Chapter 1 Introduction

Literature: Halzen/Martin [1] Aitchison/Hey [2] (rigorous) Seiden [3] (experimental, up to date) Nachtmann [4] (dicult to purchase) Elementary particles are the smallest constituents of matter. Therefore the notion elementary changes with scientic progress (cf. Tab. 1.1). We can dene elementary as having no resolvable inner structure. This also means that there can be no excited states. Elementary particles interact in a well-dened way through fundamental interactions. These are gravity, electromagnetic interaction, weak interaction, and strong interaction, where only the last three are relevant, at the elementary particle level, at energies currently available. Range of phenomena: structure of matter stability of matter 1

2 1869 1890 1910 1932 1947 1956 1967 1968 1972 1974 1979 1977 1983 1995 Mendeleev/Meyer J. Thomson Bequerel/Curie Rutherford Chadwick Anderson Blackett/Powell Cowan/Reines Glashow/Weinberg/Salam

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION periodic system atom electron radioactivity atomic nucleus & electron scattering neutron proton, neutron, electron positron & their antiparticles pion, muon particle zoo neutrino electroweak theory SLAC deep inelastic quarks & leptons scattering Fritzsch/Gell-Mann/Leutwyler quantum chromodynamics SLAC/BNL c-quark, -lepton DESY gluon Fermilab b-quark CERN W, Z bosons Fermilab t-quark, Table 1.1: Historical outline of the concept of elementarity instability of matter, radioactivity: decay of elementary particles scattering of elementary particles production of new particles indirect implications early history of the universe fuel cycle in stars astrophysical phenomena: supernovae, very high energy cosmic rays

1.1

Units
=

The Planck constant h (1.1) = 1.0546 1034 Js 2 has dimension of action and angular momentum. Another important physical constant is the speed of light m c = 2.998 108 . (1.2) s

1.1. UNITS

Because we are dealing with constants, Eq. (1.1) and (1.2) establish a relationship among the units for energy, time, and length. Using so-called natural units, i. e. setting = c = 1, we nd [c] = [length] [time]1 = [L][T ]1 [L] = [T ] [] = [energy] [time] = [M ][L]2 [T ]1 [M ] = [L]1 [M ] = [L]1 = [T ]1 and [E] = [M ]. (1.3) (1.4) (1.5)

This raises the question of a suitable fundamental unit for energy. One electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron passing a potential dierence of 1 V : 1 eV = 1.602 1019 J keV = 103 eV MeV = 106 eV GeV = 109 eV TeV = 1012 eV. Examples of some orders of magnitude are me = 511 keV mp = 938 MeV mn = 939 MeV Ee (LEP) = 104.5 GeV Ep (Tevatron) = 980 GeV Ep (LHC) = 7 TeV. Converting the units for energy, time, and length into each other yields, in agreement with Eq. (1.5), = 6.58 1025 GeV s = 1 1 GeV1 6.58 1025 s , (recall lifetime =
1 !

(1.6)

with the resonance width), and 1 m ! = 1 1 fm = 1015 m . s 200 MeV (1.7)

c = 2.998 108

Cross sections have dimensions of area: [] = [L]2 = [M ]2 = As unit we choose 1 = 389379 nb = 389379 109 b (1 GeV)2 1 . (eV)2 (1.8)

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

with 1 b : 1 barn = 1024 cm2 the typical scale of nuclear absorption. The unit of electrical charge can be dened in dierent ways. The dimensionless ne structure constant is accordingly expressed dierently in terms of e in dierent systems of units, 2 e 1 = = 7.2972 103 40 c 137 SI e2 = c CGS 2 e = , 4c
Heaviside-Lorentz

and determines the strength of the electromagnetic interaction. Therefore, in HeavisideLorentz units, the electron charge is xed to be (1.9) e = 4 .
HL

1.2

Elementary interactions

Gravitation. Since Gm2 1039 p and because of the fact that gravitys range is innite, it is relevant for macroscopic systems (and can be neglected here).
1 Electromagnetic interaction. Recall that 137 . The range of the electromagnetic interaction is innite and typical lifetimes of particles decaying through electromagnetic interactions range from 0 0 = 1020 s to 0 = 1016 s. Typical cross sections are of order epep = 1 b. QEDs (quantum electrodynamics) predictions have been tested to high theoretical and experimental precision. Consider for example the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron: e e g 1 2 3 QED = = 1 + 0.388 2 + 1.18 3 e 2me 2 2me 2 Dirac

exp. e

where the experimental value was obtained by Van Dyck, Schwinberg and Dehmelt.

e 1.0011596521465(270) = 2me e 1.0011596521883(42) , = 2me

Schwinger

Petermann

Laporta/Remiddi

1.2. ELEMENTARY INTERACTIONS p

Figure 1.1: Beta decay of neutron. Depicted as a point like process, as described by Fermis constant (a) and via W boson exchange (b). Weak interaction. As an example for weak interactions consider decay: n pee : see Fig. 1.1(a). The range is about 1 fm and for the coupling we have GF m2 105 . p The lifetimes go from 1010 s to 103 s and cross sections are of order 1 fb. Theoretically, the process is explained by W boson exchange, see Fig. 1.1(b), which yields for Fermis 2 gw constant GF = 8M 2 .
W

00
p gW W e n gW e e
(a) (b)

Strong interaction. At the nuclear level, the Yukawa theory of pion exchange (see gures 1.2(a) and 1.2(b)) is still used. It explains the bonding of protons and neutrons 1 by exchange of massive pions: m = 130 MeV range m = 130 1 1.4 fm. QCD MeV (quantum chromodynamics) states that particles like p, n, and consist of quarks which interact through gluons. Gluons (in contrast to photons) carry themselves the charges they are coupling to which inuences the strong interactions potential, see g.1.3. The QCD coupling constant is approximately given by s 0.12.

Figure 1.2: Yukawa theory. Interaction by pion exchange (a) and exchange of quark and anti-quark (b).

00
p n d d u u d
+

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

u d u d

(a)

(b)

V(r)

~1fm ~r r

~1/r

Figure 1.3: Potential of the strong interaction.