Radio features: - radio technology - antennas - spectrum flexibility LTE access is based on OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

radio technology Downlink OFDM Uplink SC-FDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access)

Advanced antenna solutions used in LTE: diversity beam forming multi-layer transmission (MIMO) is introduced from start to allow high peak rates.

Spectrum Flexibility: Flexible bandwidth LTE is to be used in a number of bandwidths New and existing frequency bands Duplex flexibility it possible to run LTE over paired frequency bands: FDD as well as over unpaired frequency bands: TDD

OFDM is based on a large number of narrowband signals or tones, each 15kHz compare WCDMA one single wideband carrier 5 MHz). We get a very long symbol time which means it is robust against multi-path propagation. Orthogonolity by placing 15kHz tones apart the sampling point that is when the data is measured for one tone will be at a point where all other tones are zero. We get a very flexible system when it comes to assigning resource to end-users. We can assign users resources both in frequency domain and in time domain. In LTE uplink radio access we use: - DFTS (Discrete Fourier Transform Spread): a special form of OFDM - SC-FDMA - Pre-coded OFDM: pre-coding is done by a DFT. The pre-coder spreads out the symbols on a single carrier, that is the why it is called single carrier FDMA. This single carrier is achieved by grouping a number of 15kHz tones to together inlarge blocks which means this is not as flexible as basic OFDM. - Low Peak-to-Average Power Ratio: But this wider band reduces the large power fluctuations you get in normal OFDM with all these 15KHz tones and this reduces the peak to average power ratio which is high with plain OFDM. A simpler/cheaper power amplifier (PA) in the terminal can be used that drains the battery less fast (a factor of 2 to 3 times are mentioned in different external reports). More advanced receivers are required but receiver complexity is less critical at base-station side. Definition: the smallest element or basic unit in the LTE world is an OFDM symbol also called a resource element. Each little square in the grid here is an OFDM symbol. It is in these symbols the actual bits are coded.

The OFDM symbols are grouped together 14 at a time into a subframe which is 1 ms long. - the scheduling of resources in LTE can be taken every 1 ms. - Every OFDM symbol is about 71 us long ( 1 ms / 14) Also 12 of the 15kHz sub-carriers are grouped together in the frequency domain. So now we have 180 kHz times 1ms and this is called a SB (Scheduling Block) or RB (Resource Block). That is defined as 180kHz times 0.5ms. For uplink the SBs must be contiguous. Scheduling is done both for DL and UL on a 1ms time basis. LTE can schedule resources both in the time and in the frequency domain, while HSPA is doing this in the time-domain only. Time domain o Round-robin: users get resources in turn without taking the ratio channel conditions into account o Max C/I (maximum rate scheduling): the user with best radio conditions will be scheduled. Risk is a user with very bad radio conditions may end up getting no resources at all. o Proportional fair: something in between max C/I and round robin where the best radio conditions are utilized while still trying to satisfy some fairness between the users. Frequency domain: channel dependent scheduling means that different sub carriers or more correct scheduling blocks, are used for different terminals. The blocks can be assigned: o Consecutive o Random o Measurement based

Link Adaptation layer 1 feature Time domain (/user) choosing o Modulation scheme: QPSK (2 bits per symbol), 16QAM (4 bits), or 64QAM (6 bits) o Channel coding: controls how much redundancy is included in the sent data, good radio conditions means more data and less control and vice versa for worse radio conditions. All this is done per user and based on channel conditions. Frequency domain (/SB): power and/or data rate can be adjusted for each scheduling block. o Not commonly used.

Time Dispersion An advantage with 15kHz tones is that we get a very long symbol time which means it is robust against multi-path propagation or in other words very good to handle time dispersion. We do not only receive direct data streams at the terminal but also reflected ones. The terminal will combined data both from the correct direct path data with some data from another OFDM symbol. Cyclic Prefix insertion: We take a small part from the end of the OFDM symbol and insert it at the beginning that is the reason for the naming prefix. By this the OFDM symbol will be a little longer and the terminal will have the possibility to combine both direct path data and reflected data as long as the delay of the reflected signal is shorter than the cycle prefix time.

Cyclic prefix time is 4.7us which corresponds to 1.4km. compare WCDMA, 3.84Mcps0.26us78m/chip One OFDM symbol was about 71us. If we now use 4.7us for CP we are left with about 66.7us for data. This means the drawback of cyclic prefix usage is a little loss of spectral efficiency, 6.7% of the signal power is lost. Definition of multi-antenna transmission: SIMO/MISO, MIMO antennas MISO (multiple in single out): o Beam forming: can be used for beam forming, that is pointing the antenna beam towards a specific user by applying different phase shifts to the included antennas. o Transmit diversity: that is transmitting more than one copy of the same data with different delays to get an artificial time dispersion. That is we will get low correlation of the fading from the two antennas. SIMO (single in multiple out): o Receive diversity: Is used for receive diversity, that is combining several copies of the received signal to get a better reception. MIMO o Spatial multiplexing: can be used for all the above plus also for what is called spatial multiplexing, that is different data streams transmitted in parallel data streams transmitted in parallel over separate antennas. o To get the higher data rates we have to use more antennas. When using more than one antennas we use one time-frequency grid per antennas. For a terminal to be able to identify which stream is which so called reference signals are used. These signals will occupy a number of OFDM symbols which in turn means that they will add up to other control signaling and reduce the theoretical data throughput in LTE. o It shall also be noted that the resource elements sent in parallel in the other grids are not used to avoid interference from other antenna ports within the cell.

Spectrum Flexibility: LTE can be used both in FDD mode: paired frequency bands TDD mode: unpaired frequency bands Channel bandwidths defined for LTE use: 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 MHz A new band 2.6GHz will be used by European operators. Width of one scheduling block: 180kHz (12 x 15kHz tones). We can fit 100 of these blocks within 20MHz. in fact we get 18MHz but the remaining 2MHz are used as guard band. About 10% of a band is normally set aside as guard band. Operators reframing reusing GSM band for LTE A 20MHz system using 4x4 MIMO and 64 QAM modulation scheme. 14 OFDM symbols in a 1ms subframe, using 64QAM, each symbol contains 6 bits. That gives 6x14 (=84) bits per 1 ms. 84 bits in 1 ms results in a bit speed of 84kbps per 15kHz subcarriers. Each scheduling block is 12 carriers which means we get 1.008Mbps per scheduling block (12x84 kbps). For 20 MHz bandwidth 100 x 1.008MHz = 100.8 MHz per antenna.

With 4 antennas we get a theoretical max speed of 403.2Mbps, but in reality we will reach around 300Mbps for a 4x4 MIMO system in 20MHz due to capacity taken by control signaling and reference signals etc. In uplink only single antenna is defined in Rel 8 and that means peak rate will be one fourth of the DL speed. 75 Mbps. With 16QAM we get 50Mbps. Release 9 is very small for LTE, just some minor updates. Major enhancements Release 10: higher peak rate and relaying solutions. 3G evolution by Erik Dahlman, Stefan Parkvall, Johan Skold, Per Beming. October 2008/Academic Press Inc. EPS (evolved packet system) contains of the radio access network E-UTRAN and the core network Evolved Packet Core (EPC). The E-UTRAN is referred to as LTE. EPC is referred to as SAE (system architecture evolution). Both LTE and SAE are 3GPP work items while E-UTRAN and EPC are the actual radio access and core network. A UE communicates, via the air interface, with an eNodeB, also known as Radio Base Station (RBS). The access network E-UTRAN consists of eNodeBs. The eNodeBs are able to communicate with each other and are also connected to the core network, EPC. The interfaces X2 and S1 are the transport network. The controller node functionality is distributed between the eNodeBs and core nodes MME and S-GW. Nodes in the EPC are Mobility Management Entity (MME) and packet/Serving Gateway (P/S-GW) that are connected to the E_UTRAN. eNodeB - terminates all user plan functions seen by the terminal. - It handles Radio Bearer control, Connection Mobility Control and scheduling for both UL and DL. - Two eNodeBs are connected via the interface X2, which is divided into X2 user plane (UP) and X2 control plane (CP). The X2 is a logical interface providing connectivity between eNB and its radio neighbors, whereof there may be up to 32, but typically this will be much fewer. It is used during handover between eNBs. The eNodeB is connected to a Serving Gateway (S-GW) via the S1-UP interface. The S-GW - Routes and forwards user data packets - Acting as the mobility anchor for the user plane during inter-eNodeB handovers - Acting as the anchor for mobility between LTE and other 3GPP technologies - terminates user plane packets - switches the user plane to support UE mobility - The S-GW is able to communicate with P-GW via the S5/S8 interface.

Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW) handles the charging for the service and is the IP Point of Presence (PoP). The eNodeBs are also connected to the MME via S1-CP interface. The MME is a control node responsible for: - authenticating users - the bearer activation/deactivation process - choosing the S-GW for a UE when setting up a bearer - The MME handles idle mode mobility and security. - Two MMEs could be connected to each other via the S10 interface and also connected to the SGW via S11 interface. The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) handles subscription data, is connected to the MME via the S6 interface. The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is also connected to the MME and sets the Quality of Service and charging for each data flow. The interface between PCRF and MME is Gx. LTE introduces the concept of pooling, also referred to as S1 Flex, which - makes LTE a multipoint technology in nature. - allow for resource distribution for a more scalable architecture and redundancy. - Pooling of core nodes means that an eNB may be connected to multiple MME and S-GW core nodes are the same time. If core nodes are geographically distributed, then this will have an impact on how the transport network is built and the type of connectivity needed between the eNBs and core nodes. Unlike in GSM and WCDMA where the RBS is connected to a single controller node. LTE has two types of handovers: - the X2 handover which is used for handovers between eNBs in the same MME pool. X2 handover is not mandatory. - the S1 handover for handovers between eNBs in different MME pools. The S1 handover is mandatory, which means that it is possible to rollout a network without X2 and only use S1, whereby the X2 is introduced as traffic volumes and the subscriber base grows. X2 relationships can be statically or automatically established. To automatically detect radio neighbors, the SON feature Automatic Neighbor Relations (ANR) needs to be enabled. X2 relationships can be dynamically established means that eNBs have to have a way to communicate with potential radio neighbors. In large networks where eNBs are not on the same subnet, a routing instance must manage the communication between eNBs in different sub-networks. The question is where to this routing instance should be located: either it is close the core network or close to the eNBs. Which approach makes most sense depends on several factors such as the existing network architecture, the transport strategy of the operator, the performance in the network, and the potential gain of turning the traffic around closer to the eNB. IP connectivity in LTE is needed between all the nodes. This connectivity may be realized using two types of services either Ethernet services or IP services or a combination of those two. It is likely that not all nodes will reside on the same sub-network and hence routing is required in some point in the network to route between sub-networks. When following the IP RAN guidelines, there will be routing instances in the switch site at the edge of the Evolved Packet Core network.

One alternative is to have Ethernet services, such as E-Line or E-LAN services between eNBs and the routers located at the switch site. In case E-Line services are used, then traffic between eNBs will need to go up to the switch site first, whereas E-LAN service may allow traffic to be turned around closer to the eNB. Routing between sub-networks is handled by the routers at the switch site. Alternatively, Ethernet services may be employed in the access portion of the network, which is typically point to point links. These Ethernet services attach to an IP service, such as a L3VPN in the metro or aggregation network, whereby routing between sub-networks can be done closer to the eNB. Consider that how these services are realized, e.g., using native Ethernet, routing, or MPLS, is transparent to the LTE system. Both of these solutions are equally viable if it is possible to ensure the performance requirements necessary to keep a stable LTE system and to provide the appropriate level of experience to the enduser. Ericsson LTE will support IPSec directly in the radio base station, whereby it will be possible to establish independent IPSec tunnels from the traffic and OAM logical interfaces. This allows the operator choose whether to use IPSec for a specific interface or both of them. Unlike WCDMA, LTE does not encrypt the user plane traffic, which may drive customer to use IPSec for the traffic interface, while relying on the security already available through protocols such as SSH and secure COBRA, for OAM traffic. There are two alternative. These IPSec tunnels may terminate on different Security gateways due to capacity restrictions in the security gateway. There are consequences in using IPSec. IPSec introduces additional overhead in the IP packets which may impact throughput and will require additional capacity in the network. It may also result in MTU sizes that exceed those supported in the transport network, in which case packets will get fragmented introducing yet another performance penalty. Lastly IPSec is a point to poinr technology, so traffic cannot be turned around until it leaves the IPSec tunnel at the security gateway.