ABE 325 Rabi H.

Mohtar DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES

Objectives: to understand needs for drainage, types of drainage, theoretical basis for water movement through soil Terms: drainage = removal of excess water from the soil surface or from within root zone of plants drainage group = group of soil type with essentially the same drainage characteristics drainage coefficient = inches of water to be removed from an entire drainage area in 24 hours. hydraulic conductivity = a measure of the ease with which water flows through soil (permeability) isotropic = having the same hydraulic conductivity in all directions. soil water potential = the energy of a unit mass of water due to an applied pressure and its position with respect to some datum. head = same as potential except that units are in term of length water table = the locus of points in a soil mass where the soil water pressure equals zero; approximate dividing plane between saturated and unsaturated zones in the soil 1. Introduction Drainage occurs naturally in areas with underlaying layers of coarse textured soil. However, often artificial drainage is needed. In arid regions, drainage goes hand-inhand with irrigation to reduce problems associated with salt buildup in the upper layers of soil due to evaporation. In humid regions, drainage is essential for developing and improving land for crop production. Farmers in Indiana install thousands of feet of subsurface drain tile or tubes every year. However, this effort is almost a stalemate since nearly that many drain lines installed in the early part of the century become obsolete each year.

2. Benefits of Drainage: subsurface drainage promotes good root growth by lowering the water table aeration: the primary modification of the plant environment. Removes gravitational water from large soil pores. Air fills in the pores and becomes available to plant roots. increased length of growing season since: 1) removes troublesome wet areas thus allowing earlier tillage, 2) soils warm up faster. Soils warm faster because less energy goes towards evaporation. Soil temperature effects the rate of plant germination, organic matter decomposition etc. increases the number of desirable soil organisms. Most desirable organisms are aerobic. These promote the release of nitrogen from organic matter, nitrification, and N-fixation. Denitrification organisms ("bad bugs") are anaerobic. reduces the likelihood of working the soil when it is too wet which can cause damage to the soil structure through a process called "puddling". removes toxic elements. Removes salt build-up on soil surface due to excessive evaporation. reduces amount of runoff (sediment loss etc.) 3. Soil Water Potential The relationship of terms describing this concept can be shown as follows:

These terms are qualitative; they provide understanding and allow for comparison. Potential theory provides a quantitative framework for analyzing flow. It recognizes that at any point in a soil, the soil has a potential (energy) to do work equal to: H=h+z where: h = pressure head (suction in unsaturated soils) z = gravitational (position) head

Measure head with an open ended tube (piezometer) inserted into a saturated soil or with a tensiometer in an unsaturated soil. Must reference measurements to an elevation datum, as shown below for point "x" in a saturated soil mass.

4. Soil Water Movement The governing equation for flow velocity in soil is Darcys law:

v=

KH L

where: K = hydraulic conductivity H = difference in head between two points in a soil mass L = length of flow path For unidirectional, saturated flow, can combine Darcys law with the continuity equation, q = av, to get:

q=
Solving for hydraulic conductivity gives:

KaH L

K=

qL aH K1d1 + K 2 D2 + K3 D3 + K4 D4 d1 + D2 + D3 + D4

Must determine effective hydraulic conductivity when K changes with depth (i.e. soil layers each have own K value):

K eff =

5. Drainage Feasibility Before a drainage project is undertaken, a close look at regulations and economics is advisable. The pertinent questions is: "When will an additional $ spent on drainage improvements be expected to not give more than a $ in return profit?" Uncertainties with regard to future prices and management skill make this more difficult to answer. The point of diminishing returns is the management scheme whereby profits are maximized. Where the curves crosses the 45 degree line, the cost-benefit ratio is 1:1. At this point benefits are maximized but net profit is zero.

6. Drainage Investigation After noting the need for drainage and making an economic analysis, an investigation may proceed as follows: 1) Determine whether wetland or permitting restrictions apply. 2) Analyze the soil - especially if subsurface drainage is being considered. What is the hydraulic conductivity? Are there any restricting soil layers? Is the texture likely to cause sedimentation in the drains? 3) Determine the availability of outlets for the drained water. Is one legally available? What is its elevation with respect to the area to be drained? 4) Recheck wetlands classification and permitting regulations.

5) Determine the required/desired drainage flow rate. generally expressed as a drainage coefficient. 6) Determine probable route of drainage and make a profile survey. If a land garde greater than 0.1% is available then drainage can be accomplished. Grades greater than 0.5% should be avoided for surface drains because of the possibility of scouring the channel bottom.

7. Types of Drainage: a) Surface Drainage Systems Appropriate when: 1) have "tight" soils through which water flows very slowly 2) the outlet for a subsurface system is too high 3) a large amount of surface water must be handled in a timely manner Requires gentle land slope (0.1 - 0.5 %) so land shaping may be needed. Water collected via surface drainage is released to some type of open ditch or open channel. Types of surface drainage systems: t random ditches t bedding t parallel field ditches t parallel lateral ditches

b) Subsurface Drainage Systems Appropriate when: 1) have good flow through soils 2) havesufficient soil depth to install subsurface drains

3) have a high water table that needs to be lowered Types: mole, tile, tube

Layout patterns for subsurface drainage systems: t natural/random t herring bone t grid iron t cutoff/interceptor