SKELETAL SYSTEM review :

Major Functions : Major Functions Support Protection Muscle attachment Provide shape Blood cell production Storage of calcium Generic Parts : Generic Parts Epiphysis Diaphysis Cartilage Marrow Osteocytes Osteoblasts Osteoclasts The long and short of it : The long and short of it Long bones contain: compact bone spongy bone and marrow, which makes red and white blood cells cartilage : cartilage Connective tissue found in joints Specialized cells called chondrocytes Three types of cartilage Elastic Hyaline Fibrocartilage Does not contain blood vessels Functions like a rubber cushion at ends of joints The skeleton is divided into two sections : Two sections Axial Appendicular Bones of the pelvis, arms, legs, hands, feet, clavicles, scapulae The Axial skeleton : The skull consists of several bones that have fused together at joints called sutures. Frontal Parietal (2) Temporal (2) Occipital Ethmoid Sphenoid Another name for the skull is The cranium Facial bones The mandible is also called the jaw bone. The eye sockets are also called orbits. Rib cage Provides protection to heart & lungs How many ribs are there??? The tip of the sternum is called the xiphoid. This part is cartilage. Rib cage 12 pairs All attached to the spine 10 pairs attached to the sternum 2 pairs of floating ribs Spine - Vertebrae Cervical 7 Thoracic 12 Lumbar 5 Sacrum Coccyx 1-3 Appendicular skeleton In addition to the pelvis, arm, leg, hand, and foot bones, the clavicles and scapulae are included in this division Pelvis You will notice the sacrum and coccyx here also Pelvis Ilium iliac crest Ischium Pubis symphysis Arm Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Leg Femur head, neck, greater and lesser trochanter Patella Tibia medial ankle bone Fibula lateral ankle bone Tarsals talus, calcaneus Metatarsals Phalanges Types of Fractures : Types of Fractures Simple break thru bone Compound bone end thru skin Types of Fractures Greenstick bent bone Comminuted splintered bone Types of Fractures Impacted bone pieces pressed together Spiral break caused by twist Types of Fractures Depressed Colles fracture of the distal radius

Joint Types : Joint Types Synarthroses immovable (such as cranial bones) Amphiarthroses slightly moveable (such as synthesis pubis) Diathroses freely moveable Diathroses Joints : Diathroses Joints Hinge elbow, knee, fingers, toes Pivot axis, forearm Saddle thumb Condyloid wrist, ankle Ball and Socket shoulder, hip Gliding - vertebrae Diseases/Disorders : Diseases/Disorders Sprain stretched or torn ligament or tendon Arthritis inflamed joint Osteomyelitis infected bone Osteoporosis loss of bone density Bone cancer Subluxation - dislocation

Skeletal System - Is the framework of the body - is the biological system providing support in living organisms - Skin, muscle and bones allow movement. Skin- pliable covering. Muscles do actual moving. Bones give anchor to move against. The skeleton functions not only as the support for the body but also in hematopoiesis (the manufacture of blood cells that takes place in bone marrow). This is why people who have cancer of the bone marrow almost always die. It is also necessary for protection of vital organs and is needed by the muscles for movement. Bones A. Functions of Bones 1. Support. Provide a hard framework. 2. Protection of many vital organs. 3. Movement. Act as levers with skeletal muscles moving them. Joints control possible movements. 4. Mineral storage. Especially calcium and phosphate, critical minerals for cellular function. Continuous deposition and withdrawal. Exquisite control of Ca++ (calcium ions) levels necessary for function of nerves, muscles, blood coagulation and other functions. Most of Ca++ in body in bones. Osteoclasts & osteoblasts controlled by hormones which regulate blood levels of Ca++. 5. Blood cell formation. Certain bones have active marrow. B. Structure 1. Compact-Dense outer layer, looks smooth and solid. Contains cylinder of concentric layers with central canals. a. Haversian system = circles of bone (lamella) with central canal (Haversian canal) b. Central canal contain blood vessels & nerves. Connected at right angles to network. c. Perforating small canals - blood vessels & nerves go through lamellar bone to supply osteocytes. Connect to periosteum(tough membrane that surrounds and supports to the bone). d. Osteocytes live in bone, maintain it. Live in holes called lacunae. Connect to each other and central canal via canaliculi, little canals. Pass nutrients, waste products 2. Spongy- honeycombed, open spaces. Same structure as compact but less regular.

Withstand maximum stress with least weight. In bone interiors & weird weight bearing bones like head of femur. Not organized in lamella. Trabeculae are arranged along lines of stress. Osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi. Nutrients reach osteocytes by diffusing through the canaliculi from capillaries. Osteoporosis - More bone resorption than deposition, very weak bone. Skeletal System A. Axial skeleton Principal supportive structure of the body includes skull, vertebrae, sternum & ribs. Central column of the skeleton from which arms and legs & bones that help them hang. B. Appendicular skeleton Provides fairly freely movable frame for upper & lower limbs. Includes pectoral (shoulder) & pelvic (hip) girdles, arms, forearms, wrists, hands, thighs, legs & feet. Joints Bones -> framework; muscles -> power; joints provide mechanism that allows body to move A joint is where 2 adjacent bones or cartilages or combination thereof meet. Most joints movable, some not. General Structure 1. Articular cartilage 2. Joint (synovial) cavity 3. Articular capsule - external layer = fibrous capsule, inner layer is a synovial membrane 4. Synovial fluid-occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule, fluid derived by filtration from blood flowing thorough the capillaries in the synovial membrane 5. Reinforcing ligaments Bones Bone cells - are called osteocytes, and the matrix of the bone is made of calcium salts and collagen. calcium salts - give bones the strength for its supportive and protective functions. function of osteocytes- is to regulate the amount of calcium that is deposited in or removed from the bone matrix. Bone is an organ, it has its own blood supply and is made up of two types of tissue; compact and spongy bone. The names imply that the two types of differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis. 1. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell 2. osteoclasts resorb or break down bone 3. osteocytes are mature bone cells

Types of the bones The 3-month-old fetus has an early skeleton-like framework composed of cartilage and connective tissue membrane. As the fetus matures, the cartilage and connective tissue change into bone. the formation of bones is called ossification. Ossification occurs in different ways in flat and long bones. Ossification of flat bones Bones come in many shapes and sizes, from the pea sized bones in the wrist to the 24 inch long femur in the thigh. The size and shape of the bone reflects its function. Long bones. Long bones are longer than they are wide. They are found in the arms and legs. Short bones. Short bones are shaped like cubes and are found primarily in the wrist and ankles. Flat bones. Flat bones are thin, flat, and curved. They form the ribs, breastbone, and skull. Irregular bones. Irregular bones are different shaped and are not classified as long, short, or flat. They include the hip bones, vertebrae, and various bones in the skull. Sesamoid bones. Sesamoid bones are small round bony masses embedded in certain tendons that may be subjected to compression and tension. The largest sesamoid bone is the patella, which is embedded in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris at the knee. Short, flat, and irregular bones are all made of spongy bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. Red bone marrow is found within the spongy bone. The joint surfaces of bones are covered with articular cartilage, which provides a smooth surface. Covering the rest of the bone is the periosteum. Divisions of the skeletal system The skeleton is divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the bones of the skull, the hyoid bone, the bones of the middle ear, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the extremities and the bones of the hip and shoulder girdles. Axial skeleton Facial bones Vertebral column Curvatures Joints The largest bone in the foot is the calcaneus or the heel bone. The foot bones are held together by strong ligaments and leg muscles that allow us to have a good deal of flexibility while being strong and providing a stable base. When our ligaments weaken we refer to this as fallen arches or flat feet. Joints are the point of contact between two bones. They are classified into 3 main types according to their degree of movement. Diarthroses - movable joints Amphiarthroses - partially movable joints Synarthroses - immovable joints Diarthroses - Most of the joints in our body are diarthroses. They tend to have the same structure. These joints allow for considerable movement sometimes in many directions and sometimes in only one or two

directions. These movable joints consist of three main parts: articular cartilage, a bursa or a joint capsule and a synovial or joint cavity. When 2 movable bones meet at a joint their surfaces do not touch one another. The two articular surfaces are covered with a smooth slippery cap of cartilage called the articular cartilage. This cartilage helps to absorb jolts. Enclosing the 2 articular surfaces of the bone is a tough, fibrous connective capsule called a joint capsule or an articular capsule. Lining the articular capsule is a synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid. The synovial fluid reduces the friction of the 2 articulating surfaces. The structure of the joint capsule makes the joint function. Ligaments grow out of the periosteum and connect the bones together more firmly. The clefts in connective tissue between muscles,tendons, ligaments and bones contain bursa sacs. If the bursa becomes irritated or injured a condition known as bursitis develops. The synovial fluid can be aspirated from the bursal sacs and examined for diagnostic purposes. Typical examinations may include a culture and sensitivity and a micro exam to check for WBC's and RBC's. As we advance in age the joints undergo degenerative changes. The synovial fluid is not secreted as quickly and the articular cartilage's become ossified. This results in bone outgrowths along the joint edges which tend to stiffen joints causing inflammation, pain and a decrease in mobility. There are several types of diarthroses joints: ball and socket, hinge, pivot and gliding and condyloid joints. Because they differ in structure they also differ in the amount of movement and range of motion. Ball and socket joints- These joints allow for the greatest freedom of movement. One bone has a ballshaped head which nestles into a concave socket of the second bone. Examples are hip and shoulder joints. Hinge joints are like hinges on a door. They allow movement in only two directions namely flexion and extension. Examples of a hinge joints are the knees, elbows and the outer joints of the fingers. Pivot joints are those with an extension rotating in a second, arch shaped bone. The radius and ulna, wrist and ankle joints are all pivot joints. An example of this joint is between the atlas or the first cervical vertebrae which supports the head and the axis or the second cervical vertebrae which allows the head to rotate. Gliding joints are those in which nearly flat surfaces glide across each other as in the vertebrae or the spine. These joints enable the torso to bend forward, backward, sideways as well as rotate.

Epidermis This layer is seen on the surface of the skin. It is made up of cells called keratinocytes, which are stacked on top of each other, forming different sub-layers. The keratinocytes develop at the bottom and rise to the top, where they are shed from the surface as dead cells. So this layer is constantly renewing itself, the live cells changing into dead, hard, flattened cells.Melanocytes and Langerhans cells are other important cells found in the epidermis which have special functions

Melanocytes These cells produce a dark pigment called melanin which contributes to skin color and provides UV protection. They are located at the bottom of the epidermis. Dendritic (Langerhans) cells These cells are involved in the epidermal immune system. They engulf foreign material that invades the epidermis and migrate out of the skin to stimulate an immune response. Basal cells Small cells found at the bottom of the epidermis. Earlier it was believed that basal cell carcinoma is derived from these cells. As of this writing basal cell carcinoma is thought to arise from nondifferentiated cells from the basal cell layer.

Dermis The dermis consists mostly of connective tissue and is much thicker than the epidermis. It is responsible for the skin's pliability and mechanical resistance and is also involved in the regulation of the body temperature. The dermis supplies the avascular epidermis with nutrients by means of its vascular network. It contains sense organs for touch, pressure, pain and temperature (Meissners corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, free nerve endings), as well as blood vessels, nerve fibres, sebaceous and sweat glands and hair follicles.

Blood Vessels These are tiny pipes through which blood circulates. The blood vessels supply the skin with fresh blood, which contains nutrients and oxygen, and carry away waste products. Meissner's corpuscle These touch receptors are expecially effective in detecting light touch and soft, fleeting movements. Pacinian corpuscles Pacinian corpuscles function as receptors for deep pressure and vibration. Free Nerve Endings Free nerve endings are sensitive to pain, temperature changes and itchiness. Nerve Fibers Nerve fibres forward information. Sebaceous Glands Sebaceous or oil glands are small, sacculated organs that secrete sebum. This oily substance is a natural moisturiser which conditions the hair and skin. Sebaceos glands are found all over the body, but they are more numerous in the scalp area and around the forehead, chin, cheeks and nose. Sweat Glands These are sweat-producing structures consisting of a single tube, a coiled body and a superficial duct. They are involved in thermoregulation, as they cool the skin by sweating. Hair Follicles Hair follicles are downward growths into the dermis of epidermal tissue and produce hair. They are found all over the body except on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet as well as on the lips. When the body gets cold, the hair stands upright with the help of the arrector pili muscle, closing up the skin's pores and keeping the warmth in. Arrector pili muscle This small muscle is attached to the base of the follicle. When it is stimulated by cold or fright, it pulls the hair follicle up, causing it to stand upright.

Subcutaneous layer The subcutaneous layer below the dermis consists of loose connective tissue and much fat. It acts as a protective cushion and helps to insulate the body by monitoring heat gain and heat loss. Not all authors consider this layer a part of the skin, but it definitely has a strong impact on the way the skin looks. What are the Main Functions of the Skin? With a total surface of about 1,8 m2 and a total weight of about 11 kg, our skin is the largest human organ. The skin not just only gives us our appearance and shape, it also serves other important functions: Protection Our skin is a shield that protects us from: mechanical impact such as pressure and stroke thermic impact such as heat or cold environmental impact such as chemicals, the suns UV-radiation and bacteria Regulation The skin regulates our body temperature. The production of sweat, which evaporates on the skins surface, will cool us down. The 5th Sense Besides the senses of smell, taste, sight and hearing the sense of touch is one of our body's most important senses. Without it, we would not be able to feel the gentle touch of a dear person, the warmth of a hot cup of tea, or the wind blowing in our face. This sense is made possible by various cells and nerve endings in the skin, which send impulses to our central nervous system. Epidermis - outer most layer of the skin and regulates body tempreture Dermis - inner most layer of the skin and it is made up of living cells Sweat Glands - Produce sweat and contains extra salts and water Oil Glands - secrete oils which made skin soft and makes skin waterproof Fat Cells - produce fat that provide heat into our body Nerve Receptors - they pick up sensations of heat,pain,cold and texture