LECTURE 1 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY 11 WHAT IS GEOLOGY?

Geology is the study of the Earth, the processes that shape it, and the resources that could be obtained from it. GEOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE - the relevance of time - the issue of scale - the complexity of replicating natural systems and phenomena in the laboratory THE MAIN BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY PHYSICAL GEOLOGY - deals with the materials that comprise the Earth and the processes that affect it - Volcanology, Seismology - Environmental Geology, Engineering Geology - Mining Geology, Petroleum Geology - Mineralogy, Petrology - Geomorphology - Geophysics, Geochemistry, Planetary Geology 2. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY - the study of the origin and evolution of the Earth through time Paleontology Stratigraphy Geochronology BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE HISTORY OF GEOLOGY - Catastrophism - proposed by Baron Georges Cuvier - advocates the idea that sudden, worldwide catastrophes are the agents of change that alter the physical features of the Earth over time and that the latter remains unchanged in between these periods of upheavals - widely accepted by theologians in the early 1800s due to similarity with Biblical events such as the Noachian Flood - Uniformitarianism - proposed by James Hutton (The Father of Modern Geology) - often condensed to, The present is the key to the past. The past. - advocates the idea that the Earth is continuously modified by geologic processes that have always operated throughout time (albeit at different rates), and that by studying them we can understand how the Earth has evolved through time

LECTURE 2 THE PLANET EARTH THE FORMATION OF THE EARTH WAS AN OFFSHOOT OF THE FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE Formation of the Universe: Big Bang Theory Formation of the Solar System: Nebular Hypothesis THE BIG BANG THEORY - contends that the Universe originated from a cosmic explosion (origin unknown) that hurled matter in all directions 15 and 20 billion years ago first proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lematre in the 1920s Edwin Hubble justified Lematres theory through observations that the Universe is continuously expanding; galaxies are moving away from each other

THE SOLAR SYSTEM: leftover from the Big Bang the sun the planets the satellites and rings comets and asteroids meteoroids and dust COMPOSITION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM BY MASS OBJECT Sun Jupiter all other planets comets satellites and rings asteroids meteoroids and dust PERCENTAGE OF MASS 99.85% 0.10% 0.04% 0.01% (?) 0.00% 0.00% 0.0000001% (?)

THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS - the solar system originated from a single rotating cloud of gas and dust, starting 4.6 billion years ago, which contracted due to gravity - the idea was first proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon de Laplace in the 18th century THE NEBULAR MODEL Time 1: The Big Bang produced enormous amount of matter: rotating cloud of gas and dust.

Time 2: The rotating gas-dust cloud began to contract due to gravity. Most of the mass became concentrated at the center, forming the SUN.

Time 3: The remaining matter condensed to form the planets.

THE SUN - mostly made up of hydrogen, the principal product of the Big Bang hydrogen, suns center became compressed enough to initiate nuclear reactions, consequently emitting light reactions, and energy (sun became a star) star)

- a middle-aged star THE PLANETS - composition depended on distance from the sun planets nearest the sun contained high-temp minerals (e.g., iron) while those that are far away contained lower-temp materials (e.g., methane and ammonia, and some that contained water locked in their structures) 1.inner or terrestrial planets (nearest the sun) - rocky composition: largely silicate rocks and metals (Si, Fe, O) - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars 2. giant or Jovian planets (outer planets; far from the sun) - lack solid surfaces: in gaseous or liquid form - composition: light elements (H, He, Ar, C, O, Ni) -

- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune *neither a terrestrial or Jovian planet - similar to the icy satellites of the Jovian planets - Pluto SOME INTERESTING FACTS 1. Planets revolution = counterclockwise direction. direction. 2. Planets rotation direction the same as direction of revolution except for Venus, which rotates Venus, in a retrograde direction. direction. 3. Uranus and Pluto rotate about axes that are tipped nearly on their sides. sides. 4. Orbital Speed of the Earth = 30 km/s THE EARTH - started as dust ball from the nebular gas and dust brought together by gravity (accretion), (accretion), which was heated (heating) and eventually segregated into layers (differentiation) as it cooled (heating) (differentiation) - when cooling set in, the denser elements (e.g., iron) sank while the lighter ones floated out into the surface, creating a differentiated Earth THE DIFFERENTIATED EARTH

CONSEQUENCES OF THE HEATING & DIFFERENTIATION OF THE EARTH 1. formation of atmosphere (mostly gases from volcanic activity) 2. formation of oceans (water released from crystal structure) * Life started when atmosphere was modified due to the appearance of the blue-green algae. THE EARTHS VITAL STATISTICS Size Circumference first calculated by Eratosthenes Circumference = 360 degrees 800 km 7 degrees Shape

Oblate spheroid - flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator - Equatorial Radius = 6378 km - Polar Radius = 6357 km - Equatorial Circumference = 40076 km - Polar Circumference = 40008 km

THE EARTHS LARGE SCALE FEATURES CONTINENTAL LANDMASSES 1. North America 2. South America 3. Europe 4. Asia 5. Antarctica 6. Australia 7. Africa Prominent Features of Continents 1. Mountains elevated features of continents 2. Mountain Ranges chains of mountains 3. Mountain Belts mountain ranges that runs across a vast area OCEAN BASINS AND GLOBAL OCEANIC RIDGES - Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, South China Sea, Arctic Ocean - North Atlantic ridges, East Pacific Ridge, Pacific Antarctic Ridge, Southeast Indian Ridge, Southwest Indian Ridge ARCS AND TRENHES - Manila trench, Marianas trench ISOSTASY - from a Greek word meaning same standing same standing - basically concerned with the buoyancy of the blocks of the Earths crust as they rest on the mantle - changes in the load over certain regions causes the lithosphere to make adjustments until isostatic equilibrium (i.e., neither rising or sinking) is reached AIRYS THEORY Mountains have roots which extend down into the mantle. Thus, elevation is proportional to the depth roots of the underlying root. PRATTS THEORY Elevation is inversely proportional to density. Thus, the higher the mountain, the lower is its density; that is, light rocks float higher. ISOSTASY: Airy: mountains have deep roots Pratt: mountains are light BOTH ARE CORRECT!!! CONCLUSIONS The formation of the universe and the solar system is explained by the Big Bang Theory and the Nebular Hypothesis, respectively. The Earth is an oblate spheroid with average radius of 6367 km.

The Earths large scale features are the continental landmasses and mountain belts, arcs and trenches, and ocean basins and ridges. The Earth is composed of the crust, mantle and core layers. Isostasy determines the elevation to which the landmasses rise.

LECTURE 3 MINERALS DEFINITION: naturally occurring inorganic homogeneous solid that has a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal structure PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Color caused by the absorption or lack of absorption of various wavelengths of light Streak the color of the mineral in powdered form (not necessarily similar to the color in unpowdered form). Hardness the strength of the structure of the mineral relative to the strength of its chemical bond THE MOHS SCALE OF HARDNESS - Talc 6. Orthoclase - Gypsum 7. Quartz - Calcite 8. Topaz - Fluorite 9. Corundum - Apatite 10. Diamond Crystal form the shapes and aggregates that a certain mineral is likely to form Fibrous, acicular, platy, botryoidal Cleavage the tendency of a mineral to break in particular directions due to zones of weakness in the crystal structure (cleavage in 1, 2 and 3 directions) Fracture or irregular breakage occur when bond strengths in a crystal structure is equal in all directions (e.g. conhoidal fracture) Luster the ability of minerals to reflect light metallic luster non-metallic luster b.1. earthy b.2. glassy b.3. resinous Other physical properties specific gravity magnetism taste reaction to acid fluorescence radioactivity CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS 1. Silicates 2. Non-silicates BASES OF CLASSIFICATION 1. Composition 2. Crystal structure

THE SILICATE GROUP

-largest group of minerals - compounds containing silicon and oxygen - building block: silicon tetrahedron (SiO4)-4

Relative Abundance of the Most Common Elements in the Crust

ELEMENT oxygen, O silicon, Si aluminum, Al iron, Fe calcium, Ca sodium, Na potassium, K magnesium, Mg all others APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT 46.6 27.7 8.1 5 3.6 2.8 2.6 2.1 1.5

THE SILICATES

THE NON-SILICATE GROUPS

THE MOST COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERALS - FELDSPAR - QUARTZ - OLIVINE - PYROXENE - AMPHIBOLE - MICA - CLAY - CALCITE Conclusions Minerals exhibit a variety of physical and chemical properties that result from their chemical compositions and atomic structures. A number of special physical and chemical properties are useful in identifying particular minerals. 3. The two major mineral groups are Silicates and Non-Silicate groups, where the former is more common than the latter. 4. The most common rock forming minerals are feldspar, quartz,olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, clay and calcite. 5. Minerals are non-renewable resources.

LECTURE 4

IGNEOUS ROCKS What is a rock? Solid material composed of minerals glass organic matter pre-existing rocks THE ROCK CYCLE

Igneous rocks rocks formed from molten material called magma or lava OR deposits/debris of volcanic eruptions Magma Molten rock composed of varying amounts of Liquid Silicate (sometimes carbonate or sulfide) Ions of K, Na, Fe, Ca, Mg, Al Solid Minerals Rock fragments Dissolved gas H2O, CO2, SO2 Temperature: 600-1200oC Classification (cheml composition) Felsic, Silicic or acidic - >63% SiO2 Intermediate - 52-63% SiO2

Mafic or basic- 45-52% SiO2 Ultramafic or ultrabasic - <45% SiO2 Viscosity - property to resist flow Effects of different factors - temperature, viscosity - SiO2, viscosity - dissolved H2O, viscosity Density heavier oceanic crust mafic rocks lighter continental crust felsic rocks Summary of properties: ultramafic mafic temperature high silica content low viscosity low density high Formation of magma Melting of Upper mantle OR Lower crust due to Increased temperature Decrease in pressure and Addition of volatiles From magma to rocks magma rises towards surface Density difference with surrounding rocks If surface is reached, MAGMA LAVA temp and pressure formation of minerals or glass from the melt reaction of minerals with melt to form other minerals dissolved gases escape from solution End product: IGNEOUS ROCK Bowens Reaction Series Formation of different igneous rocks from ONE type of magma. not the ONLY way to form diff rocks!!! CONCEPT: relative enrichment and depletion MECHANISM: different temperature of formation of minerals buoyancy Textures of igneous rocks size, shape, interrelationship and nature of component grains in a rock determined by formation history of rock Size course-grained vs fine-grained Crystallinity crystalline vs glassy intermediate felsic

low high high low

Size Coarse-grained Mineral grains visible to naked eye Phaneritic Fine grained Mineral grains not visible to naked eye Aphanitic Coarse- and fine-grained Visible mineral grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by glass or fine mineral grains (groundmass) Porphyritic Crystallinity Crystalline all are mineral grains Glassy no minerals, all glass Hypocrystalline mineral grains in glassy groundmass Other textures Vesicular has holes / Pyroclastic made up of fragmented grains vesicles

Origin of textures Cooling history Slow cooling: coarse crystals Slow Fast cooling: fine crystals Fast Very fast cooling: glass Very Degassing processes Exsolution of gases produce vesicles Exsolution Explosive eruptions produce fragmental (pyroclastic) texture Explosive Interpretation of textures Phaneritic formation below surface at slow cooling rates Aphanitic, glassy formation at surface with fast to very fast cooling rates Porphyritic formed by slow, then fast cooling rates Vesicular non-violent degassing Pyroclastic violent, explosive eruption Classification of Igneous Rocks Texture + Composition (color index) texture felsic intermediate mafic phaneritic Porphyritic/aphanitic Vesicular glassy fragmental granite rhyolite pumice diorite gabbro andesite basalt pumice scoria obsidian Agglomerate, volcanic breccia, lapilli stone, tuff

ultramafic Peridotite

Landforms and other associated features in a volcanic environment

dikes sill batholith

lopolith/laccolith xenolith stock

LECTURE 5 VOLCANISM What is a volcano? From word Vulcan, Roman god of fire and metal working Geologic landform where molten rocks from the planets interior are ejected to the surface Generic Volcano Features Central Vent Summit Crater Edifice Magma Chamber Parasitic Cones Fumaroles

How do we know if a volcano is active? Active erupted during the last 10,000 yrs. - Inactive no activity during the last 10,000 yrs. - Potentially active - volcanic activit between 10 ka 1.65 Ma Types of volcanoes 0. Based on morphology and building materials

Where can we find volcanoes?

Boundaries of lithospheric plates Middle of plates: Hot spots What is a volcanic eruption? ejection of molten rock fragmented rocks and ash AND/OR gases caused by influx of magma from deeper source melting of underlying rocks exsolution of gases accompanied by earthquakes ground deformation Characterizing eruptions

Types of volcanic eruption Hawaiian and Strombolian

Hawaiian -lava fountains and flows Strombolian - intermittent ejection of partially molten rocks

Peleean (Nue Ardente) large quantity of volcanic materials blown out of a central crater, fall back, and form tonguelike, glowing avalanches

Vulcanian -Discrete ejection of mostly solid materials and gases from more viscous magmas Plinian Sustained eruption of large amounts of pyroclastic materials and gases Produces high eruption columns

Phreatomagmatic / Phreatic Phreatomagmatic -contact between magma and surface/ground water Phreatic - caused by vaporization of surface/ground waters -no magma-water contact

What hazards do volcanoes pose?

Eruption column/cloud materials ejected into the air Blocks and bombs Lapilli ash Danger to aviation Collapse of roofs Gas HCl, HF, H2S, H2SO4 Climatic effects Acid rain suffocation Lahars Pyroclastic materials remobilized by water

Lava flows stream of molten rock Destruction in direct path Contact with water (explosive) Types of Lava Flows A'a lava surfaces are fragmented, rough, and spiny Pahoehoe Lava surfaces are smooth, billowy or ropy. Pyroclastic flows mixture of hot particles and gases flow downslope at HIGH speed greatest hazard Debris avalanche Caused by collapse of part of the volcanic

edifice

What can we get from volcanoes? Geothermal Energy Energy derived from heat within the earth Philippine geothermal energy How many volcanoes are there in the Philippines? What are their characteristics? 22 active volcanoes and more than 200 inactive most active is Mayon Volcano with 47 historical eruptions 7 active volcanoes are being monitored by PHIVOLCS

LECTURE 6 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Steps in forming Sedimentary Rocks: 1. WEATHERING the chemical alteration, physical, and biological breakdown of rocks during exposure to the physical, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere -two types of weathering: (1) mechanical/physical -requires the application of some physical force or stress to be applied to the rock - no accompanying changes to the composition of rocks mechanical breakup increases the rocks surface area and the surface-to-volume ratio some mechanical weathering processes 1) Freezing and thawing- The expansion force of water as it freezes is sufficient to split any mineral or thawingrock. 2) Heating and cooling - Differences in temperature in a rock give rise to differential expansion and contraction. 3) Wetting and drying- The disruption of soil results in the swelling and contracting of soil peds and dryingparticles. 4) Grinding or rubbing- Grinding action, or the rubbing of moving rock against each other. rubbing5) Organisms- Action of organisms, including animals and plants reduces the size of rocks and Organismsminerals. 6) Unloading - the removal sediments overlying deeply buried rocks by erosion or uplift, results in the exfoliation of rocks (2) chemical - breakdown of minerals by chemical reactions with water, with chemicals dissolved in water, or with gases in the air progression from less stable minerals to more stable minerals

1) Dissolution- the dissolving of a solid in a liquid Dissolution2) Hydrolysis - process of minerals reacting with water to form hydroxides, which usually are more soluble than the original mineral. example - pyroxene to Fe oxide 4FeSiO3 + H2O + O2 -->4FeO(OH) + 4SiO2 3) Acidification - Weathering is accelerated by the presence of the hydrogen ion in water, such as that provided by carbonic and organic acids. 4) Hydration - combination of a solid mineral or element with water. 5) Oxidation and Reduction - used in mineral weathering, is both the chemical combination of oxygen with a compound and the change in oxidation number of some chemical element (Reduction is the chemical process in which electrons are gained.) 6) Ion-exchange - involves the transfer of charged atoms (ions) of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium between waters rich in one of the ions and a mineral rich in another (Most effective in clays.) Examples Solution of calcite (no solid residue)

Some chemical weathering processes

Some chemical weathering reactions

Susceptibility of Minerals to Chemical Weathering: recall Bowens Reaction series

Source Composition Specifically involves the mineralogy, texture and rock structure Source rock lithology Fine-grained rocks decompose chemically more readily than coarse-grained rocks

Factors controlling Weathering

Climate Temperature fluctuations determine importance of ice-wedging and insulation Precipitation governs the extent of hydrolysis, hydration and solution Topographic Relief influence the amount of rock exposed to the forces of weathering Slope steepness controls the rate at which weathering products are eroded to be transported elsewhere 2. EROSION comes from old word meaning eat away involves movement or rock an soil Agents of Erosion: gravity ice organism water wind Some types of erosion processes Slump Rock and debris slide Rock and debris fall 3. TRANSPORTATION Agents of sediment transport: ice water Wind Distance of sediment transport affects clast: Roundness - measures how rounded clasts corners are Spherecity- measures sphere-like shape of clasts SpherecitySorting - Measure of variation of grain size 4. DEPOSITION Transporting sediment requires energy Grain size has relationship with energy Smaller grains take less energy Bigger grains take more If river slows down, sediment will drop out If river speeds up, water can pick up sediment Larger sediments are deposited in higher energy environments Examples: Gravel - needs fast moving water or rock slides Sand - wind and wave action (beaches) Silt and Clay - lakes, swamps and deep oceans 5. DIAGENESIS physical, chemical, and biological processes which collectively result in transformation of sediments into sedimentary rock modification of the texture and mineralogy of the rock Stages of diagenesis are:

 Early diagenesis takes place from sedimentation until shallow burial Late diagenesis from deep burial to subsequent uplift Factors that affect diagenesis are: pH Eh-redox potential -- pressure temperature concentration of anions and cations depth of burial The different types of Diagenetic Processes are: are: Compaction Recrystallization Pressure dissolution Cementation Authigenesis Replacement Bioturbation The simple ideal model for the evolution of sedimentary rocks says there are three basic end products, that all sedimentary processes are working to reach - quartz sandstone, shale, and limestone. The three end products in the simple ideal model are not isolated, each one stands for a class of weathering products. Quartz sandstone = all visible grains, including such ones as incompletely weathered feldspar grains, from the granodiorite in the simple ideal model. Shale = all clay sized grains (clay is a generic name; there are many kinds of clay minerals as well as other minerals that are clay sized) Limestone = all dissolved minerals, including not only calcite CaCO3, but also halite (table salt; minerals, NaCl), and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O) among others. Sedimentary rocks are generally divided into three great categories: 1. SILISICLASTIC (or simply, clastic) rocks Clastic rocks (sandstones, shales, etc.) are classified on two criteria - texture (grain size), and composition (that is, QFL). QFL). Clastic particles are divided into size categories based on the WENTWORTH SCALE. This scale has SCALE. been in use for over a hundred years and is universally recognized. The Wentworth scale is straight forward, and with a ruler for scale it is relatively easy to classify the rock. They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture consisting of: Clast (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel) Matrix (mud or fine-grained sediment surrounding the clasts) Cement (the glue that holds it all together, such as: calcite, iron oxide, or silica Examples: Breccia - Grain size = 2 cm or greater - Clasts are angular Conglomerate - Grain size = 2 cm or greater - Clasts are rounded

Siltstone - Grain size = 1/256 to 1/16 mm - gritty texture Shale - Grain size = less than 1/256 mm Sandstone - Grain size = 1/16 mm to 2 mm - classified according to the amount of minerals found in the rock Arkose Sandstone - 75% greater feldspar Quartz Sandstone - 95% or greater quartz content Lithic Sandstone 2. CHEMICAL AND 3. BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS chemical rocks CARBONATES composed of the mineral calcite (CaCO3 - calcium carbonate) they form by both chemical and biochemical processes tend to be mixed together in various combinations in the rocks. They are extremely abundant and important. OTHER CHEMICAL ROCKS These rocks fall into two categories Chert a siliceous rock (composed of SiO2) forms from the recrystalized skeletons of " animals " (single celled radiolarians, and glass sponges) or single celled " plants " (diatoms, silicoflagellates). Rock salt (halite; NaCl) and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O) originally are dissolved in the sea water, thus making the sea salty. sea water evaporates in a closed area, such as a lagoon, the salt concentration becomes very high, supersaturated, and precipitates out. The process is common in desert areas, with examples today in the Red Sea and Dead Sea in the Middle East, both highly saline. OTHER BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS Peat and coal come from plant remains are biochemical rocks always form in the presence of clastic rocks - sandstones and shales. The different types of coal are: Anthracite coal with the highest carbon content, between 86 and 98 percent heat value of nearly 15,000 BTUs-per-pound. Bituminous used primarily to generate electricity and make coke for the steel industry. has a carbon content ranging from 45 to 86 percent carbon and a heat value of 10,500 to 15,500 BTUs-per-pound. Subbituminous Ranking below bituminous with 35-45 percent carbon content a heat value between 8,300 and 13,000 BTUs-per-pound.

 this coal generally has a lower sulfur content than other types, which makes it attractive for use because it is cleaner burning. Lignite geologically young coal which has the lowest carbon content, 25-35 percent heat value ranging between 4,000 and 8,300 BTUs-per-pound. Sometimes called brown coal, mainly used for electric power generation. Some common sedimentary structures Mudcracks Flutes Cross-bedding Ripple marks Trails Escape trails Stromatolites Burrow cast Uses of Carbonate Rocks Limewater a substance derived from limestone is used to produce paper and is also used as a bulking agent to use less trees in the production of paper Glass is mostly made from sand, but limestone is also added to it before it is heated up Limestone is also used in the production of steel where it mixes with iron impurities and becomes a slag which is removed from pure molten iron Clay and limestone when mixed and heated together forms cement which is used for construction Limestone has been used as building material for many centuries. Many of the pyramids were built with a number of different stone materials.

Lecture 7
Sedimentary Environments
A part of the earths surface, physically, chemically, and biologically distinct from adjacent terrain. defined by, fauna and flora, geology, geomorphology, climate, weather, temperature, and if sub-aqueous, the depth, salinity, and current system of the water. could be a site of erosion, non-deposition, or deposition. Erosional environments - occur in dissected mountain chains and rocky shores. Equilibria/non-depositional environments - occur both on land and under the sea, commonly preserved in the stratigraphic records as unconformities.

Continental

Alluvial fan Fluviatile Lacustrine Eolian

Braided Meandering

Transitional (Shorelines)

Lobate (deltas) Linear

Terrigenous Mixed carbonate: terrigenous Carbonate

Marine

Reef Shelf Submarine channel and fan Pelagic

Sedimentary Facies: Sedimentary

A mass of sedimentary rock which can be defined and distinguished from other by its geometry, lithology, sedimentary structures, paleocurrent pattern, and fossils (Selley 1970).

The relationship between sedimentary environments and sedimentary facies CAUSE EFFECT

Process

Physical Chemical Biological

Sedimentary Environment

Erosional Non-depositional Depositional Sedimentary Facies

Geometry Lithology Sedimentary structures Paleocurrents Fossils

Classification of Major Depositional Environments

Alluvial Fan Environment

lots of coarse particles usually sandstone and conglomerate poor sorting deposited by high energy floods or mudflows

 cone-shaped typically found in tectonically active regions (rifting continental grabens and foreland basins)

What is an alluvial fan? non-marine sedimentary body a fan-shaped deposit

How it is formed?
When mountains shed sediment off their flanks, streams carry it away as alluvium. A mountain stream carries lots of alluvial sediment easily when its gradient is steep and energy is abundant. Where are alluvial fans found? They can be found in places where the stream or mass-flow emerges from a valley into a basin.

Fluvial Environment

Three ways streams transport sediments: in solution (dissolved load) in suspension (suspended load) along the bottom of the channel (bedload)

Type and amount of material in suspension is controlled by:

water velocity settling velocity of each grain

Factors affecting settling velocity

size shape specific gravity bedload composed of coarser particles - cannot be carried by suspension bedload particles move along by: rolling sliding saltation

Ability of streams to carry sediments is described by:

capacity - maximum load of sediment that a stream can transport competence - measure of the maximum size of particles it is capable of transporting

A longitudinal profile can be divided in three parts:

-drainage system (tributary, head) -transport system -distributary system (mouth)

Meandering System

consist of one single channel and thalweg low gradient and high sinuosity sediments deposited at the inner sides of meander bends associated with vegetated areas under a humid climate deposition of sediments takes place in the channel, on the levees and in the basins. gravel and coarse sand are normally found on the channel floor (`lag deposits'). (`lag deposits'). finer sand settles along the inner bends of the river, on so-called `point bars'. `point bars'.

Evolution of an Oxbow lake

(1) On the inside of the loop, the river travels more slowly leading to deposition of silt. (2) Meanwhile water on the outside edges tends to flow faster, which erodes the banks making the meander even wider. (3) Over time the loop of the meander widens until the neck vanishes altogether. (4) Then the meander is removed from the river's current and the horseshoe shaped oxbow lake is formed. Without a current to move the water along, sediment builds up along the banks and fills in the lake.

Braided System

have one single channel of low sinuosity and high gradient, with multiple `thalwegs' and bars. high sediment load During times of maximum discharge, the channel is completely inundated In times of low discharge, multiple thalwegs and bars reappear within the channel occur in areas with a highly irregular water regime, and abundant sediment supply Deposits contain alternating areas (lenses) of coarse gravel and sand

Drainage patterns

1. Dendritic -Uniform underlying bedrock Igneous rocks Flat-lying sedimentary rocks Most common drainage pattern on all scales. Determined by direction of slope of land 2.Radial -Develops in isolated volcanic cones and domal uplifts Often localized 3.Rectangular -Common in faulted or fractured igneous rock Often control pattern of streams -Guides directions of valleys -E.g. Shell Falls, Wyoming. 4.Trellis -Most common in tilted and folded sedimentary or --metamorphic rocks Formed by alternating less resistant and resistant l layers. - e.g. Appalachians

Lacustrine Environment

lake - landlocked body of standing, non-marine water Tectonic setting - found in fault grabens or basins with internal drainage or limited flow Geometry - circular or elongate in plan view; lenticular in cross section Typical sequence - coarsening upward from laminated shales, marls, and limestones to crossbeds of sandstones There are several ways in which lakes are formed. These are the most common lakes you may encounter: Glacial Lakes occur where basins have been excavated by moving ice or where drainage patterns have been altered by deposition of glacial till. Oxbow Lakesformed when river meanders are cut off from the main channel and are therefore generally found in the immediate vicinity of rivers. Levee Lakesformed when the water levels of rivers become too high and deposits enough sediment to form a completely separate water body. Levees may also be man-made. Barrier Lakesoccur behind sand bars in coastal regions and have characteristically high levels of salinity. Water of this type, a mixture of fresh and salt waters, is referred to as brackish water.

Eolian Environment

wind a turbulent stream of air like water, it has the ability to erode, transport and deposit two properties: low density - limits competence

 unrestricted flow - enables spread over wide areas and high atmosphere lack of rain allows more effective wind work deserts (arid environment) eolian (from Aeolus, Greek god of winds) - describes activity of deposits of winds Sand Transport Creep - large particles are rolled to the surface after coming into contact with saltating particles. Saltation - bouncing and jumping movement of grains. Involves bedload. Suspension - occurs when fine dust and dirt are lifted into the wind. Involves suspended load. Wind Erosion needs chemical and mechanical weathering to act effectively two types of wind erosion: abrasion deflation - erosion of ground when dry, loose particles of dust and salt are lifted and blown away (formation of a desert pavement) Sandblasting shaping of solid rock surfaces by constant impact of grains by wind (e.g. Ventifacts - shaped by the wind)

Deserts concentrated in two regions:

subtropics middle-latitudes areas where rainfall is less than 250 mm (10 in.)/year, or where evaporation exceeds precipitation. Rainfall in deserts may vary from 0.2 cm./yr. to about 40 cm./yr. Rainfalls of 5-20 cm./yr. are common. Temperature extremes can vary from 60 degrees F. in Mongolian deserts to 137 degrees F. in the Sahara Desert. Temperatures in excess of 180 degrees may occur in sands exposed to full solar radiation. Great daily extremes can occur. Due to lack of vegetation, wind velocities are high. Causes of Deserts caused by high mountains causing available moisture to condense and precipitate on their higher parts, reducing moisture available for lowlands in the lee of mountains. Direct blocking of moisture may also occur. Wind Deposits deflation lag deposits - Coarsest clasts (desert pavement) loess - Unconsolidated, unstratified aggregation of small, angular mineral fragments, usually buff in color. Generally believed to be wind-deposited. dunes - Sand dunes form when there is (1) a ready supply of sand, (2) a steady wind, and (3) some kind of obstacle such as vegetation, rocks, or fences, to trap some of the sand. Sand dunes form when moving air slows down on the downwind side of an obstacle.

Types of Sand Dunes:

Barchan

Longitudinal

Star

Transverse

Parabolic

Barchan dunes - crescent-shaped dunes. They form in areas where there is a hard ground surface, a moderate supply of sand, and a constant wind direction. Transverse dunes- large fields of dunes that resemble sand ripples on a large scale. Consist of ridges of sand with a steep face in the downwind side, form in areas where there is abundant supply of sand and a constant wind direction. Linear dunes - long straight dunes that form in areas with a limited sand supply and converging wind directions. Parabolic dunes - are "U" shaped dunes with an open end facing upwind. Form in areas with abundant vegetation and constant wind. Most common in coastal areas. Star dunes - dunes with variable arms and slip face directions. Form in areas with abundant sand supply and variable wind direction.

Glacial Environment

glacier - a permanent (on a human time scale) body of ice that shows evidence of downward movement due to gravitational pull. Formation of Glaciers Form at or above snowline Snowline - where ice can be created and remain all year round The snowline, at present, lies at sea level in polar latitudes and rises up to 6000 m in tropical areas. Form by recrystallization of snow due to pressure of overlying compacted snow. Recrystallized snow has decreased air and increased grain size and density forming solid blocks of ice.

Types of Glaciers

Alpine/Mountain Glaciers Relatively small glaciers at higher elevations in mountainous regions. Ice Sheets: (Continental glaciers): the largest types of glaciers on Earth. cover large areas of the land including mountain areas. Modern ice sheets cover Greenland and Antarctica. Ice Shelves: are sheets of ice floating on water and attached to land. usually occupy coastal embayments. Glacial Erosion Plucking -particle detachment by moving glacial ice Abrasion -debris in basal ice grinds into the bedrock and produce: Glacial striations - long parallel scratches and grooves that are produced by rocks embedded in the ice scraping against the rock underlying the glacier. Glacial polish - rock that has a smooth surface produced as a result of fine grained material embedded in the glacier acting like sandpaper on the underlying surface. Landforms produced by mountain glaciers Cirques - bowl shaped depressions that occur at the heads of mountain glaciers Glacial Valleys - Valleys that once contained glacial ice become eroded into a "U" shape in cross section. Artes - If two adjacent valleys are filled with glacial ice, the ridges between the valleys can be carved into a sharp knife-edge ridge, called an arte. Horns - Where three or more cirques are carved out of a mountain, they can produce a sharp peak called a horn.

Hanging Valleys - A valley that has greater elevation than the valley to which it is tributary. Fjords - narrow inlets along seacoasts once occupied by a fjord glacier. Glacial Deposits Since glaciers are solid they can transport all sizes of sediment, from huge house-sized boulders to fine-grained material. Glacial Drift general term for glacial deposits Till - nonsorted glacial drift deposited directly from melting ice. A till that has undergone diagenesis and has turned into a rock is called a tillite. Moraines linear deposits of till produced by the movement or retreat of glaciers . Glacial Marine drift Unsorted chaotic deposits of sediments/rocks on seafloor or lakebeds brought by melted glaciers. Large single rock bodies at the floor of a water body is called a dropstone. dropstone.

The Ice Ages

Began between 10,000 to 2 mya Pleistocene epoch North America covered in large ice sheets Glacial and Interglacial periods occurred Major fluctuations in sea level What caused the Ice Ages? Serbian mathematician Milutin Milankovitch Milankovitch cycle - orbital cycles of the Earth affecting amount of solar radiation Tilt of the Earths axis (every 41,000 years, 21.5 24.5 deg) Precession of Earths spin axis (every 23,000 years) Eccentricity of Earths orbit around the Sun (every 100,000 years) Effects of the 3 Orbital Cycles Fluctuations on solar radiation received by Earth Combined orbital cycles affected paleoclimate Sea levels fluctuated in connection with orbital cycle

TRANSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS Delta

Transitional environments are those environments at or near the transition between the land and the sea. prograding depositional bodies that form at the point where a river drains into a lake or sea. Parts of a Delta: delta plain - composed of meandering flood plains, swamps, and beach complex. delta front - steeper part. prodelta - broadly sloping that grades into the open shelf.

Factors Affecting Delta Formation and Facies:

water and sediment yield of the river differences in river/sea water densities, buoyancy, salinity shelf slope and topography wave and tidal energy acting on the coast along shore winds and currents, tectonics (subsidence) of the receiving basin

Types of Deltas

River-dominated large sediment volume lobate shape = moderate sediment supply elongated when sediment supply is large

Tide-dominated linear features parallel to tidal flow and perpendicular to shore. Wave-dominated delta smoothly arcuate; wave action reworks sediment. much sandier than the other types of delta. Delta sediments Sand, mud, sometimes gravel Decrease in grain size as you move away from land General coarsening upward due to progradation

Lagoon

shallow salt water body separated from the deeper sea by a shallow or exposed sandbank, coral reef, or similar feature quiet waters allow fine silt and clays to settle out of suspension, forming sequence of mudstone and shale overgrown with vegetation forming salt marshes, coal, and peat swamps, or algal mats. some cases, evaporites are formed.

Beach

-shore of a body of water formed and washed by waves and tides. usually covered by sandy or pebbly material usually well sorted sand and pebbles, accompanied by mud, cobbles, boulders, smooth rocks and shell fragments. Wave action Longshore drift the movement of sediment along a beach by swash and backwash of waves that approach the shore obliquely. Longshore current a current that moves parallel to a shore formed from the momentum of breaking waves that approach shore obliquely.

Spit long ridge of sand deposited by longshore current and drift - attached to a land at upstream end. Tombolo
- a sand or gravel bar that connects an island with the mainland or another island.

MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Shallow marine Reefs Continental shelf Deep marine Submarine canyons and fans Pelagic

Reefs

wave-resistant, mound-like structures usually made of fossiliferous carbonates (coral reefs) and/or sand wavemoundbuild up on continental shelves Fringing Reefs coral reef that is directly attached or borders the shore of an island or continent. Barrier Reefs a long narrow coral reef roughly parallel to the shore separated from it at some distance by a lagoon. Atoll continuous or broken circle of coral reef and low coral islands surrounding a central lagoon.

Continental Shelf

continuous with the coastal plain sequences of the continents part of the continental margin that is between the shoreline and the continental slope (~200m). carbonates, sand and mud.

fossils are mostly marine invertebrates Carbonate compensation depth CCD Depth where the rate of dissolution and precipitation of carbonates is equal Below this depth very little or no carbonates

Continental Slope Continental Rise

between the continental shelf and continental shelf and continental rise (oceanic trench) between continental slope and abyssal plain gentle incline and generally smooth topography may bear submarine canyons and fans TURBIDITES

Abyssal Plain

Pelagic open ocean flat region of the ocean floor covered with pelagic mud with fine sand layers from distal turbidites fine-grained limestones (micrite), chert

LECTURE 8 GROUNDWATER
a hidden reserve -drinking water for more 50% of all people - 40% of irrigation water - important for livestock & industry -an overused resource resulting in: - water shortages - land subsidence - Contamination -Underground lakes and rivers are rare Most underground water exists in spaces between grains (in pore spaces) -geological important erosional agent

Origin of Groundwater

Glaciers and ice caps 2.14 Groundwater 0.61 Surface water 0.009 Soil moisture 0.005 Atmosphere 0.001 Groundwater is the largest source of readily available freshwater. It has: (1) less bacteria due o the natural filtering effect of rocks (2) widespread (3) constant temperature Groundwater is all water contained in the spaces within bedrock and regolith. Hydrologic Cycle Inflow =Outflow Precipitation =Evapotranspiration + Runoff + GW GW =Precipitation Evapotranspiration Runoff

Groundwater System

-Layer of Soil Moisture Zone of Aeration open spaces in regolith or bedrock which are mainly filled with air (also called the vadose zone) Capillary Fringe narrow fringe that is kept wet by capillary attraction that temporarily holds water. Water Table - boundary between the zone of aeration and zone of saturation Zone of Saturation all openings are filled with water.

Groundwater storage & movement

Important factors : Porosity Porosity Measures amount of water that can be held by rocks/sediments

Volume of voids / total volume of material Affected by grainsize, sorting and grain packing Poorly sorted less porous Cubic vs rhombohedral packing Permeability Ability to transmit fluids degree of interconnection of voids in the material

Groundwater Transport

Aquifer Stores and transmits sufficient amount of water Confining units Aquitard stores, but slowly transmits water Aquiclude stores, but does not transmit water Aquifuge does not store nor transmit water

Types of Aquifer

Unconfined aquifer Bounded at the bottom by a confining unit Water rises up to the water table Perched aquifer Unconfined aquifer defined by a discontinuous confining unit Local water table (usually above the main/regional water table) Confined aquifer Bounded at top and bottom by confining units Water rises up to the piezometric water level (also called potentiometric line/surface) Darcys Law describes the rate of groundwater flow down a slope between two points
Q = - KA (H/L) ( Q= discharge (volume of water flowing in a given time) K= hydraulic conductivity (a measure of permeability) A= area (through which the water flows) H= hydraulic head L= length of path (between two wells) (-) sign means direction of Q is from high to low hydraulic head

Wells Wells can supply water - if they intersect the water table. Pumping a well at a rate faster than water can flow in the aquifer creates a cone of depression. Groundwater recharge and discharge takes time! The rate of movement of groundwater depends on many factors including the flowpath.

Manifestations of groundwater on the surface: Springs, hot springs, geysers

Spring - Outflow of ground water from water table intersecting Earths surface ( also oases) hot springs- Spring w/ water 6-9oC (10-15o F) warmer than mean annual air temperature
Geysers - Intermittent hot fountains/columns of water Artesian wells Wells tapping a confined aquifer. Analogy: water supply from elevated water tanks Water in the well rises above the top of the aquifer under artesian pressure, but does not necessarily reach the land surface; a flowing artesian well is a well in which the water level is above the land surface.

Geologic Work of Groundwater

- Caverns- Limestone, usually formed just below water table - Karst topography - Bedrock shaped (dissolved) by groundwater (e.g. Chocolate hills in Bohol, Hundred Islands) - sink holes - Either gradual or abrupt depression in surface due to dissolved limestone bedrock.

Groundwater problems and Contamination

- Saltwater contamination or intrusion (coastal areas) - Groundwater contamination (due to human causes) - Land subsidence The removal of water allows the aquifer sediments to compact. Once compacted, the overlying unsaturated zone sediments will also drop in elevation

- CAMANAVA enhanced floooding

Excessive groundwater extraction Compaction of aquifers Land subsidence increased susceptibility to floods

Lecture 9 and 10
MASS WASTING Mass wasting - the process by which geologic materials (e.g., soil and rocks) are moved downslope from one place to another due to gravity Major causes of mass movement: SLOPE - the steeper the slope, the greater the downslope pull - for dry unconsolidated materials, smooth and rounded particles tend to support only very low-angle slopes while rough, sticky, or irregular particles can be piled more steeply without becoming unstable Fluids - reduces friction - for unconsolidated materials, a little water present may add cohesion, but large increase in water leads to instability *Vegetation tends to stabilize slopes Styles of motion: FALL - free-falling movement of materials SLIDE - materials slips as a coherent unit along a clearly defined plane FLOW - materials move in a chaotically, with mixing of particles within the flowing mass Mass wasting processes: Rockfall Rockslide Slump Mudflows Earthflows Debris Avalanche Creep Solifluction Some preventive measures: - Reduce slope angles to create stability. - Reduce additional weights on unstable slopes. - Enhance vegetative cover to stabilize slopes. - Reduce moisture contents of materials through improved drainage.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphism is the change undergone by an existing rock (e.g. igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic), in the solid state, to another rock Agents of metamorphism 1. Heat Sources of heat? 1. Geothermal gradient - temperature increases with depth (20o 30oC per km in the crust) 2. Large bodies of molten rock or intrusive bodies Provides the energy to drive chemical reactions recrystallization of minerals 2. Pressure When subjected to confining pressure, minerals may recrystallize into more compacted forms. Confining pressure equal stress in all directions; from overlying rock Differential stress unequal pressure in different directions 3. Chemically active fluids Sources of fluids? - Water trapped in pore spaces of the original rock. - Water released during dehydration of minerals, such as amphibole or mica. - Water from magmatic bodies (hydrothermal fluids). Types of metamorphism: - Contact metamorphism - occurs when magma invades pre-existing rock. A zone of alteration called an aureole (or halo) forms around the emplaced magma . - Regional metamorphism - Takes place at considerable depths over an extensive area (5-20 km, sometimes more than 30 km) under high pressure and is associated with the process of mountain buliding. - Cataclastic/Dynamic Metamorphism - Localized metamorphism which involves purely mechanical forces that pulverize individual mineral grains Mylonites rock formed by dynamic metamorphism that has a foliated or linear appearance Hydrothermal metamorphism - Chemical alteration at high temperatures and moderate pressures by hot, ion-rich (hydrothermal) fluids that circulate through fissures and cracks. This is common in basaltic rocks where hydrothermal metamorphism results in alteration to such Mg-Fe rich hydrous minerals as talc, chlorite, serpentine, actinolite, tremolite, zeolites, and clay minerals. Rich ore deposits are often formed as a result of hydrothermal metamorphism. - Shock/Impact metamorphism When an extraterrestrial body, such as a meteorite or comet impacts with the Earth or if there is a very large volcanic explosion, ultrahigh pressures can be generated in the impacted rock. These ultrahigh pressures can produce minerals that are only stable at very high pressure, such as the SiO2 polymorphs coesite and stishovite. Classification of metamorphic rocks Based on: - Texture size, shape and relationships of constituent minerals (foliated and non-foliated) - Protolith original rock that was transformed by metamorphism (in low-grade metamorphic rocks, original textures may still be preserved and might allow determination of likely protolith) - Mineralogy mineral assemblage present Textures of metamorphic rocks - Foliated exhibits a pervasive planar structure known as foliation which is due to the nearly parallel alignment of minerals and/or compositional and mineralogical layering in the rock Foliation - round grains can become flattened; sheet silicate minerals can have a preferred orientation

Non-foliated no preferred mineral orientations; metamorphism leads to transformation of one mineral to another Non-foliated rocks: Marble Quartzite Anthracite

Foliated Rocks: Slate Phyllite Schist Gneiss

Resources from metamorphic rocks - Marble is used for statues and ornamental building stone. - Slate is used for roofing, flooring, billiard/pool tables, and blackboards. - Talc is ground into powder. - Graphite is used in pencils and lubricants. - Garnet and Corundum used as gemstones and abrasives. - Kyanite, Andatusite, Sillimanite used as raw material in the ceramics industry. - Sulfide deposits (bornite, chalcopyrite, galena, pyrite, and sphalerite) - Iron and tin oxide deposits (hematite, magnetite, and cassiterite) - Tungsten deposits (wolframite and scheelite) - Precious metal deposits (gold)

Lecture 11 Rock Deformation Stress and Strain -The force applied to some body is the stress. -The changes to that body are the strain that is recorded. 2 kinds of stress: Uniform and differential stress Types of differential stress: - Tensional - Compressional - Shear Types of materials: Ductile undergo plastic deformation-manifested as folds Brittle undergo fracturing manifested as joints or faults Parts of a Fold Axis line drawn along points of maximum curvature Axial plane - imaginary surface that divides a fold as symmetrically as possible Limb 2 sides of a fold Plunge inclination of fold axis Types of folds: Symmetrical Syncline - Formed by downfolding - youngest rock is found at the center Anticline - Formed by upfolding - oldest rock is found at the center Assymetrical Overturned Recumbent Other landforms: Domes Basins strike: intersection of plane with imaginary horizontal plane dip: angle plane is inclined relative to horizontal Brittle Materials and Failure Rocks under surface conditions also deform plastically but once elastic limit is exceeded, the rocks will behave like a brittle solid and fracture (joints and faults) Parts of a fault -hanging wall -footwall Types of faults A. Dip-slip faults

- normal fault - reverse fault (thrust fault) B. strike- slip fault 1. right lateral 2. left lateral C. oblique slip Fault zones Importance of studying structural geology - structures are conduits for fluids (water, gas, oil) and control subsurface fluid transport(petroleum exploration; hydrology) - active faults are where earthquakes occur(natural hazards and risk analysis) - faults and veins are sites of ore deposits (mineral exploration) - structures create zones of weakness in rocks(buildings and infrastructure)

Lecture 12 Earthquake Earthquake - slippage along a fault Fault - crack in Earth where slip occurs Earthquake focus (hypocenter) - fault slip location (epicenter the geographical location of an area directly above the focus) fault scarp - cliff from vertical slip on fault aftershocks small earthquakes that follow an initial earthquake in same vicinity foreshocks small earthquakes that sometimes precede a large one by few days - 95% of energy from earthquakes from thin zones (plate edges) - Some are quite deep (subduction zones) The Earthquake Source - Elastic Rebound Theory [H. H. Reid,1911] - Tectonic stresses in some region of the Earth have accumulated to the point of exceeding the strength of the material, leading rapidly to fracture - Solid state Phase changes for Deep Earthquakes - Olivine transforms to a denser spinel structure - Transformational faulting ORIGIN The Elastic Rebound Theory - proposed by H.F. Reid - suggests that rocks are being stretched and strained as they are subjected to deformation. Elastic energy is slowly being stored and accumulated. Eventually, rupture of faulting occurs. Philippine Earthquake Generators Oblique convergence of two subducting oceanic plates Collision zones Active faults seismology - the study of earthquake waves, earthquakes, Earth seismogram - recording of ground shaking from seismographs Types of seismic waves 1. body waves travel in Earths interior P-waves (P for primary) Expansion/compression: push/pull motion S-waves (S for secondary) Shear: side-to-side motion 2. surface waves- travel on Earths surface Rayleigh waves up and down motion Love waves side to side motion; causes damage to infrastructure Earthquake Intensity and magnitude Mercalli intensity scale Intensity of shaking & damage at a specific location - Depends on distance to earthquake & strength of earthquake Magnitude (Richter scale): A measure of the energy released in an earthquake - Depends on size of fault that breaks

Earthquake Destruction - important factors: Intensity & duration of shaking Soil type (soft? hard rock?) Building design - other effects: Liquifaction Tsunamis Earthquake Prediction - Earthquake patterns - Ground deformation - Velocity anomalies - Electrical anomalies - Radon Emissions - Unusual animal behaviour

Lecture 13 Plate Tectonics Continental drift Theory Introduced by Alfred L. Wegener in his book The Origin of Continents and Oceans in 1915 Pangea the supercontinent which broke up during the late Permian = Gondwanaland + Laurasia Evidence for continental drift - Jigsaw puzzle fit - Fossils (e.g. Lystrosaurus, Cygnognathus, Mesosaurus, Glossopteris) - Rock type and structural similarities - rocks found in one continent closely match (in age and type) those rocks found in the matching continent - matching mountain belts - Paleoclimatic evidence - layers of glacial deposits (same age) found in S. Africa and S. America, India and Australia - coal forms under tropical climates Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis -introduced by Harry Hess in the early 1960s - New material is being formed along mid-oceanic ridges - Wilson Cycle Development of the theory - Extensive mapping of ocean floor young age of ocean floor (130 m.y.) - Oldest rocks from continents billions of years old Paleomagnetism Earths magnetic field: Declination Inclination varies from 0 (equator) to 90 (poles) Magnetic minerals in rocks align themselves in the direction of the existing magnetic field at the time they were formed Rocks formed at the same time record of magnetic field should be the same but Positions of ancient magnetic poles for continents do not coincide. Hence Continents moved! Seafloor spreading and geomagnetic reversals Summary - Continental drift - Sea floor spreading - Paleomagnetism * These old concepts give rise to the Plate Tectonics Concept. Plate Tectonics - Unifying theory of geology - All geological features and processes are related - Concepts were drawn together in 1968 7 Major Plates + some minor plates 1. Eurasian 8. Arabian 2. North American 9.Scotia 3. South American 10. Philippine

4. Pacific 11. Cocos 5. Antartica 12. Carribean 6. African 13. Nazca 7. Australian 14. Juan de Fuca Plate Boundaries Transform - Places where plates slide past each other Divergent - Places where plates are being pulled away from each other Convergent - Places where plates crash into each other (continental continental) (oceanic continental) (oceanic oceanic) Driving mechanism for plate motion Convection currents Hot materials rise, cold materials sink Two-layer convection separated at depth of 660 kilometers Whole-mantle convection entire 2900-km mantle Evidence for Plate Tectonics Hot spots provide a frame of reference for tracing the direction of plate motion Global Positioning System Philippine island arc system Tectonic features in the Philippines Manila trench Negros trench Sulu trench East Luzon trough Philippine trench Cotabato trench

Lecture 14 Historical Geology Deals with the origin of the Earth and its development through time. Strives to establish an orderly chronological arrangement of the physical and biological changes and events that have occurred in the geologic past. Geologic Time Previous estimates of the age of the Earth: Cooling through conduction and radiation (Lord Kelvin, 1897): ~24 40 m.y. Rate of delivery of salt to the oceans (John Joly, 1899-1901): ~90 100 m.y. - Thickness of total sedimentary record divided by average sedimentation rates (1910): ~1.6 b.y. Oldest rocks on Earth found so far: 1. Acasta Gneisses in northwestern Canada near Great Slave Lake (4.03 Ga) 1. Isua Supracrustal rocks in West Greenland (3.7 to 3.8 Ga) 2. rocks found in the Minnesota River Valley and northern Michigan (3.5-3.7 billion years), in Swaziland (3.4-3.5 billion years), and in Western Australia (3.4-3.6 billion years) Oldest materials to be found on Earth: Zircon grains found in sedimentary rocks in west-central Australia = 4.4 b.y. 70 well-dated meteorites using different dating methods (e.g. Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, Ar-Ar) = 4.4-4.6 b.y. Iron meteorite (Canyon Diablo meteorite) = 4.54 b.y. 1. Most accepted age for the Earth and the rest of the solar system: ~4.55 b.y. old (+ ~1%) 2. Best age of the Universe: 14 17 b.y. Relative Dating Putting rocks and events in their proper sequence of formation - Dating of rocks and rock units with the use of fossils and correlation of different strata Does not require numerical ages of rocks or fossils or events Principles used in relative dating 1. Principle of Uniformitarianism - Former changes of the earths surface may be explained by reference to causes in operation - The history of the earth may be deciphered in terms of present observations, on the assumption that physical and chemical laws are invariant with time. 2. Stenos Laws a. Law of Superposition b. Law of Original Horizontality c. Law of Lateral Continuity d. Cross-cutting relationships 3. Inclusions 4. Unconformity Types of Unconformity Angular Unconformity Disconformity Paraconformity Nonconformity 5. Principle of Faunal Succession

6.Correlation Fossils Remains or traces of prehistoric life preserved in sedimentary rocks Requirements for preservation - Rapid burial to prevent decomposition Presence of protective cover or preserving medium Possession of hard parts or durable tissues such as shells, bones, teeth and woody tissue Types of fossilization 1. Preservation of unaltered body parts: - Hard parts usually shells, bone, teeth or pollen - Soft tissue by mummification or freezing 2. Chemical alteration of hard parts: a. Carbonization soft tissues preserved as thin carbon film b. Recrystallization conversion of a mineral polymorph to another (e.g. aragonite calcite) c. Replacement dissolution of original material and precipitation of new mineral d. Permineralization porous material filled with secondary materials e. Petrification replacement of wood 3. Imprints of hard parts in sediment or trace fossils: - Mold dissolution of shell - Cast filling of mold - Borings and burrows worms, clams and other invertebrates burrow into rocks and sediments - Coprolites fossil excrement - Gastroliths smooth, polished stones found in the abdominal cavities of dinosaur skeletons Oldest fossils in the Philippines 3. oldest human fossil - skull cap of the Tabon Man; ~22,000 years old; discovered by Dr. Robert B. Fox, American anthropologist of the National Museum, inside Tabon Cave, Palawan, on May 28, 1962. 4. fusulinids Permian; found in Calamian Islands, Palawan Usesof fossils - tracing the evolutionary history of extinct as well as living organisms reconstructing paleoclimates and paleoenvironments providing the source of energy resources (e.g. oil, gas, coal) Absolute Dating Numerical dating of rocks, minerals and fossils - Utilizing radioactive isotopes Radioactive Dating Most minerals which contain radioactive isotopes (except C14) are in igneous and metamorphic rocks. K40 is usually found in potassium feldspar, muscovite and amphibole. Uranium may be found in zircon, uraninite, apatite and sphene. Geologic Time Scale The history of the earth is broken up into a hierarchical set of divisions for describing geologic time. Units of time include eon, era, period, epoch, age. Early efforts to develop the time scale 1. Giovanni Arduino applied Stenos Laws and classified rocks in Italian mountain exposures into: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary groups 2. Abraham G. Werner saw similar transitions in Germany 3. William Smith saw same subdivisions in Great Britain Modern Time Scale - Carboniferous System (1822) coal-rich interval in Northern Europe - Cretaceous System (1822) chalk-rich rocks in France (creta = chalk in Latin) - Tertiary System (1831) subdivided by Charles Lyell based on % of fossil species still living today

Cambrian System (1835) defined by Adam Sedgwick for the fossil-poor strata in NW Wales Silurian System (1835) defined by R.I. Murchison based on the rocks in SE Wales; contained fossils Ordovician System (1879) named by Charles Lapworth based on the presence of a distinct fossil assemblage Jurassic System (1839) named after the strata in the Jura Mountains in France and Switzerland Devonian System (1840) named after sandstones in Devonshire, SE England

Relative Geologic Time Scale