In: Gypsum: Properties, Production and Applications Editor: Delia H.

Sampson

ISBN: 978-1-61728-308-6 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

GYPSUM: PROPERTIES, PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS

Habes A. Ghrefata* and Fares M. Howari b
King Saud University, Department of Geology and Geophysics, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. b Environmental Science Program, College of Arts and Science, The University of Texas of the Permian Basin, 4901 East University, Odessa, TX 79762, USA
a

ABSTRACT
Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral on earth and is commonly associated with halite, anhydrite, sulfur, calcite and dolomite in recent coastal (sabkha or salina) and/or continental (playa) evaporite deposits. Gypsum can appear as transparent crystals (selenite); fibrous, elongated crystals (stain spar); granular and compact masses (alabaster); and in rosette-shaped aggregates called desert roses. The calcium sulfatewater system occurs as three principal solid phases: gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), bassanite (CaSO4.0.5H2O), and anhydrite (CaSO4). Only gypsum and anhydrite are stable phases of these three phases. Uncalcined gypsum and calcined gypsum are consumed in large quantities worldwide, principally for use in the construction and agricultural industries. In building, it is used in plaster, plaster of Paris, wallboard, cement, and ceramic tiles. In agriculture, it is used as an amendment to neutralize sodic soils and to promote the growth of vegetables. World resources of gypsum are large and widely distributed. The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009, in descending order, are China, Iran, Spain, United States, Thailand, Japan and Canada. In 2009, crude and uncalined gypsum production in United States were estimated to be 9.4 and 7.7 million tons, respectively. The average values per metric ton reported by U.S. producers in 2009 were $8.5 for crude gypsum and $40.0 for calcined gypsum. Demand for gypsum products is expected to decreases in the coming decade as housing starts continue to drop.

Corresponding author: E-mail: habes@ksu.edu.sa; Phone: 0096614676233; Fax: 00966-1-4676214.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Gypsum was derived from the Greek word gypsos which means plaster. Originally it referred to the form of gypsum which has been heated to a high temperature to drive off the water in its crystal structure; this is called calcined gypsum or Plaster of Paris. Gypsum was used in Egypt over 4000 years ago and was a traditional building material in Mediterranean and Middle East countries. It was introduced into Europe in the 13th century as a wall plaster. Gypsum is one of the most widely used minerals in the world and of large commercial value (Kyle, 1992). Gypsum (CaSO42H2O) differs from other calcium sulfate minerals such as bassanite (CaSO40.5H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) by the number of water molecules in its crystalline structure. Gypsum and Anhydrite are products of partial or total evaporation of inland seas and lakes. Both of these minerals occur in nature in a variety of forms. Gypsum is most commonly found in layered sedimentary deposits in association with halite, anhydrite, sulfur, calcite and dolomite. This chapter will focus on physical and chemical properties of gypsum, world production of gypsum, and prices and demand of gypsum as well. Moreover, this chapter also focuses on several gypsum applications in industry and agriculture.

2. PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM
Gypsum is very soft at 2 on hardness scale of Moho (Deer et al., 1992). Gypsum is so soft that a fingernail can easily scratch it. It is characterized by a monoclinic crystal system and a perfect cleave. The specific gravity of gypsum is 2.3. It has a white streak and a vitreous luster. Three principal solid phases in the calcium sulfate-water system occur: gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), bassanite (CaSO4.0.5H2O), and anhydrite (CaSO4) (Deer et al., 1992). Only gypsum and anhydrite are stable phases of these three phases. Anhydrite is only dominant in water with a temperature greater than 44 C on Earth at standard pressure and neutral pH (Holland and Malinin, 1979; Deer et al., 1992). Dry solid gypsum is a stable up to temperatures of 70 C at standard pressure, at which point bassanite is created. Anhydrite is formed at temperature above 200 C (Holland and Malinin, 1979; Deer et al., 1992). Gypsum is not stable under burial of more than a few hundred meters, at which point anhydrite is generated (Schreiber and El Tabakh, 2000). Gypsum is also converted to anhydrite when solid gypsum exposed to saline solutions (Deer et al., 1992). According to Cloutis et al., (2007), gypsum has been shown to be stable at Martian surface pressures for periods of a few months bases on the on the spectral analysis. Gypsum has several variety names that are widely used in the mineral trade: (1) Selenite: Selenite occurs as flattened and often twinned gypsum crystals (>2 mm). Selenite crystals are most often transparent and colorless (Figure 1). These crystals deposit below the water table in a continuously subaqueous environment (Warren, 1982), and show a pearl like luster, (2) Satin spar: Satin spar occurs as compact fibrous elongated crystals (Figure 1). It shows a silky luster and can exhibit some coloration, (3) Alabaster: A very fine grained massive white or lightly-tinted variety of gypsum is called alabaster (Figure 1). Alabaster is an ornamental stone used in fine carvings for centuries, even eons, and (4) Desert rose: In arid areas, gypsum

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can occur in a flower-like form typically opaque with embedded sand grains called desert rose (Figure 1). Gypsum is commonly associated with shallow and deep marine precipitate deposits as well as coastal (sabkha or salina) and continental (playa) evaporite deposits (Warren, 1982; Schreiber and El Tabakh, 2000). Typical seawater contains approximately 0.15% dissolved CaSO4, which equals about 1.7 cm precipitated gypsum per 100 m of evaporated seawater (Holland and Malinin, 1979; Deer et al., 1992). Gypsum is generally the second mineral to precipitate from evaporating seawater, after calcite (Holland and Malinin, 1979; Spencer, 2000). In shallow marine environments, gypsum is commonly deposited as crusts and clusters, while in deep marine environments; gypsum is most often deposited as alabaster gypsum (Schreiber and El Tabakh, 2000). Table 1: World production of gypsum (Thousand metric tons)1,2 (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals).
Country United States8 Algeria Australia Austriae.4 Brazil4 Canada4 Chinae Egypte.4 Francee.4 Germany4 Indiae Iran6 Japan Mexico4 Poland4 Russiae Spain4 Thailand United Kingdom4 Other countries World total (rounded)
E 1

2006 19,000 r 1,200 r 4,200 r 1,000 1,700 r.p 9,000 r 35,000 r 2,000 4,800 1,800 r 2,500 12,000 r.e 5,800 r 6,100 r 1,400 r 2,200 11,500 r.p 8,400 r 1,700 r 17,700 149,000

2007e 17,900 3 1,200 3 4,200 1,000 1,800 7,700 3 37,000 2,000 4,800 1,800 2,500 12,000 5,900 6,100 1,600 3 2,300 11,500 8,600 3 1,700 21,400 153,000

2008 14,400 1,700 4,000 1,000 2,100 5,800 46,000 2,000 4,800 1,900 2,600 12,000 5,800 5,100 1,600 2,300 11,500 8,000 1,700 24,700 159,000

2009e 9,400 1,700 4,000 1,000 2,100 5,500 42,000 2,000 4,800 1,900 2,600 12,000 5,800 4,500 1,300 2,300 11,500 8,000 1,700 27,900 152,000

Estimated. PPreliminary. RRevised World totals, U.S. data, and estimated data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown 2 Table includes data available through July 15, 2008 3 Reported figure 4 Includes anhydrite 5 Less than 0.5 unit 6 Data are for years beginning March 21 of that stated 8 Excludes byproduct gypsum

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Desert rose

Satin spar

Selenite

Alabaster

Figure 1. Pictures of Desert rose, Satin Spar, Selenite, and Alabaster. These pictures were obtained from http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/minerals/gypsum.htm.

In salinas and playas, gypsum occurs as (1) gypsite, a fine grained (<60 mm) gypsum crust dissolved and redeposited by rain, (2) gypsarenite, sand-sized (60 mm-1 mm) gypsum crystals deposited in unstable or periodic salinity environments, and (3) selenite. Gypsum is also presented as a continental evaporite when it is dissolved in and transported by percolating groundwater, which is pulled to the surface by capillary action, depositing gypsarenite, selenite, and anhydrite crystals as the water evaporates (Deer et al., 1992; Langford, 2003).

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Reflectance (offset for clarity)

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.2

2.4

Wavelength (M icrometer)

Figure 2. The USGS library VNIR-SWIR spectra (Clark et al., 1993) of gypsum.

Sulfuric acid solutions moving through Ca-rich rocks may result in gypsum and anhydrite formation. Acidic waters are often either created by volcanic gases interacting with meteoric water or by weathering of sulfides (Holland and Malinin, 1979; Deer et al., 1992). Gypsum and anhydrite rich mineral assemblages are often produced by the action of sulfurous volcanic vapors on Ca-rich rocks (Golden et al., 2005). Gypsum can also be produced by sulfurous fog acting on Ca-rich materials (Eckardt and Schemenauer, 1998; Golden et al., 2005). The solubility of gypsum in water depends on the chemical composition of the aqueous solution, the temperature and pressure. Gypsum and halite solubilities in water, at 25C and 1 atmosphere pressure, are 2.4 g/L and 360 g/L, respectively (Ford and Williams, 1989). In distilled water at 20C, gypsum and halite are respectively 183 and 25,000 times more soluble than calcite (Jackus, 1977). Temperature experiments show that at one atmosphere pressure, gypsum has its maximum solubility between 35C and 40C (Hardie, 1967; Blount and Dickson, 1973; Sonnenfeld, 1984; White, 1988.). Gypsum becomes less soluble at higher temperatures as opposed to other salts. Because gypsum dissolves over time in water, gypsum is rarely found in the form of sand. However, the unique conditions of the White Sands National Monument, New Mexico, USA have created a 710 km expanse of white gypsum sand, enough to supply the construction industry with drywall for 1,000 years. Gypsum solubility is also affected by the type and concentration of the dissolved ions in the aqueous solution, and saline and common ions (Sonnenfeld, 1984). The saline effect produces an increase in the solubility of gypsum by the high ionic concentration ionic

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strength of the solution. This causes a decrease in the activity of the SO2 and Ca2+ ions. The solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is strongly dependent on NaCl concentration (Ponsjack, 1940; Schreiber and Schreiber, 1977). Ponsjack (1940) showed that NaCl concentrations of between 75 and 200 g/L, increase the solubility of gypsum by 3 to 4 times over that in pure water. However, if the dissolved ions in water include Ca2+ and SO4 -2, the common ion effect occurs and the solubility of gypsum decreases. Gypsum is a frequent but minor component in the soils of humidtemperate regions, where it is continuously leached and is considered transient. In these regions, gypsum only occurs in significant quantities where the parent material of soil formation is derived from evaporates and some other geological material of marine origin. In arid and semi-arid climates, gypsum in soils or other surficial materials is more permanent (Drake, 1997, Schutt, 1998). If a sufficient amount of gypsum occurs in the soils may be classified as gypsiferous. Anhydrite forms rarely at the surface, but only in arid and hot supratidal environments (sabkha) in the presence of concentrated brines (Butler, 1969; Shearman, 1985). Gypsum is found in nature most commonly as the sparingly soluble salt CaSO4.2H2O (Nettlejohn et al., 1982; Verhaye and Boyadgiev, 1997). The concentration of a saturated solution of gypsum is about 15 mM, and so is more soluble than calcite which typically gives in soil solution a concentration of between 1 and 10 mM Ca2+ depending on pH and partial pressure of CO2 (Stumm and Morgan, 1970). United States Geological Survey (USGS) library spectrum of gypsum is shown in Figure 2. The spectrum of gypsum shows major absorption features in VNIR and SWIR regions due to overtones and combination tones of molecular water (Hunt et al., 1971a). The intensity of the absorption features will decrease and their shapes will change when gypsum is mixed with other salts and substrate minerals (Lindberg and Smith, 1973). The absorption minimum around 1.2 m is due to a combination of the H-O-H bending fundamental and the first overtones of the O-H stretch. The absorption features between 1.4 and 1.6 m are due to the first overtone of the O-H stretching fundamental. The absorption bands near 1.74 m are due to combinations involving the fundamental H-O-H bend, the fundamental O-H stretch, and low frequency vibration modes of the structural water molecules. The strong absorption features near 1.9 m are due to a combination of the O-H stretching and the H-O-H bending fundamentals. The absorption bands around 2.2 m are attributed to a combination of the fundamental O-H stretch and the first overtone of the water. Gypsum and anhydrite showed similar spectral behavior in the 525 m range (Lane and Christensen, 1998). The results of Lane and Christensen (1998) also showed that emission features above 7 m can undergo dramatic changes as grain size is reduced below 100 m.

3. GYPSUM APPLICATIONS
Gypsum is consumed in large quantities worldwide, principally for use in the construction industries. Also, some of gypsum is used in agricultural applications. More information about gypsum uses in agriculture and industry is available at http://www.usagypsum.com.

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3.1 Gypsum Industrial Uses

Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation, and is considered as a good sound absorbing material. Moreover, gypsum is easily converted in a cementitious material, and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork. Gypsum is used in a wide variety of industrial applications including:

1. Portland cement Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement. It slows the hardening of cement because of its physical makeup. This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it hardened at its regular speed. 2. Specialty concrete products Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate, calcium aluminate, sulfur, and oxysulfate or polymer resins. In contrast to conventional construction products, specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement. Instead, specialty concrete is composed of specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water, a coarse aggregate such as gravel or crushed stone, and a fine aggregate or sand. 3. Plaster molds Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters, for example for use as plaster moulds in the pottery industry. Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by heating gypsum to 150 C. The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated, then released as steam. The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum. The use of plaster of Paris as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications. 4. Filler in paint Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler. 5. Glass manufacturing Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications, including glass making. 6. Chemical, food and polymer additives High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts and flooring. High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics, thermosets, and coatings. 7. High strength floor underlayments In new commercial construction, gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth, monolithic floor surface that delivers superior strength, sound control and fire resistance.

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8. Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to achieve special properties. Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals, powders, and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide. Industrial plasters and gypsum cements are noncombustible. These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance, and are safe to handle and work with. Some of these materials are nontoxic, nonallergenic, odorless, and nonirritating to the skin. 9. Road and surface repair patching materials Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength. These products offer the advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours thereby minimizing disruption of traffic. Theses products include above grade repairs such as bridge decks, ramps, parking lot decks, and on grade road repairs. These products are available for different weather conditions. 10. Thermoplastics, thermosets, and coatings Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white, non-abrasive, resistant to mild acids, and safe to use. These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as thermoplastics, thermosets, and coatings. 11. Erosion and dust control products Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil. Water infiltration rates into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum. Severe dust problems can be decreased, especially when combined with use of water-soluble polymers. 12. Hydro seeding Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development. This process is fast, efficient and economical.

3.2. Agricultural Gypsum Uses

Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment, conditioner, and fertilizer. Gypsum is used in a wide variety of agricultural applications:

1. Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand, silt, clay and humus particles together. Thus, water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved (Chartres et al., 1985; Greene et al., 1988; Ilyas et al., 1997). The compaction in soils can be solved by application of gypsum, especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the compaction.

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2. Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al., 1988). Untreated soil by gypsum has a higher bulk density. Many of the effects of gypsum, however, are limited to shallow depths. 3. Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles. Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited runoff due to larger, more stable aggregates (Gal et al., 1984). 4. Gypsum improves swelling clays Swelling clays, and therefore swelling clay soils, can be effectively treated by gypsum (Mandal and Mandal, 2002; Yilmaz and Civelekoglu, 2009). As sodium is replaced by calcium on these clays, they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces through which air, water and roots move. Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils significantly only up to an addition of 5%, above this amount improvement being much less significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved. 5. Gypsum increases value of organics The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation. 6. Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions, thus allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily. 7. Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium. Sodium and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing water and air movement, and root growth (Ilyas et al., 1997). 8. Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils, because of being pH neutral. This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH. The presence of gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+ concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P (Kordlaghari and Rowell, 2006). 9. Gypsum enhances water use efficiency Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type and soil management practices. Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation. 10. Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low in total dissolved salts. When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~0.75 dS/m

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or less), surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not contain adequate calcium

11. Gypsum replaces harmful salts Sodium, chlorine, boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells. Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants. 12. An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur. There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants. Calcium and sulfur are two of them. With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a practical and economical source for these two nutrients. 13. Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available calcium and increased soil pH. The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil structure and reduced water infiltration 14. Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels. It is safe to till these soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation. 15. Gypsum prevents water logging of soil Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a combination of high sodium, swelling clay, and excess water. Infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum. This will enhance the ability of soils to have adequate drainage. 16. Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms. Earthworms improve soil aeration, soil aggregation and mix the soil, and can do the plowing for no-till agriculture.

4. GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is depicted in Table 1. More information about the world gypsum production is available at (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/). The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009, in descending order are, China, Iran, Spain, United States, Thailand, Japan, and Canada. Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy. Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed. Global crude gypsum production in 2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1). Global production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007. China is the leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt, followed by Iran with 12

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Mt, Spain with 11.5 Mt, the United States with 9.4 Mt, Thailand with 8.0 Mt, Japan with 5.8 Mt, and Canada with 5.5 Mt (Table 1). Iran, supplies much of the gypsum needed for construction in the Middle East. Spain, the leading European producer, is considered the main supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe. It is probably that China will continue to be the worlds leading gypsum producer for the near future because of the expansion of Chinas economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands. An increased use of wallboard in Asia, coupled with new gypsum product plants, amplified production in that region. North American contributes to almost 10% of total world production of crude gypsum. Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster product in countries of Asia and Middle East. World production is likely underestimated because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site, which may not be reported. Moreover, production of gypsum from small deposits in developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported. Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined. Calcined gypsum is produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products. Uncalcined gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture. The production of crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 9.4 and 14.0 Mt in 2009 to 14.4 and 18.0 Mt in 2008 (Table 1). The leading States in producing crude gypsum were, in descending order, Nevada, Iowa, California, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, New Mexico, Indiana, and Michigan. The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 3.8 Mt in 2006 to 3.3 Mt in 2007. Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 2.5 Mt in 2006 to 1.7 Mt in 2007. Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of the housing and construction markets continued to falter. The construction of new wallboard plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009. Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes. Synthetic gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum, principally for wallboard manufacturing, cement production, and agricultural purposes. Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will continue in the United States. Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to increase by about 70% during the next 10 years. Calcium limestone is the primary component required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum. Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed. The United States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard, particularly in the eastern and southern coastal regions. Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard. During 2007, prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a corresponding sharp decrease in demand. The average values reported by United States producers were $8.18 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $22.02 per ton for calcined gypsum in 2007. The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $18.45 per 100 kilograms. The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about $26.90 per ton and that used in cement production was about $14.29 per ton. The steep drop in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which the gypsum industry is heavily dependent. In 2009, the average values per metric ton reported by U.S. producers in 2009 were $8.5 for crude gypsum and $40.0 for calcined gypsum. Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector, particularly in the United States. About 95% of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building

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plasters, the manufacture of Portland cement, and wallboard products. Demand for gypsum products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop.

CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics. Gypsum is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life. It can be used in different industrial and agricultural applications. World resources of gypsum are large and widely distributed. The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009, in descending order, are China, Iran, Spain, United States, Thailand, Japan and Canada. Demand for gypsum products is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline.

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Blount, C. W. & Dickson, F. W. (1973). GypsumAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 H2O and CaCO4 NaClH2O. American Mineralogist, 58, 323-331. Butler, G. P. (1969). Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines, the sabkha, Trucial coast, Arabian Gulf. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 39, 70-78. Chartres, C. J., Greene, R. S., Ford, G. W. & Rengasamy, P. (1985). The effect of gypsum on macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 23, 467-479. Clark, R. N., Swayze, G. A., Gallagher, A., King, T. V. V. & Calvin, W. M. (1993). The U. S. Geological Survey, Digital Spectral Library: Version 1: 0.2 to 3.0 microns, U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 93-592, http://speclab.cr.usgs.gov, 1340 pages. Cloutis, E. A., Craig, M. A., Mustard, J. F., Kruzelecky, R. V., Jamroz, W. R., Scott, A., Bish, D. L., Poulet, F., Bibring, J. P. & King, P. L. (2007). Stability of hydrated minerals on Mars. Geophysical Research Letter, 34, L20202, doi:10.1029/ 2007GL031267. Deer, W. A., Howie, R. A. & Zussman, J. (1992). An Introduction to The Rock-Forming Minerals, Harlow, Essex, U.K. Drake, N. A. (1997). Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia: geomorphological, archaeological and remote sensing evidence. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 22, 641-656. Ford, D. & Williams, P. (1989). Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology. Chapman & Hall, London.Gutierrez, F. 1994a. Geomorfologa de la Region de Calatayud. El Karst en Yesos. Ms.C. Thesis. Zaragoza University, Spain. Fryberger, S. G. (2002). Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument. Online at http://www.nps.gov/whsa/Geology. Gal, M., Arcan, L., Shainberg, I. & Keren, R. (1984). Effect of exchangeable sodium and phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 48, 872-878. Golden, D. C., Ming, D. W., Morris, R. V. & Mertzman, S. A. (2005). Laboratory-simulated acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials: Implications for formation of sulfates at

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