I.

Writing an Essay
1. Establish Your Topic
1. Your teacher may assign you a topic or ask you to choose from among a few topics. The assignment may
contain certain key words that will suggest the content and structure of your essay. For example, you may be asked to: o Analyze o Argue o Compare and contrast o Describe o Discuss o Summarize Every essay question will generally contain a key word that tells you what kind of answer your teacher wants. Here is a list of some key words commonly found in essay questions: Analyze Separate out the parts and show how they relate to the whole. For example, whether you are asked to analyze a poem, story, or play, you will need to look at individual elements such as: o o o o o o o o o o o point of view (the position of the narrator in relation to the story, as indicated by the narrator's outlook from which the events are depicted and by the attitude toward the characters) setting (the locale or period in which the action of a novel, play, film, etc., takes place: The setting of this story is Verona in the 15th century) characters (a person represented in a drama, story, etc.) plot (also called storyline; the plan, scheme, or main story of a literary or dramatic work, as a play, novel, or short story) imagery (figurative description or illustration; rhetorical images collectively) or symbolism (the practice of representing things by symbols, or of investing things with a symbolic meaning or character) motifs (a recurring subject, theme, idea, etc., in a literary, artistic work) or themes (a subject of composition; topic)

See how each of these elements contributes to the overall meaning of the work. Argue Give reasons for or against. Be sure to use specific examples to back up your points. Compare and contrast These words often appear together but not always. If you are asked to compare, show the similarities and the differences. If you are asked to contrast, show only the differences. Describe Write about a subject in detail, often so that the reader gets a clear mental picture or image of what you are describing. Discuss Write about a subject in detail, giving reasons and examples. Summarize State the main ideas briefly, leaving out specific examples.

If you do not understand what you are being asked to do, check with your teacher. 2. You may be asked to find a topic on your own. Most people find this difficult. Give yourself plenty of time to think about what you'd like to do. Trying to answer questions you have about a particular subject may lead you to a good paper idea. o What subject(s) are you interested in? o What interests you most about a particular subject? o Is there anything you wonder about or are puzzled about with regard to that subject? Be sure your topic is narrow enough so that you can write about it in detail in the number of pages that you are allowed. For example, say you are asked to write a 1-page essay about someone in your family. Since you only have a limited number of pages, you may want to focus on one particular characteristic of that person, or one particular incident from that person's life, rather than trying to write about that person's entire life. Having a narrow focus will help you write a more interesting paper. Too general: My sister. Revised: My sister is my best friend. Similarly, you may be asked to write a 5-page paper about volcanoes. Again, since you only have a limited number of pages, you may choose to focus on one particular volcano or one particular eruption, rather than trying to talk about volcanoes in general. Too general: Volcanoes of the world. Revised: The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June 1991. One method for narrowing down your topic is called brainstorming. Brainstorming is a useful way to let ideas you didn't know you had come to the surface. o Sit down with a pencil and paper, or at your computer, and write whatever comes into your head about your topic, no matter how confused or disorganized. o Keep writing for a short but specific amount of time, say 35 minutes. Don't stop to change what you've written or to correct spelling or grammar errors. o After a few minutes, read through what you have written. You will probably throw out most of it, but some of what you've written may give you an idea you can develop. o Do some more brainstorming and see what else you can come up with.

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2. Organize Your Ideas

A. Write an OUTLINE or a DIAGRAM The purpose of an outline or diagram is to put your ideas about the topic on paper, in a moderately organized format. The structure you create here may still change before the essay is complete, so don't agonize over this. Decide whether you prefer the cut-and-dried structure of an outline or a more flowing structure. If you start one or the other and decide it isn't working for you, you can always switch later. Diagram 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Begin your diagram with a circle or a horizontal line or whatever shape you prefer in the middle of the page. Inside the shape or on the line, write your topic. From your center shape or line, draw three or four lines out into the page. Be sure to spread them out. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page. In each shape or on each line, write the main ideas that you have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make. o If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments. o If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the steps that should be followed. o You will probably need to group these into categories. o If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using Beginning, Middle, and End. o If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major categories into which your information can be divided. From each of your main ideas, draw three or four lines out into the page. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page. In each shape or on each line, write the facts or information that support that main idea. 2

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When you have finished, you have the basic structure for your essay and are ready to continue. Outline 1. 2. 3. Begin your outline by writing your topic at the top of the page. Next, write the Roman numerals I, II, and III, spread apart down the left side of the page. Next to each Roman numeral, write the main ideas that you have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make. o If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments. o If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the steps that should be followed. o You will probably need to group these into categories. o If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using Beginning, Middle, and End. o If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major categories into which your information can be divided. Under each Roman numeral, write A, B, and C down the left side of the page. Next to each letter, write the facts or information that support that main idea.

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B. Compose a THESIS STATEMENT Now that you have decided, at least tentatively, what information you plan to present in your essay, you are ready to write your thesis statement. The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about, and what point you, the author, will be making. You know what the essay will be about. That was your topic. Now you must look at your outline or diagram and decide what point you will be making. What do the main ideas and supporting ideas that you listed say about your topic? Your thesis statement will have two parts. 1. The first part states the topic. o Kenya's Culture o Building a Model Train Set o Public Transportation The second part states the point of the essay. o has a rich and varied history o takes time and patience o can solve some of our city's most persistent and pressing problems

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Once you have formulated a thesis statement that fits this pattern and with which you are comfortable, you are ready to continue.

3. Write a First Draft

1. Every essay or paper is made up of three parts: o Introduction o Body o Conclusion The introduction is the first paragraph of the paper. It often begins with a general statement about the topic and ends with a more specific statement of the main idea of your paper. The purpose of the introduction is to

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o let the reader know what the topic is o inform the reader about your point of view o arouse the reader's curiosity so that he or she will want to read about your topic The body of the paper follows the introduction. It consists of a number of paragraphs in which you develop your ideas in detail. o Limit each paragraph to one main idea. (Don't try to talk about more than one idea per paragraph.) o Prove your points continually by using specific examples and quotations. 3

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Use transition words (see below Transition words) to ensure a smooth flow of ideas from paragraph to paragraph. The conclusion is the last paragraph of the paper. Its purpose is to o summarize your main points, leaving out specific examples o restate the main idea of the paper It is advisable to write first the body paragraphs. In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this point comes to fruition. The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued. Each main idea that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three or four body paragraphs. Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure. o Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form. o If your main idea is "reduces freeway congestion," you might say this: o Public transportation reduces freeway congestion. o Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point. o In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point. o Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion. o Supporting Point o Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather than driving. o Elaboration o Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes. o Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as well. o In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of riding public transportation. o If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph. o This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a tendency to sound stilted, so be cautious about using them. o

Once you have fleshed out each of your body paragraphs, one for each main point, you are ready to continue. 6. Write the Introduction and Conclusion

Your essay lacks only two paragraphs now: the introduction and the conclusion. These paragraphs will give the reader a point of entry to and a point of exit from your essay. Introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give her an idea of the essay's focus. Begin with an attention grabber. The attention grabber you use is up to you, but here are some ideas: o o o o o o o o o o o Startling information This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn't need to be totally new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make. If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a sentence or two of elaboration. Anecdote An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective opener for your essay, but use it carefully. Dialogue An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers, but the reader must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use only two or three exchanges between speakers to make your point. Follow dialogue with a sentence or two of elaboration. Summary Information A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become gradually more specific, until you reach your thesis.

If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences that will lead the reader from your opening to your thesis statement. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

Conclusion The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up your points or providing a final perspective on your topic. All the conclusion needs is three or four strong sentences which do not need to follow any set formula. Simply review the main points (being careful not to restate them exactly) or briefly describe your feelings about the topic. Even an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way.

4. Revise the First Draft

1. Try to set aside your draft for a day or two before revising. This makes it easier to view your work objectively and see any gaps or problems. Revising involves rethinking your ideas, refining your arguments, reorganizing paragraphs, and rewording sentences. You may need to develop your ideas in more detail, give more evidence to support your claims, or delete material that is unnecessary. For more advice on revising and a sample revision, see below, Revising your first draft. Read your paper out loud. This sometimes makes it easier to identify writing that is awkward or unclear. Have somebody else read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's unclear or confusing.

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5. Proofread the Final Draft

1. Look for careless errors such as misspelled words and incorrect (see below, Punctuation) and capitalization
2. (see below Capitalization). Errors are harder to spot on a computer screen than on paper. If you type your paper on a computer, print out a copy to proofread. Remember, spell checkers and grammar checkers don't always catch errors, so it is best not to rely on them too much.

II. Revising your first draft

After you have written your first draft, you will need to revise it. Revision and editing should be done on a hard copy. Before printing your draft, read through it to pick up any obvious typing or spelling errors, and use the spelling facility on your computer. Be aware, however, that the spelling facility will ONLY pick up misspelled words. If you have used a wrong word, it will not identify the error. Read your draft carefully to make sure that it is well organized. 1. Remember, an essay is a group of related paragraphs about one main idea. The introduction states the main idea. The body paragraphs contain the subordinate ideas that support the main idea. The conclusion restates the main idea and indicates the end. Introduction main idea Essay Body Conclusion supporting idea supporting idea supporting idea main idea, the end

2. If ideas don't flow in a logical sequence from paragraph to paragraph, move the paragraphs around until your main points fall into a clear pattern. For example, you may want to organize your ideas chronologically, according to how things happened from start to finish in time, or you may want to talk about your ideas in order of their importance. 3. Of course, you should organize your ideas in an outline long before you sit down to write. If you need to, you can change your outline as you write your essay. 4. Just as an essay is made up of related paragraphs that develop a central point, a paragraph is made up of related sentences that develop a central point. If a sentence in a paragraph does not provide evidence for the main idea of the paragraph, delete it, rewrite it, or move it to another paragraph. Topic Sentence main idea supporting idea supporting idea Paragraph Supporting sentences supporting idea supporting idea supporting idea

5. Check to make sure you have not accidentally left out an important point. If so, add a sentence or paragraph to clarify your meaning or provide further evidence for your main point. 6. Check to make sure that all your subordinate ideas support the main idea. If you have accidentally included something that does not support the main idea, delete it.

Sample Revision
The two paragraphs below compare the two main characters in the novel The Wolves of Willoughby Chase by Joan Aiken. The main idea of the first paragraph is that Bonnie comes from a wealthy family and is spirited, especially in defense of others. Note that the actual topic sentence comes in the middle of the paragraph ("Although the family had a lot of money, Bonnie was not spoiled."). Sentences that don't relate to this main idea have been deleted. An incident from the book was added at the end to give support to the idea that Bonnie is not afraid to act when she sees one person treat another person badly. Bonnie Green had been raised in a wealthy aristocratic family in the north of England. She lived with her parents Sir Willoughby and Lady Green on a large country estate. The family lived on a large estate and had servants. Bonnie had her own maid. Lady Green was a very sick woman and had been in delicate health. Her doctor ordered Sir Willoughby to take her to a warmer climate so that she could get better. Sir Willoughby was a very cheerful and robust man. Although the family had a lot of money and servants, Bonnie was not spoiled. She was basically a good and generous child. She did have a temper, though, and could act very impulsively. Once, when Miss Slighcarp the haughty governess hit Bonnie's maid, Bonnie responded by throwing a pitcher of water at the governess. In this situation, Bonnie reacted angrily without thinking because someone she cared for, her maid, had been hurt. Sylvia was very different from Bonnie. Sylvia's parents died when she was very young. She lived in London with her Aunt Jane. Aunt Jane was very poor and they often didn't have enough to eat. It was also very cold in their apartment because they couldn't afford to heat it. Sylvia was a very timid and quiet delicate child. She helped Aunt Jane sew her own clothes before she took On the train journey to her cousin Bonnie's, she felt shy about eating her meager sandwich in front of the strange man who sat across from her. Despite the fact that she was very cold on the train, she was afraid to complain. She was also afraid of the The train journey was long and uncomfortable. Sylvia was very cold and there were wolves outside the train. Sylvia was very glad to finally arrive at her cousin Bonnie's.

The second paragraph focuses on Sylvia, who lives with her poor aunt and is meek. All of the sentences in this paragraph support the topic sentence "Sylvia was very different from Bonnie." Specific examples from the book prove that Sylvia was poor (she didn't have enough food or heat) and timid (she was afraid of the man and the wolves).

Finally, note that the first paragraph flows naturally into the second. When you are comparing two characters, it is logical to describe the first character and then the other without any intervening paragraphs on a different topic. The third paragraph might be about why Sylvia goes to live with Bonnie, or it might be about what happens after Sylvia goes to live with Bonnie. Check your essay for structure, content, mechanics and presentation. You can cover all of these by asking the following questions.

Structure
The Introduction 1. Is the topic clearly indicated? 2. Are essential definitions provided? 3. Is the direction of the argument clear? The Body Check each paragraph. 1. Is there a clear topic sentence? 2. Do the support sentences fit the topic sentence? 3. Is there enough support? 4. Is there any irrelevant material? 5. Are the paragraphs presented in a systematic way? 7

The Conclusion 1. Does the conclusion fit the introduction? 2. Is the topic re-stated without being repeated? 3. Is the line of argument re-stated?

Content
1. Has the question been answered? 2. Are the points relevant? 3. Is the evidence convincing? 4. Is there sufficient evidence? 5. Are all quotes and references accurately recorded?

Mechanics
Sentence level 1. Does each sentence have a subject and a verb? 2. Is there agreement between the subject and the verb? 3. Does one sentence lead on smoothly to the next? 4. Is each sentence punctuated appropriately? 5. Are the sentences varied in type and length? Word level 1. Are the words chosen carefully? 2. Are there any spelling errors? 3. Is the language non-discriminatory? 4 Are transitional words and phrases used appropriately?

Presentation
1. Is a title page included? 2. Does it include your name and student number, the name and code number of the subject, the title of the essay and the assignment number? 3. Does the title of the essay appear at the top of the first page? 4. Are the pages numbered? 5. Is double spacing used for the text? 6. Is single spacing used for longer quotes which are indented? 7. Is a list of references or a bibliography included? 8. Is it complete? 9. Is it on a separate page? 10. Does it conform to the conventions of the referencing system used?

Punctuation
Apostrophe 1. Indicates the possessive case of singular and plural nouns, indefinite pronouns, and surnames combined with designations such as Jr., Sr., and II: my sister's husband, my three sisters' husbands, anyone's guess, They answer each other's phones, John Smith, Jr.'s car. 2. Indicates joint possession when used with the last of two or more nouns in a series: Doe and Roe's report. 3. Indicates individual possession or authorship when used with each of two or more nouns in a series: Smith's, Roe's, and Doe's reports. 4. Indicates the plurals of words, letters, and figures used as such: 60's and 70's; x's, y's, and z's. 5. Indicates omission of letters in contractions: aren't, that's, o'clock. 6. Indicates omission of figures in dates: the class of '63. Brackets 1. Enclose words or passages in quoted matter to indicate insertion of material written by someone other than the author: A tough but nervous, tenacious but restless race [the Yankees]; materially ambitious, yet prone to introspection. Samuel Eliot Morison 8

2. Enclose material inserted within matter already in parentheses: (Vancouver [B.C.] January 1, 19).
Colon 1. Introduces words, phrases, or clauses that explain, amplify, or summarize what has gone before: Suddenly I realized where we were: Rome. There are two cardinal sins from which all the others spring: impatience and laziness.Franz Kafka Introduces a long quotation: In his original draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson wrote: We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable; that all men are created equal and independent, that from that equal creation they derive rights inherent and inalienable Introduces a list: We need the following items: pens, paper, pencils, blotters, and erasers. Separates chapter and verse numbers in Biblical references: James 1:4. Separates city from publisher in footnotes and bibliographies: Chicago: Riverside Press, 1983. Separates hour and minute(s) in time designations: 9:30 a.m., a 9:30 meeting. Follows the salutation in a business letter: Sir or Madam:

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Comma 1. Separates the clauses of a compound sentence connected by a coordinating conjunction: A difference exists between the musical works of Handel and Haydn, and it is a difference worth noting. The comma may be omitted in short compound sentences: I heard what you said and I am furious. I got out of the car and I walked and walked. 2. Separates and or or from the final item in a series of three or more (optional): Red, yellow, and blue may be mixed to produce all colors. 3. Separates two or more adjectives modifying the same noun if and could be used between them without altering the meaning: a solid, heavy gait. But: a polished mahogany dresser. 4. Sets off nonrestrictive clauses or phrases (i.e., those that if eliminated would not affect the meaning of the sentences): The burglar, who had entered through the patio, went straight to the silver chest. The comma should not be used when a clause is restrictive (i.e., essential to the meaning of the sentence): The burglar who had entered through the patio went straight to the silver chest; the other burglar searched for the wall safe. 5. Sets off words or phrases in apposition to a noun or noun phrase: Plato, the famous Greek philosopher, was a student of Socrates. The comma should not be used if such words or phrases precede the noun: The Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates. 6. Sets off transitional words and short expressions that require a pause in reading or speaking: Unfortunately, my friend was not well traveled. Did you, after all, find what you were looking for? I live with my family, of course. 7. Sets off words used to introduce a sentence: No, I haven't been to Paris. Well, what do you think we should do now? 8. Sets off a subordinate clause or a long phrase that precedes a principal clause: By the time we found the restaurant, we were starved. Of all the illustrations in the book, the most striking are those of the tapestries. 9. Sets off short quotations and sayings: The candidate said, Actions speak louder than words. Talking of axes, said the Duchess, chop off her head.Lewis Carroll 10. Indicates omission of a word or words: To err is human; to forgive, divine. 11. Sets off the year from the month in full dates: Nicholas II of Russia was shot on July 16, 1918. But note that when only the month and the year are used, no comma appears: Nicholas II of Russia was shot in July 1918. 12. Sets off city and state in geographic names: Atlanta, Georgia, is the transportation center of the South. 34 Beach Drive, Bedford, VA 24523. 13. Separates series of four or more figures into thousands, millions, etc.: 67,000; 200,000. 14. Sets off words used in direct address: I tell you, folks, all politics is applesauce.Will Rogers. Thank you for your expert assistance, Dolores. 15. Separates a tag question from the rest of a sentence: You forgot your keys again, didn't you? 16. Sets off sentence elements that could be misunderstood if the comma were not used: Some time after, the actual date for the project was set. 17. Follows the salutation in a personal letter and the complimentary close in a business or personal letter: Dear Jessica, Sincerely yours, Fred. 18. Sets off titles and degrees from surnames and from the rest of a sentence: Walter T. Prescott, Jr.; Gregory A. Rossi, S.J.; Susan P. Green, M.D., presented the case. Dash 1. Indicates a sudden break or abrupt change in continuity: Ifif you'll just let me ex-plain the student stammered. And the problemif there really is onecan then be solved.

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Sets apart an explanatory, a defining, or an emphatic phrase: Foods rich in proteinmeat, fish, and eggs should be eaten on a daily basis. More important than winning the election, is governing the nation. That is the test of a political partythe acid, final test.Adlai E. Stevenson Sets apart parenthetical matter: Wolsey, for all his faultsand he had manywas a great statesman, a man of natural dignity with a generous temperamentJasper Ridley Marks an unfinished sentence: But if my bus is late he began. Sets off a summarizing phrase or clause: The vital measure of a newspaper is not its size but its spiritthat is its responsibility to report the news fully, accurately, and fairly.Arthur H. Sulzberger Sets off the name of an author or source, as at the end of a quotation: A poet can survive everything but a misprint.Oscar Wilde

Ellipses 1. Indicate, by three spaced points, omission of words or sentences within quoted matter: Equipped by education to rule in the nineteenth century, he lived and reigned in Russia in the twentieth century.Robert K. Massie 2. Indicate, by four spaced points, omission of words at the end of a sentence: The timidity of bureaucrats when it comes to dealing with abuses is easy to explain. New York 3. Indicate, when extended the length of a line, omission of one or more lines of poetry: Roll on, thou deep and dark blue oceanroll! ..................... Man marks the earth with ruinhis control Stops with the shore.Lord Byron 4. Are sometimes used as a device, as for example, in advertising copy: To help you Move and Grow with the Rigors of Business in the 1980s and Beyond.Journal of Business Strategy Exclamation Point 1. Terminates an emphatic or exclamatory sentence: Go home at once! You've got to be kidding! 2. Terminates an emphatic interjection: Encore! Hyphen 1. Indicates that part of a word of more than one syllable has been carried over from one line to the next: During the revolution, the nation was beset with problemslooting, fighting, and famine. 2. Joins the elements of some compounds: great-grandparent, attorney-at-law, ne'er-do-well. 3. Joins the elements of compound modifiers preceding nouns: high-school students, a fire-and-brimstone lecture, a two-hour meeting. 4. Indicates that two or more compounds share a single base: four- and six-volume sets, eight- and nine-year olds. 5. Separates the prefix and root in some combinations; check a dictionary when in doubt about the spelling: antiNazi, re-elect, co-author, re-form/reform, re-cover/recover, re-creation/recreation. 6. Substitutes for the word to between typewritten inclusive words or figures: pp. 145155, the BostonNew York air shuttle. 7. Punctuates written-out compound numbers from 21 through 99: forty-six years of age, a person who is fortysix, two hundred fifty-nine dollars. Parentheses 1. Enclose material that is not essential to a sentence and that if not included would not alter its meaning: After a few minutes (some say less) the blaze was extinguished. 2. Often enclose letters or figures to indicate subdivisions of a series: A movement in sonata form consists of the following elements: (1) the exposition, (2) the development, and (3) the recapitulation. 3. Enclose figures following and confirming written-out numbers, especially in legal and business documents: The fee for my services will be two thousand dollars ($2,000.00). 4. Enclose an abbreviation for a term following the written-out term, when used for the first time in a text: The patient is suffering from acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Period 1. Terminates a complete declarative or mild imperative sentence: There could be no turning back as war's dark shadow settled irrevocably across the continent of Europe.W. Bruce Lincoln. Return all the books when you can. Would you kindly affix your signature here.

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2. Terminates sentence fragments: Gray cloudsand what looks like a veil of rain falling behind the East
3. German headland. A pair of ducks. A tired or dying swan, head buried in its back feathers, sits on the sand a few feet from the water's edge.Anthony Bailey Follows some abbreviations: Dec., Rev., St., Blvd., pp., Co.

Question Mark 1. Punctuates a direct question: Have you seen the new play yet? Who goes there? But: I wonder who said Nothing is easy in war. I asked if they planned to leave. 2. Indicates uncertainty: Ferdinand Magellan (1480?1521), Plato (427?347 B.C. ). Quotation Marks 1. Double quotation marks enclose direct quotations: What was Paris like in the Twenties? our daughter asked. Ladies and Gentlemen, the Chief Usher said, the President of the United States. Robert Louis Stevenson said that it is better to be a fool than to be dead. When advised not to become a lawyer because the profession was already overcrowded, Daniel Webster replied, There is always room at the top. 2. Double quotation marks enclose words or phrases to clarify their meaning or use or to indicate that they are being used in a special way: This was the border of what we often call the West or the Free World. The Windy City is a name for Chicago. 3. Double quotation marks set off the translation of a foreign word or phrase: die Grenze, the border. 4. Double quotation marks set off the titles of series of books, of articles or chapters in publications, of essays, of short stories and poems, of individual radio and television programs, and of songs and short musical pieces: The Horizon Concise History series; an article entitled On Reflexive Verbs in English; Chapter Nine, The Prince and the Peasant; Pushkin's The Queen of Spades; Tennyson's Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington; The Bob Hope Special; Schubert's Death and the Maiden. 5. Single quotation marks enclose quotations within quotations: The blurb for the piece proclaimed, Two years ago at Geneva, South Vietnam was virtually sold down the river to the Communists. Today the spunky little country is back on its own feet, thanks to a mandarin in a sharkskin suit who's upsetting the Red timetable.Frances FitzGerald Put commas and periods inside quotation marks; put semicolons and colons outside. Other punctuation, such as exclamation points and question marks, should be put inside the closing quotation marks only if part of the matter quoted. Semicolon 1. Separates the clauses of a compound sentence having no coordinating conjunction: Do not let us speak of darker days; let us rather speak of sterner days.Winston Churchill 2. Separates the clauses of a compound sentence in which the clauses contain internal punctuation, even when the clauses are joined by conjunctions: Skis in hand, we trudged to the lodge, stowed our lunches, and donned our boots; and the rest of our party waited for us at the lifts. 3. Separates elements of a series in which items already contain commas: Among those at the diplomatic reception were the Secretary of State; the daughter of the Ambassador to the Court of St. James's, formerly of London; and two United Nations delegates. 4. Separates clauses of a compound sentence joined by a conjunctive adverb, such as however, nonetheless, or hence: We insisted upon a hearing; however, the Grievance Committee refused. 5. May be used instead of a comma to signal longer pauses for dramatic effect: But I want you to know that when I cross the river my last conscious thought will be of the Corps; and the Corps; and the Corps.General Douglas MacArthur Virgule 1. Separates successive divisions in an extended date: fiscal year 1998/99. 2. Represents per: 35 km/hr, 1,800 ft./sec. 3. Means or between the words and and or: Take water skis and/or fishing equipment when you visit the beach this summer. 4. Separates two or more lines of poetry that are quoted and run in on successive lines of a text: The student actress had a memory lapse when she came to the lines Double, double, toil and trouble/Fire burn and cauldron bubble/Eye of newt and toe of frog/Wool of bat and tongue of dog and had to leave the stage in embarrassment.

Capitalization

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This section discusses and illustrates the basic conventions of American capitalization (from Webster's II New Riverside University Dictionary. 1984 by Houghton Mifflin Company) Capitalize the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. The first word of a sentence: Some spiders are poisonous; others are not. Are you my new neighbor? The first word of a direct quotation, except when the quotation is split: Joyce asked, Do you think that the lecture was interesting? No, I responded, it was very boring. Tom Paine said, The sublime and the ridiculous are often so nearly related that it is difficult to class them separately. The first word of each line in a poem in traditional verse: Half a league, half a league,/Half a league onward,/All in the valley of Death/Rode the six hundred.Alfred, Lord Tennyson The names of people, of organizations and their members, of councils and congresses, and of historical periods and events: Marie Curie, Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, an Elk, Protestant Episcopal Church, an Episcopalian, the Democratic Party, a Democrat, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the U.S. Senate, the Middle Ages, World War I, the Battle of Britain. The names of places and geographic divisions, districts, regions, and locales: Richmond, Vermont, Argentina, Seventh Avenue, London Bridge, Arctic Circle, Eastern Hemisphere, Continental Divide, Middle East, Far North, Gulf States, East Coast, the North, the South Shore. Do not capitalize words indicating compass points unless a specific region is referred to: Turn north onto Interstate 91. The names of rivers, lakes, mountains, and oceans: Ohio River, Lake Como, Rocky Mountains, Atlantic Ocean. The names of ships, aircraft, satellites, and space vehicles: U.S.S. Arizona, Spirit of St. Louis, the spy satellite Ferret-D, Voyager II, the space shuttle Challenger. The names of nationalities, races, tribes, and languages: Spanish, Maori, Bantu, Russian. Words derived from proper names, except in their extended senses: the Byzantine Empire. But: byzantine office politics. Words indicating family relationships when used with a person's name as a title: Aunt Toni and Uncle Jack. But: my aunt and uncle, Toni and Jack Walker. A title (i.e., civil, judicial, military, royal and noble, religious, and honorary) when preceding a name: Justice Marshall, General Jackson, Mayor Daley, Queen Victoria, Lord Mountbatten, Pope John Paul II, Professor Jacobson, Senator Byrd. References to specific presidents and vice presidents of the United States, but lower case references that are general: Vice President John Adams went on to become our second president. All key words in titles of literary, dramatic, artistic, and musical works: the novel The Old Man and the Sea, the short story Notes from Underground, an article entitled On Passive Verbs, James Dickey's poem In the Tree House at Night, the play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Van Gogh's Wheat Field and Cypress Trees, Beethoven's Emperor Concerto. The in the title of a newspaper if it is a part of the title: The Wall Street Journal. But: the New York Daily News. The first word in the salutation and in the complimentary close of a letter: My dear Carol, Yours sincerely. Epithets and substitutes for the names of people and places: Old Hickory, Old Blood and Guts, The Oval Office, the Windy City. Words used in personifications: When is not Death at watch/Within those secret waters?/What wants he but to catch/Earth's heedless sons and daughters?Edmund Blunden The pronoun I: I told them that I had heard the news. Names for the Deity and sacred works: God, the Almighty, Jesus, Allah, the Supreme Being, the Bible, the Qu'ran, the Talmud. Days of the week, months of the year, holidays, and holy days: Tuesday, May, Independence Day, Passover, Ramadan, Christmas. The names of specific courts: the Supreme Court of the United States, the Massachusetts Appeals Court, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. The names of treaties, accords, pacts, laws, and specific amendments: Panama Canal Treaty, Treaty of Paris, Geneva Accords, Warsaw Pact countries, Sherman Antitrust Law, Labor Management Relations Act, took the Fifth Amendment. Registered trademarks and service marks: Day-Glo, Comsat. The names of geologic eras, periods, epochs, and strata and the names of prehistoric divisions: Paleozoic Era, Precambrian, Pleistocene, Age of Reptiles, Bronze Age, Stone Age. The names of constellations, planets, and stars: Milky Way, Southern Crown, Saturn, Jupiter, Uranus, Polaris. Genus but not species names in binomial nomenclature: Rana pipiens.

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27. New Latin names of classes, families, and all groups higher than genera in botanical and zoological nomenclature: Nematoda. Do not capitalize derivatives from such names: nematodes. 28. Many abbreviations and acronyms: Dec., Tues., Lt. Gen., M.F.A., UNESCO, MIRV.

Transition Words and Phrases Transition words and phrases help establish clear connections between ideas and ensure that sentences and paragraphs flow together smoothly, making them easier to read. Use the following words and phrases in the following circumstances. To indicate more information: Besides Furthermore In addition Indeed In fact Moreover Second...Third..., etc. To indicate a cause or reason: As Because Because of Due to For For the reason that Since To indicate a purpose or reason why: For fear that In the hope that In order to So So that With this in mind To indicate an example: For example For instance In particular Particularly Specifically To demonstrate To illustrate To indicate a result or an effect: Accordingly Finally Consequently Hence So Therefore Thus To compare or contrast: Although However In comparison In contrast Likewise Nevertheless On the other hand Similarly Whereas Yet To indicate a particular time frame or a shift from one time period to another: After Initially Before Lastly Currently Later During Meanwhile Eventually Next Finally Previously First, . . . Second, . . ., etc. Simultaneously Formerly Soon Immediately Subsequently To summarize: To conclude: Briefly Given these facts In brief Hence Overall In conclusion Summing up So To put it briefly Therefore 13

To sum up To summarize References

Thus To conclude

http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/pdf/revise.pdf http://www.infoplease.com/homework/writingskills2a.html

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3. An Example: Outline and Essay

Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay

Title: ____________________ I. Introduction A. Introductory statement B. Thesis statement: ____________________

II.

Body A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): ____________________ 1. ____________________ 2. ____________________ 3. ____________________ B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): ____________________ 1. ____________________ 2. ____________________ 3. ____________________

C.

Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): ____________________ 1. ____________________ 2. ____________________ 3. ____________________

III.

Conclusion A. Closing statement B. Restate thesis: ____________________

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Sample Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay

This is in relation to "The Hazards of Movie going" Title: The Hazards of Moviegoing I. Introduction A. Introductory statement B. Thesis statement: I like watching movies but I prefer watching them at home.

II.

Body A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): just getting to the theater presents difficulties 1. 2. 3. B. bad weather long drive and limited parking space long waiting to buy ticket

Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): facing the problems of the theater itself 1. 2. 3. old theater's problems such as smelly carpet, worn-out seat, etc new theater's problems such as smaller size, noise from next movie theater, etc both floors will be rubber-like dirty at the end of the movie

C.

Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): Some of the patrons are annoying 1. 2. bad behavior such as running, talking loud, etc human noise and disturbance

III.

Conclusion A. Closing statement B. Restate thesis: I prefer to watch movies at home

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where it is comfortable, clean and safe.

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Five Paragraph Essay Sample

The Hazards of Moviegoing

By John Langan

Introductory I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won the Oscar in paragraph 1980 or who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask me. My friends, though, have (Thesis) stopped asking me if I want to go out to the movies. The problems in getting to the theater, the theater itself, and the behavior of some patrons are all reasons why I often wait for a movie to show up on TV.

First supporting paragraph

First of all, just getting to the theater presents difficulties. Leaving a home equipped with a TV and a video recorder isn't an attractive idea on a humid, cold, or rainy night. Even if the weather cooperates, there is still a thirty-minute drive to the theater down a congested highway, followed by the hassle of looking for a parking space. And then there are the lines. After hooking yourself to the end of a human chain, you worry about whether there will be enough tickets, whether you will get seats together, and whether many people will sneak into the line ahead of you.

Second supporting paragraph

Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are confronted with the problems of the theater itself. If you are in one of the run-down older theaters, you must adjust to the musty smell of seldom-cleaned carpets. Escaped springs lurk in the faded plush or cracked leather seats, and half the seats you sit in seem loose or tilted so that you sit at a strange angle. The newer twin and quad theaters offer their own problems. Sitting in an area only one-quarter the size of a regular theater, moviegoers often have to put up with the sound of the movie next door. This is especially jarring when the other movie involves racing cars or a karate war and you are trying to enjoy a quiet love story. And whether the theater is old or new, it will have floors that seem to be coated with rubber cement. By the end of a movie, shoes almost have to be pried off the floor because they have become sealed to a deadly compound of spilled soda, hardening bubble gum, and crushed Ju-Jubes.

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Third supporting paragraph

Some of the patrons are even more of a problem than the theater itself. Little kids race up and down the aisles, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to impress their friends by talking back to the screen, whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious noises. Adults act as if they were at home in their own living rooms and comment loudly on the ages of the stars or why movies aren't as good anymore. And people of all ages crinkle candy wrappers, stick gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and soda on the floor. They also cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file out for repeated trips to the rest rooms or concession stand, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of your seat.

Concluding paragraph

After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the movies and dealing with the theater itself and some of the patrons. The next day I arranged to have cable TV service installed in my home. I may now see movies a bit later than other people, but I'll be more relaxed watching box office hits in the comfort of my own living room.

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