time and drift mobility, from the description of the current density In a conductor where e drift in the presence of an electric field, e current density is defined as the net amount of charge flowing across a unit area per unit time

q J= At

J : current density quantity of charge q : netthrough an area A at Ex flowing

In this system, electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in the x-direction, called the drift velocity. (Here Ex is the electric field.)

Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity of electrons in the x direction at time t, denote by vdx(t)

vdx =

1 [v x1 + v x 2 + v x 3 + ... + v xN ] N

vxi : x direction velocity of the ith electrons N : # of conduction electrons in the metal

[2.1]

2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons

Current density in the x direction can be rewritten as a function of the drift velocity

Jx =

q enAvdx t = At At
[2.2]

: In time t, the total charge q crossing the area A is enAx, where x=vdxt and n is assumed to be the # of e per unit volume in the conductor (n=N/V). : time dependent current density is useful since the average velocity at one time is not the same as at another time, due to the change of Ex

J x (t ) = envdx (t )

Think of motions of a conduction e in metals before calculating Vdx.

E x = E x (t )

(a)

A conduction e in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal (with a mean speed u) being frequently and randomly scattered by thermal vibrations of the atoms. In the absence of an applied field there is no net drift in any direction.

(b) In the presence of an applied field, Ex, there is a net drift along the x-direction. This net drift along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of the electron. After many scattering events the electron has been displaced by a net distance, x, from its initial position toward the positive terminal

2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons

To calculate the drift velocity vdx of the e due to applied field Ex, we first consider the e eEx velocity vxi of the ith e in the x direction at t. Since is the acceleration a of the e [F=qE=ma],
Let uxi be the initial velocity of e i in the x direction just after the collision. Vxi is written as the sum of uxi and the acceleration of the e after the collision. Here, we suppose that its last collision was at time t1; therefore, for time (t-ti), it accelerated free of collisions, as shown in Fig.2.3.

me vxi in the x direction at t is given by

uxi is velocity of ithe in the x direction after the collision

However, this is only for the ith electron. We need the average velocity vdx for all such electrons along x as the following eqn.

vdx =

1 eEx [v x1 + v x 2 + v x 3 + ... + v xN ] = (t ti ) N me

(t-ti) : average free time for N electrons between collision (~ = mean free time or mean scattering time)
Fig 2.3 Velocity gained in the x direction at time t from the electric field ( Ex) for three different electrons. There will be N electrons to consider in the metal.

2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons

Drift mobility ( y (vs. mean free time) ) : widely used electronic parameter in semiconductor device physics. Suppose that is the mean free time or mean scattering time. Then, for some electrons, (tti) will be greater than ,and for others, it will be shorter as shown in Fig 2 3 Averaging (t and others shorter, 2.3. (tti) for N electrons will be the same as Thus we can substitute (t-ti) in the previous . for expression to obtain

e vd = Ex dx me

[2.3]

Equation 2.3 shows that the drift velocity increases linearly with the applied field. The constant of proportionality e / me has been g p p y given a special name and symbol, called drift p y , mobility d , which is defined as

vdx = d E x e me

[2.4]

where d =

[2.5]

, which is often called the relaxation time, is directly related to the microscopic , y p processes that cause the scattering of the electrons in the metal; that is, lattice vibration, crystal imperfections, and impurities.

2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons

From the expression for the drift velocity vdx the current density Jx follows immediately by substituting Equation 2.4 into 2.2, that is,

J x = en d E x

= E x [2.6]

Therefore, the current density is proportional to the electric field and the conductivity term is given by

= en d

[2.7]

Then, lets find out temperature dependence of conductivity (or resistivity) of a metal p p y( y) by considering the mean time .

The mean time between collisions has further significance. Its 1/ represents the mean frequency of collisions or scattering events; that is 1/ is the mean probability per unit time that the electron will be scattered. Therefore, during a small time interval t , the probability of scattering will be t / .

2.2 Temperature dependence of resistivity

To find the temperature dependence of , lets consider the temperature dependence let s of the mean free time , since this determines the drift velocity.
Fig 2.5 scattering of an electron from the thermal vibration of the atoms. The electron travels a mean distance l = u between collisions. Since the scattering cross-sectional area is S, in the volume Sl there must be at least one scatterer as

Ns (Su ) = 1
volume

1 a

1 SuN s

[2.11]

When the conduction electrons are only scattered by thermal vibrations of the metal ion, then in the mobility expression d = e m refers to the mean y p e time between scattering events by this process.

Ns : concentration of scattering centers S : cross-sectional area u : mean speed a : amplitude of the vibrations lit d f th ib ti

2.2 Temperature dependence of resistivity

Lattice-scattering-limited Lattice scattering limited conductivity : the resistivity of a pure metal wire increase linearly with the temperature, due to the scattering of conduction electrons by thermal vibrations of the atoms. feature of a metal (cf. (cf semiconductors) The thermal vibrations of the atom can be considered to be simple harmonic motion, much the same way as that of a mass M attached to a spring. From the kinetic theory of matter, y p g y ,

1 1 Ma 2 w2 (average kinetic energy of the oscillations ) kT 4 2 because ibrations Thus So S a 2 T . This makes sense beca se raising the T increases atomic vibrations. Th s

1 1 C Since the mean time between scattering events is inversely or = 2 p p , a 2 T T proportional to the area a that scatters the e, eC (to show a relation with T) substituting for in d = e / me results in d = meT mT 1 1 So, the resistivity of a metal T = = = 2e T = AT [2.12] T en d e nC

2.3 MATTHIESSENs and NORDHEIMs Rules. p y 2.3.1 Matthiessens rule and the temperature coefficient of resistivity
: The theory of conduction that considers scattering from lattice vibrations only works well with pure metal and it fails for metallic alloys. Their resistivities are weakly T-dependent, and so, different type of scattering mechanism is required for metallic alloys. Lets consider a metal alloy that has randomly distributed impurity atoms. We have two mean free times between collision. T : scattering from thermal vibration only

Strained region by impurity exerts a scattering force F = - d(PE) /dx

i : scattering from impurity only

In unit time, a net probability of p y 1 scattering, is given by 1 1 1 = + [2.13]

Two different types of scattering processes involving scattering from impurities alone and thermal vibrations alone.

Then, since drift mobility depends on effective scattering time, effective drift mobility is given by

1 1 1 = + ud u L u I

[2.14]

2.3.1 Matthiessens rule and the temperature coefficient of resistivity

where u L is the lattice-scattering-limited drift mobility, u I is the impurity-scattering-limited drift mobility.
Since effective resistivity of the material is simply

1 / enud
[2.15]

1 1 1 = + enud enu L enu I

which can be written = T + I

This summation rule of resistivities from different scattering mechanisms is called Matthiessen s rule Matthiessens rule. Furthermore, in a general from, effective resistivity can be given by

= T + R

( R : residual resistivit y ) : scattering E of impurities , dislocatio ns , in ternal atom , vacancies , gain boundaries , etc

Since residual resistivity shows very little T-dependence whereas T = AT .

AT + B

[2.17]

2.3.1 Matthiessens rule and the temperature coefficient of resistivity

Temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR) Eqn. 2.17 indicates that the resistivity of a metal varies with T, with A and B depending on the material. Instead of listing A and B in resistivity tables, we prefer a temperature coefficient that refers to small, normalized changes around a reference temperature.

0 =

1 0 T T =T0

[2.18]

- temp sensitivity of the resistivity of metals

If the resistivity follows the behavior like in Eqn. 2 17 then Eqn. 2.18 l d t i E 2.17, th E 2 18 leads to

= 0 [1 + 0 (T T0 )]
where a0 is constant over a temperature range T0 to T,

[2.19]

= o

&

T = T To

Resistivity of various metals vs. T

However AT + B is only an approximation for some metals and not true for all metals metals. This is because the origin of the scattering may be different depending on the temperature.
100

2000 1000
Iron Monel-400 Inconel-825 NiCr Heating Wire NiC H i Wi Tungsten

T
10

Scattering from vibration

Resistiv vity(n m)

Resistivity (n m) n

(n m)

0.1 0.01

3.5

3 2.5 2 1.5 1

100 Platinum
Nickel Copper Silver

Tin

0.001

T5

0.0001

= R

0.5 0 5 = R 0 0 20 40 100

60
T (K)

80 100 10000

Scattering from impurity

0.00001 10

1000

10 100

1000

10000

Temperature(K)

Temperature (K)

The resistivity of various metals as a function of temperature above 0 C. Tin melts at 505 K whereas nickel and iron go through a magnetic to non-magnetic (Curie) transformations at about 627 K and 1043 K g ( ) respectively. The theoretical behavior ( ~ T) is shown for reference. [Data selectively extracted from various sources including sections in Metals Handbook, 10th Edition, Volumes 2 and 3 (ASM, Metals Park, Ohio, 1991)]

The resistivity of copper from lowest to highest temperatures (near melting temperature, 1358 K) on a log-log plot. Above about 100 K, T, whereas at low temperatures, T 5 and at the lowest temperatures approaches the residual resistivity R . The inset shows the vs. T behavior below 100 K on a linear plot ( R is too small on this scale).

2.3.2 Solid solution and Nordheims rule

How d H does th resistivity of solid solutions change with alloy composition ? the i ti it f lid l ti h ith ll iti In an isomorphous alloy of two metals, that is, a binary alloy that forms a solid solution p y , , y y (Ni-Cr alloy), we would expect Eqn 2.15 to apply, with the temperature-independent impurity contribution I increasing with the concentration of solute atoms.

= T + I

[2.15]

This means that as alloy concentration increases, resistivity increases and becomes less temperature dependent as I, overwhelms T, leading to o << 1/273.

This (temperature independency) is the advantage of alloys in resistive components.

2.3.2 Solid solution and nordheims rule

T Temperature (C)

How does the concentration of solute atoms affect on I ? Nordheims rule for solid solutions: an important semiempirical Eqn that can be used to Eqn. predict the resistivity of an alloy, which relates the impurity resistivity to the atomic fraction X of solute atoms in a solid solution, as follows:

1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 LIQUID PHASE

S L+

US UID LIQ S IDU OL S

SOLID SOLUTION

20

100% Cu

40 60 at.% Ni

80

100 100% Ni

(a)
600
Resist tivity (n m)

I = CX (1 X )

[2.21]

500 400 300 200 100 0

Cu-Ni Alloys

C (Nordheims coefficient): represents effectiveness of the solute atom in increasing the resistivity.

consistent
40 60 at.% Ni 80 100 100% Ni

(a) Phase diagram of the Cu-Ni alloy system. Above the liquidus line only the liquid phase exists. In the L + S region, the liquid (L) and solid (S) phases coexist whereas below the solidus line, only the solid phase (a %Nordheims rule assumes that the solid solution has the solid solution) exists. (b) The resistivity of the Cu-Ni alloy as a function ) ( ) y y solute atoms randomly distributed in the lattice, and these of Ni content (at.%) at room temperature. [Data extracted from Metals random distributions of impurities cause the e to become Handbook-10th Edition, Vols 2 and 3, ASM, Metals Park, Ohio, 1991 and Constitution of Binary Alloys, M. Hansen and K. Anderko, McGraw-Hill, scattered as they whiz around the crystal. New York, 1958]

Nordheim rule is useful for predicting the resistivities of dil t alloys, particularly i i ti iti f dilute ll ti l l in the low-concentration region.

0 20 100% Cu

(b)

2.3.2 Solid solution and Nordheims rule

Combination of Matthiessen and Nordheim rules leads to a general expression for of the solid solution:

= matrix + CX (1 X )

[2.22]

where matrix = T + R i the resistivity of the matrix d to scattering h is h i i i f h i due i from thermal vibrations and from other defect, absence of alloying elements.
Exception: at some concentrations of certain binary alloys, alloys Cu and Au atoms are not randomly mixed but occupy regular sites, which decrease the resistivity. -----------160 140
Resisti ivity (n m)

Quenched

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Composition (at.% Au) Cu3Au CuAu Annealed

Electrical resistivity vs. composition at room temperature in Cu-Au alloys. The quenched sample (dashed curve) is obtained by quenching the liquid and has the Cu and Au atoms randomly mixed. The resistivity obeys the Nordheim rule. On the other h d when the i i i b h dh i l h h hand, h h quenched sample is annealed or the liquid slowly cooled (solid curve), certain compositions (Cu3Au and CuAu) result in an ordered crystalline structure in which Cu and Au atoms are positioned in an ordered fashion in the crystal and the scattering effect is reduced.

SKIP

2.4 Resistivity of mixtures and porous materials

2.4.1 Hetrogeneous mixtures

: Nordheims rule only applies to solid solutions that are single-phase solid. The effective resistivity of a multiphase solid is determined by , y, , effective dielectric constant, effective thermal conductivity, effective elastic modulus, effective poissons ratio, etc. and therefore Nordheims rule is not true for these solids. -Lets consider first a material with two distinct phases, stacked as follows, y and evaluate the effective resistivity for current flow in the x direction. 1) Resistivity-mixture rule (series rule of mixture) Since the layers are in series for x-direction, the effective resistance is given by

Reff
:L t Let

L L = + A A
L eff A

L : total lengh of the phase layer L : total lengh of the phase layer A : cross sec tion area

and b th volume f ti of th , d be the l fractions f the

phase h

Reff =

eff = +

u sin g = L / L

= L / L

SKIP

2.4 Resistivity of mixtures and porous materials

3) Semiempirical rules: (when one phase is appreciably different than the other)

2) conductivity mixture rule (parallel rule of mixture) conductivity-mixture For y-direction, since the layers are in parallel, the effective conductivity is given by conductivitymixture rule.

Effective resistivity:

eff = +
: electrical conductivity ,

1 1 + d 2 eff = c (1 d )

( d

> 10 c )

eff = c

Consider a mixture that consist of a continuous Effective conductivity: y conducting cond cting phase with a cond cti it c that has ith conductivity c dispersed spheres of another phase of conductivity d = and of volume fraction + 2
c

(1 d ) (1 + 2 d )

( d < 0.1 c )
d c d + 2 c

SKIP

2.4 Resistivity of mixtures and porous materials

2.4.2 2 4 2 Resistivity of two phase alloy (Ag Ni) two-phase (Ag-Ni)

Tempera ature
TA TE T1 (a) Liquid, L TB

at T1, X<X1 : the alloy will consist of ( (Cu-rich phase) p ) X1<X<X2 : the alloy will consist of (

+L

+L

phase only

Two phase region +

One phase region: only

100%A

X1

X (% B)

X 2 100%B

is Cu rich(X1), is Ag rich(X2))

Res sistivity

, randomly mixed

(b) Mixture Rule Nordheim's Rule

A
0 X1 Composition X (% B)

X 2 100%B

The relative amounts of each phase are determined by the well-known lever rule.

(a) The phase diagram for a binary, eutectic forming alloy. (b) The resistivity vs composition for the binary alloy.

This means that we can determine the volume fractions of as the alloy composition is changed from X1 to X2.

and , and