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The equation of mechanical energy in terms of Energy per Unit Mass, Energy per Unit Volume and Energy per Unit Weight involving head
The Energy Equation is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics. The energy equation involves energy, heat transfer and work. With certain limitations the mechanical energy equation can be compared to the Bernoulli Equation.
(1)
(2)
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Efficiency
According to (1) a larger amount of loss - wloss - result in more shaft work required for the same rise of output energy. The efficiency of a pump or fan process can be expressed as: = (wshaft - wloss) / wshaft (3)
The efficiency of a turbine process can be expressed as: = wshaft/ (wshaft + wloss) (4)
(5)
The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Weight involves Heads
The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan (1) can also be written in terms of energy per unit weight by dividing with gravity - g: pin / + vin2 / 2 g + hin + hshaft = pout / + vout2 / 2 g + hout + hloss where = g = specific weight hshaft = wshaft / g = net shaft energy head inn per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar hloss = wloss / g = loss head due to friction The dimensions of equation (6) are
(6)
Head is the energy per unit weight. hshaft can also be expressed as: hshaft = wshaft / g = Wshaft / m g = Wshaft / Q 2|Page (7)
where Wshaft = shaft power m = mass flow rate Q = volume flow rate
(8)
specific weight of water - 62.4 lb/ft3 1 hp (English horse power) = 550 ft. lb/s
Combined with (8): hloss = (17.6 ft ) - (10 ft) = 7.6 ft The pump efficiency can be calculated from (3) modified for head: = ((17.6 ft) - (7.6 ft)) / (17.6 ft) = 0.58
"A machine or device for raising, compressing, or transferring fluids." In practice - it is common to differentiate between
as summarized below:
Pumps
A pump is a machine for raising a liquid - a relatively incompressible fluid - to a higher level of pressure or head.
Compressors
A compressor is a machine for raising a gas - a compressible fluid - to a higher level of pressure.
Blowers
A blower is a machine for moving volumes of a gas with moderate increase of pressure.
Fans
= density (kg/m3)
Head in Turbomachines
The specific work can on basis of the energy equation be expressed with the head as: w=gh where h = head (m) g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2) Transformed to express head: 5|Page (6)
h=w/g
(7)
= 273826 Nm/kg where air = 1.4 (J/kg K) - ratio of specific heat air Rair = 286.9 (J/kg K) - individual gas constant air Dividing by acceleration of gravity the head can be calculated using (7): hair = (274200 N m/kg) / (9.81 kg/s2) = 27951 (m) air column
ha = (p2 - p1) / + h2 - h1 + (v22 - v12) / 2 g where ha = actual head rise p = pressure h = elevation height = g = specific weight v = velocity g = acceleration of gravity The actual head rise can be expressed as: ha = hshaft - hloss where hshaft = shaft work in the pump or fan hloss = head loss through the pump or fan (2)
(1)
skin friction in the blade passages and is proportional with volume flow - q2. flow separation impeller blade casing clearance flows other three dimensional flow effects
Specific Work
By multiplying (3) with acceleration of gravity - g -, specific work - w - of the pump or fan may be calculated: w = ha g where 7|Page (4)
w = specific work
Alternating Pumps
Secure the system and achieve equal wear by alternate pumps in parallel
Critical systems should always be equipped with more than one pump. Choosing between the installation of one or more backup pumps depends on the costs of the installation and
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how critical the operation of the system is - a water supply system for a hospital is more critical than a chilled water cooling systems for homes. the delivery and installation time of a new pump.
If two or more pumps are used, the operation between the pumps should be systematically altered to achieve equal wear.
manual alteration - where the operator selects the lead pump and the sequence of the lag pumps. duty alternation - where the lead pump change every time the pump or system is stopped. timed alternation - where the lead pump is switched by a timer or clock. equal run time - where the lead pump is switched to achieve the same operating time for each pump.
Note! Running an automatic system for equalizing the wear of the pumps
has the advantage of extending the time before repair and reinvestments. has the disadvantage that all pumps may wear out on at the same time - reducing the operation safety for the whole system.
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Suction Specific Speed may be used to determine what pump geometry - radial, mixed flow or axial to use for maximum efficiency and prevent cavitation. Suction Specific Speed is commonly used as a basis for estimating the safe operating range of a pump. Suction Specific Speed is dimensionless and are expressed as Nss = q1/2 / NPSHr3/4 where Nss = Suction Specific Speed = pump shaft rotational speed (rpm) q = flow rate capacity (m3/h, l/s, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm) at Best Efficiency Point BEP NPSHr = pump NPSH required at best efficiency point (m, ft) Specific Suction Speed can be compared with Specific Speed but instead of using the total head of the pump, the available Net Positive Suction Head N.P.S.H.a is used. As a rule of thumb the Specific Suction Speed should be below 8500 (calculated with US gpm) to avoid cavitation. (1)
hydraulic losses - disk friction in the impeller, loss due to rapid change in direction an velocities through the pump volumetric losses - internal recirculation at wear rings and bushes
External losses
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The efficiency of the pump at the designed point is normally maximum and is called the
It is possible to operate the pump at other points than BEP, but the efficiency of the pump will always be lower than BEP.
Elevation above Sea Level (ft) 0* 1320 2640 3960 5280 6600 (m) 0* 402 805 1207 1609 2012 (psig) 14.71 14.02 13.33 12.66 12.02 11.42
Pressure
(ft H2O) 22 21 20 18 17 16
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Pressure
(ft H2O) 15 14
Sea Level
Vapor Pressure
Saturation pressure - exerted by escaping molecules
The vapor pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure exerted by the molecules that escapes from the liquid to form a separate vapor phase above the liquid surface. The pressure exerted by the vapor phase is called the
Vapor or saturation pressure depends on temperature. If a fluid consist of more than one component (a solution), components with
higher vapor pressure are called light components lower vapor pressure are called heavy components
of the pump as a result. Boiling starts when the pressure in the liquid is reduced to the vapor pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature. 12 | P a g e
To characterize the potential for boiling and cavitation, the difference between the total head on the suction side of the pump - close to the impeller, and the liquid vapor pressure at the actual temperature, can be used.
Suction Head
Based on the Energy Equation - the suction head in the fluid close to the impeller can be expressed as the sum of the static and the velocity head: hs = ps / + vs2 / 2 g where hs = suction head close to the impeller ps = static pressure in the fluid close to the impeller = specific weight of the fluid vs = velocity of fluid g = acceleration of gravity (1)
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The available NPSHa can be calculated with the Energy Equation. For a common application - where the pump lifts a fluid from an open tank at one level to an other, the energy or head at the surface of the tank is the same as the energy or head before the pump impeller and can be expressed as: h0 = hs + hl where h0 = head at surface hs = head before the impeller hl = head loss from the surface to impeller - major and minor loss in the suction pipe In an open tank the head at surface can be expressed as: h0 = p0 / = patm / (4b) (4)
For a closed pressurized tank the absolute static pressure inside the tank must be used. The head before the impeller can be expressed as: hs = ps / + vs2 / 2 g + he where he = elevation from surface to pump - positive if pump is above the tank, negative if the pump is below the tank Transforming (4) with (4b) and (4c): patm / = ps / + vs2 / 2 g + he + hl (4d) (4c)
The head available before the impeller can be expressed as: ps / + vs2 / 2 g = patm / - he - hl or as the available NPSHa: NPSHa = patm / - he - hl - pv / (4f) (4e)
If the pump is positioned above the tank, the elevation - he - is positive and the NPSHa decreases when the elevation of the pump increases. At some level the NPSHa will be reduced to zero and the fluid starts to evaporate.
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If the pump is positioned below the tank, the elevation - he - is negative and the NPSHa increases when the elevation of the pump decreases (lowering the pump). It's always possible to increase the NPSHa by lowering the pump (as long as the major and minor head loss due to a longer pipe don't increase it more). This is important and it is common to lower the pump when pumping fluids close to evaporation temperature.
The available NPSHa of the system should always exceeded the required NPSHr of the pump to avoid vaporization and cavitation of the impellers eye. The available NPSHa should in general be significant higher than the required NPSHr to avoid that head loss in the suction pipe and in the pump casing, local velocity accelerations and pressure decreases, start boiling the fluid on the impeller surface. Note that the required NPSHr increases with the square capacity. Pumps with double-suction impellers has lower NPSHr than pumps with single-suction impellers. A pump with a double-suction impeller is considered hydraulically balanced but is susceptible to an uneven flow on both sides with improper pipe-work.
For optimal theoretical conditions we neglect the major and minor head loss. The elevation head can then be expressed as: he = patm / - pv / (5)
The maximum elevation or suction head for an open tank depends on the atmospheric pressure which in general can be regarded as constant, and the vapor pressure of the fluid - which in general vary with temperature, especially for water. The absolute vapor pressure of water at temperature 20 oC is 2.3 kN/m2. The maximum theoretical elevation height is therefore: he = (101.33 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3) - (2.3 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3) = 10.1 m Due to the head loss in the suction pipe and the local conditions inside the pump - the theoretical maximum elevation is significantly decreased. The maximum theoretical elevation of a pump above an open water tank at different temperatures can be found from the table below.
(oC) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
(oF) 32 41 50 59 68 77 86
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Temperature
Vapor Pressure (kN/m2) 5.6 7.7 9.6 12.5 15.7 20 25 32.1 38.6 47.5 57.8 70 84.5 101.33
Max. elevation
(oC) 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
(oF) 95 104 113 122 131 140 149 158 167 176 185 194 203 212
(m) 9.8 9.5 9.4 9.1 8.7 8.3 7.8 7.1 6.4 5.5 4.4 3.2 1.7 0.0
(ft) 32.2 31.2 30.8 29.9 28.5 27.2 25.6 23.3 21 18 14.4 10.5 5.6 0
Pumping Hydrocarbons
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Be aware that the NPSH specification provided by the manufacturer in general is for use with cold water. For hydrocarbons these values must be lowered to account for the vapor release properties of complex organic liquids.
Fluid
Temperature (oC)
Note that the head developed by a pump is independent of the liquid, and that the performance curves for water from the manufacturer can be used for Newtonian liquids like gasoline, diesel or similar. Be aware that required power depends on liquid density and must be adjusted.
Specific Work
Specific work - w - can be expressed: w=gh where 19 | P a g e (2)
With specific weight expressed as: =g where = specific weight equation (4) can be modified so the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be expressed as: P=Qh (6) (5)
equation (4) can be modified so the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be expressed as: P = Q (p2 - p1) (8)
An inline water pump works between measured pressure 1 bar (1 105 N/m2) and 10 bar (10 105 N/m2). Density of water is 1,000 kg/m3. The volume flow is measured to 1 10-3 m3/s. The actual water head (water column) can be calculated using (7): h = (p2 - p1) / 20 | P a g e
= (p2 - p1) / g = ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1,000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) = 91.7 m - water column The power gained by the fluid can be calculated using equation (4): P=Qgh = (1,000 kg/m3) (1 10-3 m3/s) (9.81 m/s2) (91.7 m) = 899.6 kg.m2/s3 (W) = 0.9 kW
The temperature rise can be calculated as dt = Ps (1 - ) / cp q where dt = temperature rise in the pump (oC) q = volume flow through the pump (m3/s) Ps = brake power (kW) cp = specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ/kgoC) = pump efficiency 21 | P a g e (1)
= fluid density (kg/m3) Typical relation between the centrifugal pump flow, efficiency and power consumption, is indicated in the figure below:
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Cavitation - an Introduction
Cavitation may occur in fluid flow systems where local static pressure is below the vapor pressure
Cavitation is a common problem in pumps and control valves - causing serious wear and tear and damage. Under the wrong conditions, cavitation reduces the component life time dramatically.
What is Cavitation?
Cavitation may occur when the local static pressure in a fluid reach a level below the vapor pressure of the liquid at the actual temperature. According to the Bernoulli Equation this may happen when the fluid accelerates in a control valve or around a pump impeller. The vaporization itself does not cause the damage - the damage happens when the vapor almost immediately collapses after evaporation when the velocity is decreased and pressure increased.
Avoiding Cavitation
Cavitation can in general be avoided by
increasing the distance between the actual local static pressure in the fluid - and the vapor pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature
reengineering components initiating high speed velocities and low static pressures increasing the total or local static pressure in the system reducing the temperature of the fluid
Reengineering of Components Initiating High Speed Velocity and Low Static Pressure
Cavitation and damage can be avoided by using special components designed for the actual rough conditions.
conditions as huge pressure drops can - with limitations - be handled by Multi Stage Control Valves challenging pumping conditions - with fluid temperatures close to the vaporization temperature - can be handled with special pumps - working after other principles than centrifugal pumps
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Unfortunately it may not always be possible to increase total static pressure due to systems classifications or other limitations. Local static pressure in components may be increased by lowering the component in the system. Control valves and pumps should in general be positioned in the lowest part of the systems to maximize static head. This is common solution for boiler feeding pumps receiving hot condensate (water close to 100 oC) from condensate receivers.
Temperature (oC) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Vapor Pressure (kN/m2) 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.7 2.3 3.2 4.3 5.6 7.7 9.6 12.5 15.7
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Note! - the possibility of evaporation and cavitation increases dramatically with the water temperature. Cavitation can also be avoided by locating components to the coldest part of a system. It is common to locate pumps in heating systems in the "cold" return lines. This is the same for control valves. If it is possible control valves should be located on the cold sides of heat exchangers.
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The system head visualized in the System Curve is a function of the elevation - the static head in the system, and the major and minor losses and can be expressed as: h = dh + hl where h = system head dh = h2 - h1 = elevation (static) head - difference between inlet and outlet of the system hl = head loss A generic expression of head loss is: hl = k q2 where q = flow rate k = constant describing the total system characteristics - including all major and minor losses Increasing the constant - k - by closing some valves, reducing the pipe size or similar - will increase the head loss and move the system curve upwards. The starting point for the curve - at no flow, will be the same. (2) (1)
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Increasing the impeller diameter or speed increases the head and flow rate capacity - and the pump curve moves upwards. The head capacity can be increased by connecting two or more pumps in series, or the flow rate capacity can be increased by connecting two or more pumps in parallel.
Selection of Pump
A pump can be selected by combining the System Curve and the Pump Curve:
The operating point is where the system curve and the actual pump curve intersect.
Carry Out
When a pumps operates in the far right of its curve with poor efficiency - the pumps carry out. 27 | P a g e
Shutoff Head
Shutoff head is the head produced when the pump operates with fluid but with no flow rate.
Churn
A pump is in churn when it operates at shutoff head or no flow.
brake horsepower requirement increases the head generated is reduced capacity is reduced efficiency of pump is reduced and the Best Efficiency Point - BEP - is moved
The head, flow and capacity at other viscosities than used in the original documentation can be modifying with coefficients.
Flow
qv= cq q where qv = flow compensated for viscosity (m3/h, gpm) cq = viscosity flow coefficient q = original flow according pump curve (m3/h, gpm) (1)
Head
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hv= ch h where
(2)
hv = head compensated for viscosity (m, ft) ch = viscosity head coefficient h = original head according pump curve (m, ft)
Efficiency
v= c where v = effciency compensated for viscosity c = viscosity efficiency coefficient = original efficiency according pump curve (3)
Power - SI units
Pv= qv hv v g / (3.6 106 v) where Pv = power compensated for viscosity (kW) v = density of viscous fluid (kg/m3) g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2) (4)
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Speed regulating is energy efficient since the energy to the pump is reduced with the decrease of speed. The speed of the pump can be varied with
hydraulic/hydrostatic drives - hydraulic coupling between input and output shaft - speed ratio 5 to 1 is controlled by adjusting the volume of oil in the coupling mechanical drives - belt and sheave drive eddy current drive/clutch - magnetic coupling transfer load torque between input and output shaft variable speed drives - inverters - AC drives - adjustable frequency drives - operates by varying the frequency and voltage to the electric motor
The change in power consumption, head and volume rate can be estimated with the affinity laws.
Throttling
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Throttling is energy inefficient since the energy to the pump is not reduced. Energy is wasted by increasing the dynamic loss.
Bypassing Flow
The discharge capacity can be regulated by leading a part of the discharge flow back to the suction side of the pump. Bypassing the flow is energy inefficient since the energy to the pump is not reduced.
Changing the Impeller Diameter
Reducing the impellers diameter is a permanent change and the method can be used where the change in process demand is not temporary. The method may be energy efficient if the motor is changed and the energy consumption reduced. The change in power consumption, head and volume rate can be estimated with the affinity laws.
Modifying the Impeller
The flow rate and the head can be modulated by changing the pitch of the blades. Complicated and seldom used.
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For unstable head-flow characteristics the differential head - h - rises to a maximum and then progressively falls with increasing flow rate - q.
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An unstable pump may start to oscillate between the two possible combinations of head-flow. The flow rate will modulate and the pipeline vibrate. It is recommended that centrifugal pumps are designed and operated under stable conditions.
change in speed of wheel - revolutions per minute (rpm) geometrically similarity - change in impeller diameter
affinity laws for a specific centrifugal pump - to approximate head, capacity and power curves for different motor speeds and /or different diameter of impellers affinity laws for a family of geometrically similar centrifugal pumps - to approximate head, capacity and power curves for different motor speeds and /or different diameter of impellers
The volume capacity of a centrifugal pump can be expressed like q1 / q2 = (n1 / n2)(d1 / d2) where q = volume flow capacity (m3/s, gpm, cfm, ..) n = wheel velocity - revolution per minute - (rpm) d = wheel diameter
Head or Pressure
(1)
The head or pressure of a centrifugal pump can be expressed like dp1 / dp2 = (n1 / n2)2 (d1 / d2)2 where dp = head or pressure (m, ft, Pa, psi, ..) 33 | P a g e (2)
Power
The power consumption of a centrifugal pump can be expressed as P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)3 (d1 / d2)3 Where P = power (W, bhp, ..)
Changing the Wheel Velocity
(3)
Head or Pressure dp1 / dp2 = (n1 / n2)2 Power P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)3 (3a) (2a)
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the volume flow increases with 10% the head increases with 21% the power increases with 33 %
If we want to increase the volume flow capacity of an existing system with 10% we have to increase the power supply with 33%.
Changing the Impeller Diameter
If wheel velocity is constant a change in impeller diameter can simplify the affinity laws to Volume Capacity q1 / q2 = d1 / d2 Head or Pressure dp1 / dp2 = (d1 / d2)2 Power P1 / P2 = (d1 / d2)3 (3b) (2b) (1b)
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(1)
where
h = hydraulic efficiency
(2)
where
m = mechanical efficiency
P = power transferred from the motor to the shaft Pl = power lost in the transmission
(3)
where
v = volumetric efficiency
(4)
where
= overall efficiency
The losses in the pump or fan converts to heat transferred to the fluid and the surroundings. As a rule of thumb the temperature increase in a fan transporting air is approximately 1 oC. 37 | P a g e
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Centrifugal pumps in series are used to overcome larger system head loss than one pump can handle alone.
for two identical pumps in series the head will be twice the head of a single pump at the same flow rate - as indicated in point 2.
With a constant flowrate the combined head moves from 1 to 2. Note! In practice the combined head and flow rate moves along the system curve to point 3.
point 3 is where the system operates with both pumps running point 1 is where the system operates with one pump running
Series operation of single stage pumps is seldom encountered - more often multistage centrifugal pumps are used.
Centrifugal pumps in parallel are used to overcome larger volume flows than one pump can handle alone. 39 | P a g e
for two identical pumps in parallel, and the head is kept constant, the flowrate doubles as indicated with point 2 compared to a single pump
Note! In practice the combined head and volume flow moves along the system curve as indicated from 1 to 3.
point 3 is where the system operates with both pumps running point 1 is where the system operates with one pump running
In practice, if one of the pumps in parallel or series stops, the operation point moves along the system resistance curve from point 3 to point 1 - the head and flow rate are decreased.
Classifications of Pumps
Selecting between Centrifugal Pumps and Positive Displacement Pumps
Pumps are in general classified as Centrifugal Pumps (or Roto-dynamic pumps) and Positive Displacement Pumps.
The centrifugal or roto-dynamic pump produce a head and a flow by increasing the velocity of the liquid through the machine with the help of a rotating vane impeller. Centrifugal pumps include radial, axial and mixed flow units. Centrifugal pumps can further be classified as
end suction pumps in-line pumps double suction pumps vertical multistage pumps horizontal multistage pumps submersible pumps self-priming pumps axial-flow pumps regenerative pumps
The positive displacement pump operates by alternating of filling a cavity and then displacing a given volume of liquid. The positive displacement pump delivers a constant volume of liquid for each cycle against varying discharge pressure or head. The positive displacement pump can be classified as:
Reciprocating pumps - piston, plunger and diaphragm Power pumps Steam pumps Rotary pumps - gear, lobe, screw, vane, regenerative (peripheral) and progressive cavity
The two types of pumps behave very differently regarding pressure head and flow rate:
The Centrifugal Pump has varying flow depending on the system pressure or head The Positive Displacement Pump has more or less a constant flow regardless of the system pressure or head. Positive Displacement pumps generally gives more pressure than Centrifugal Pump's.
Another major difference between the pump types is the effect of viscosity on the capacity:
In the Centrifugal Pump the flow is reduced when the viscosity is increased In the Positive Displacement Pump the flow is increased when viscosity is increased
Liquids with high viscosity fills the clearances of a Positive Displacement Pump causing a higher volumetric efficiency and a Positive Displacement Pump is better suited for high viscosity applications. A Centrifugal Pump becomes very inefficient at even modest viscosity.
Mechanical Efficiency
Changing the system pressure or head has little or no effect on the flow rate in the Positive Displacement Pump Changing the system pressure or head has a dramatic effect on the flow rate in the Centrifugal Pump
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In a Positive Displacement Pump, NPSH varies as a function of flow determined by speed. Reducing the speed of the Positive Displacement Pump pump, reduces the NPSH
Centrifugal Pumps
An introduction to Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump converts the input power to kinetic energy in the liquid by accelerating the liquid by a revolving device - an impeller. The most common type is the volute pump. Fluid enters the pump through the eye of the impeller which rotates at high speed. The fluid is accelerated radially outward from the pump chasing. A vacuum is created at the impellers eye that continuously draws more fluid into the pump.
The energy created by the pump is kinetic energy according the Bernoulli Equation. The energy transferred to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, the higher will the velocity of the liquid energy transferred to the liquid be. This is described by the Affinity Laws.
it is the resistance to the pump's flow that is read on a pressure gauge attached to the discharge line
A pump does not create pressure, it only creates flow. Pressure is a measurement of the resistance to flow. In Newtonian fluids (non-viscous liquids like water or gasoline) the term head is used to measure the kinetic energy which a pump creates. Head is a measurement of the height of the liquid column the pump creates from the kinetic energy the pump gives to the liquid.
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the main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump's energy is that the pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity (weight) of the liquid changes, but the head will not
The pump's performance on any Newtonian fluid can always be described by using the term head.
Different Types of Pump Head
Total Static Head - Total head when the pump is not running Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) - Total head when the pump is running Static Suction Head - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is higher than the pump impeller Static Suction Lift - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is lower than the pump impeller Static Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with the pump off Dynamic Suction Head/Lift - Head on suction side of pump with pump on Dynamic Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with pump on
The head is measured in either feet or meters and can be converted to common units for pressure as psi or bar.
it is important to understand that the pump will pump all fluids to the same height if the shaft is turning at the same rpm
The only difference between the fluids is the amount of power it takes to get the shaft to the proper rpm. The higher the specific gravity of the fluid the more power is required.
Note that the latter is not a constant pressure machine, since pressure is a function of head and density. The head is constant, even if the density (and therefore pressure) changes. The head of a pump in metric units can be expressed in metric units as: h = (p2 - p1)/( g) + v22/(2 g) where h = total head developed (m) p2 = pressure at outlet (N/m2) p1 = pressure at inlet (N/m2)
= density (kg/m3)
(1)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81) m/s2 v2 = velocity at the outlet (m/s) Head described in simple terms 43 | P a g e
a pump's vertical discharge "pressure-head" is the vertical lift in height - usually measured in feet or m of water - at which a pump can no longer exert enough pressure to move water. At this point, the pump may be said to have reached its "shut-off" head pressure. In the flow curve chart for a pump the "shut-off head" is the point on the graph where the flow rate is zero
Pump Efficiency
Pump efficiency, (%) is a measure of the efficiency with wich the pump transfers useful work to the fluid.
= Pout / Pin (2)
where
= efficiency (%)
The torque can be expressed as T = k n2 where T = torque (Nm, lbf ft) 44 | P a g e (1)
k = constant n = pump speed or velocity (rpm) With the discharge valve closed the torque amounts to 30 - 50 % of the nominal torque at full speed.
- either it is the static lift from one height to an other, or the friction head loss component of the system - can be calculated as Ph = q g h / (3.6 106) where Ph = power (kW) q = flow capacity (m3/h)
= density of fluid (kg/m3)
(1)
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(2)
reciprocating rotary
rotary lobe pump progressing cavity pump rotary gear pump piston pump diaphragm pump screw pump gear pump vane pump regenerative (peripheral) pump peristaltic
Positive Displacement Pumps, unlike a Centrifugal or Roto-dynamic Pumps, will produce the same flow at a given speed (RPM) no matter the discharge pressure.
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A Positive Displacement Pump must not be operated against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump because it has no shut-off head like Centrifugal Pumps. A Positive Displacement Pump operating against a closed discharge valve, will continue to produce flow until the pressure in the discharge line are increased until the line bursts or the pump is severely damaged - or both. A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the Positive Displacement Pump is therefore absolute necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer has normally the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve should in general only be used as a safety precaution, an external relief valve installed in the discharge line with a return line back to the suction line or supply tank is recommended.
Reciprocating Pumps
Typical reciprocating pumps are
Plunger pumps comprise of a cylinder with a reciprocating plunger in it. In the head of the cylinder the suction and discharge valves are mounted. In the suction stroke the plunger retracts and the suction valves opens causing suction of fluid into the cylinder. In the forward stroke the plunger push the liquid out the discharge valve. With only one cylinder the fluid flow varies between maximum flow when the plunger moves through the middle positions, and zero flow when the plunger is in the end positions. A lot of energy is wasted when the fluid is accelerated in the piping system. Vibration and "water hammers" may be a serious problem. In general the problems are compensated by using two or more cylinders not working in phase with each other. In diaphragm pumps the plunger pressurizes hydraulic oil which is used to flex a diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used to pump hazardous and toxic fluids.
Rotary Pumps
Typical rotary pumps are
gear pumps lobe pumps vane pumps progressive cavity pumps peripheral pumps screw pumps
In gear pumps the liquid is trapped by the opening between the gear teeth of two identical gears and the chasing of the pump on the suction side. On the pressure side the fluid is squeezed out when the teeth of the two gears are rotated against each other. The motor provides the drive for one gear. The lobe pumps operates similar to the gear pump, but with two lobes driven by external timing gears. The lobes do not make contact.
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Progressive cavity pumps consist of a metal rotor rotating within an elastomer-lined or elastic stator. When the rotor turns progressive chambers from suction end to discharge end are formed between the rotor and stator, moving the fluid.
Dynamic viscosity is also termed "absolute viscosity" and is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid.
Poise (P)
Centistokes (cSt)
Stokes (S)
1 2 4 7 10 15 20
31 34 38 47 60 80 100
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Centipoise (CPS) Millipascal seconds (mPas) 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Poise (P)
Centistokes (cSt)
Stokes (S)
0.24 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
0.24 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
130 160 210 260 320 370 430 480 530 580 690 790 900 1000 1100 1200
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Centipoise (CPS) Millipascal seconds (mPas) 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 550 600 700
Poise (P)
Centistokes (cSt)
Stokes (S)
2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.5 6 7
260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 550 600 700
2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.5 6 7
1280 1380 1475 1530 1630 1730 1850 1950 2050 2160 2270 2380 2480 2660 2900 3380
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Centipoise (CPS) Millipascal seconds (mPas) 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
Poise (P)
Centistokes (cSt)
Stokes (S)
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
3880 4300 4600 5200 5620 6100 6480 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9400 9850 10300 10750
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Centipoise (CPS) Millipascal seconds (mPas) 2400 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500
Poise (P)
Centistokes (cSt)
Stokes (S)
24 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
2400 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500
24 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
11200 11600 14500 16500 18500 21000 23500 26000 28000 30000 32500 35000 37000 39500 41080 43000
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Centipoise (CPS) Millipascal seconds (mPas) 15000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000 125000 150000 175000 200000
Poise (P)
Centistokes (cSt)
Stokes (S)
150 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
15000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000 125000 150000 175000 200000
150 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
69400 92500 138500 185000 231000 277500 323500 370000 415500 462000 578000 694000 810000 925000
Note! The viscosities are based on materials with a specific gravity of one (1).
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