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Casting Examples
Figure extra Typical gray-iron castings used in automobiles, including transmission valve body (left) and hub rotor with disk-brake cylinder (front). Source: Courtesy of Central Foundry Division of General Motors Corporation.
Die-Casting Examples
(a) (b)
Figure extra (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.
Chapter 5 Outline
-Solidification of the metal from its molten state, and accompanying shrinkage (volume change) -Flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity -Heat transfer during solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold -Influence of the type of mold material
Solidification of Metals
Cooling Curve
Figure 5.1 Cooling curve for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature; during freezing the latent heat of solidification is given off.
Two-Phase System
Two-Phase System
Figure 5.2 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution in copper, and the particles are lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system consisting of two sets of grains: dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have separate compositions and properties.
Figure 5.5 The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d). Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms (see Fig. 3.8). Note, also, the increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a rectangular prism.
Figure 5.6 Schematic illustration of the microstructures for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.77% carbon), above and below the eutectoid temperature of 727 C (1341 F).
Figure 5.7 Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead of cementite) as the stable phase. Note that this figure is an extended version of Fig. 4.8.
Cast Structures
Figure 5.9 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mold wall. Note that only favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mold.
Alloy Solidification
Figure 5.10 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.
Solidification Patterns
Figure 5.11 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180- mm (7- in.) square casting. Note that after 11 min. of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini.
Solidification range
Cast Structures
Figure 5.12 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: D. Apelian.
strong convection
Figure 5.13 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front, single phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: D. Apelian.
Fundamentals of Metal-Casting
Riser-Gated Casting
Figure extra Schematic illustration of a typical risergated casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during solidification. See also Fig. 11.4 Source: American Foundrymens Society.
Fluidity Test
Figure extra A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold. The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the spiral passage. The greater the length of the solidified metal, the greater is its fluidity.
Temperature Distribution
Figure 5.15 Temperature distribution at the interface of the mold wall and the liquid metal during solidification of metals in casting.
Solidification Time
Figure 5.16 Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: H. F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C. Flemings.
Metal or alloy 70%Cu30%Zn 90%Cu10%Al Gray iron Magnesium White iron Zinc
Hot Tears
Figure extra Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and cores. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing.
Casting Defects
Figure extra Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: J. Datsko.
Casting Alloys
Figure 5.19 Mechanical properties for various groups of cast alloys. Note that gray iron has very little ductility and toughness, compared with most other cast alloys, some of which undergo considerable elongation and reduction of area in tension. Note also that even within the same group, the properties of cast alloys vary over a wide range, particularly for cast steels. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America.
Figure 5.19 Mechanical properties for various groups of cast alloys. Note that gray iron has very little ductility and toughness, compared with most other cast alloys, some of which undergo considerable elongation and reduction of area in tension. Note also that even within the same group, the properties of cast alloys vary over a wide range, particularly for cast steels. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America.
Nickel
White iron
VP
VP
Zinc
TABLE 5.3 Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 170 275 550 415 550 825 365 450 700 275 Yield strength (MPa) 140 240 550 275 380 620 240 310 550 275 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 0.4 0.4 0 18 6 2 18 10 2 0
Ductile (Nodular)
Malleable
Type Ferritic Pearlitic Martensitic Ferritic Pearlitic Tempered martensite Ferritic Pearlitic Tempered martensite Pearlitic
Typical applications Pipe, sanitary ware Engine blocks, machine tools Wearing surfaces Pipe, general service Crankshafts, highly stressed parts High-strength machine parts,wear-resistant parts Hardware, pipe fittings, general engineering service Railroad equipment, couplings Railroad equipment, gears, connecting rods Wear-resistant parts, mill rolls
White
VIDEO
ASTM class 20 25 30 35 40 50 60
Alloys (UNS) Aluminum alloys 195 (AO1950) 319 (AO3190) 356 (AO3560) Copper alloys Red brass (C83600) Yellow brass (C86400) Manganese bronze (C86100) Leaded tin bronze (C92500) Gun metal (C90500) Nickel silver (C97600) Magnesium alloys AZ91A AZ63A AZ91C EZ33A HK31A QE22A
Condition Heat treated Heat treated Heat treated Annealed Annealed Annealed Annealed Annealed Annealed F T4 T6 T5 T6 T6
Pipe fittings, gears Hardware, ornamental Propeller hubs, blades Gears, bearings, valves Pump parts, fittings Marine parts, valves Die castings Sand and permanent mold castings High strength Elevated temperature Elevated temperature Highest strength
Figure 5.20 Microstructure for cast irons. Magnification: 100X. (a) Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes. (b) Ferritic Ductile iron (nodular iron), with graphite in nodular form. (c) Ferritic malleable iron; this cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite, and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon. Source: ASM International.
Continuous Casting
Figure 5.21 The continuous-casting process for steel. Typically, the solidified metal descends at a speed of 25 mm/s (1 in./s). Note that the platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level. Source: Metalcaster's Reference and Guide, American Foundrymen's Society.
Casting Processes
Advantage s
Almos t any metal cas t; no limit to s ize, shape or weight; low tooling cos t. Good dimensional accuracy and s urface finish; high production rate. Mos t metals cast with no limit to s ize; complex s hapes Intricate s hapes; good dimens ional accu- racy and finis h; low porosity.
Limitations
S ome finis hing required; s omewhat coars e finis h; wide tolerances. Part size limited; expensive patterns and equipment required. Patterns have low s trength and can be costly for low quantities Limited to nonferrous metals ; limited s ize and v olume of production; mold making time relativ ely long. Limited s ize.
S hell mold
Expendable pattern
Ceramic mold
Intricate s hapes; clos e tolerance parts ; good s urface finis h. Intricate s hapes; excellent s urface finish and accuracy; almost any metal cast. Good s urface finis h and dimens ional accuracy; low porosity; high production rate. E xcellent dimensional accuracy and surface finish; high production rate.
Investment
Permanent mold
High mold cost; limited shape and intricacy; not s uitable for high-melting-point metals . Die cos t is high; part s ize limited; us ually limited to nonferrous metals ; long lead time. Equipment is expens ive; part s hape limited.
Die
Centrifugal
materials cast
A ll A ll
Maximum
No limit 100+
Section thic kness (mm) Shape Dimensional Porosity* complexity* accuracy* Minimum
4 4 1-2 2-3 3 2 3 2
Maximum
No limit --
A ll 0.05 No limit 5-20 4 1 Nonferrous (Al, Mg, Zn, Plaster mold Cu) 0.05 50+ 1-2 3 1-2 All (High melting pt.) 0.005 100+ 1-3 3 1 Inves tment Permanent mold A ll 0.5 300 2-3 2-3 3-4 Nonferrous (Al, Mg, Zn, Die Cu) <0.05 50 1-2 1-2 3-4 Centrifugal A ll -5000+ 2-10 1-2 3-4 *Relative rating: 1 bes t, 5 wors t. Note : These ratings are only general; significant variations can occur, depending on the methods used.
No limit
--
1 1
1 2
75 50
1 3
0.5 2
12 100
Expendable Mold
VIDEO
Plastic
Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G Wear resistance P G E F E Strength F G E G G Weightb E G P G P Repairability E P G F G Resistance to: Corrosionc E E P E P Swellingc P E E E E aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor. bAs a factor in operator fatigue. cBy water. Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York. McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Figure extra Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold.
Figure extra Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
Squeeze Heads
Figure extra Various designs of squeeze heads for mold making: (a) conventional flat head; (b) profile head; (c) equalizing squeeze pistons; and (d) flexible diaphragm. Source: Institute of British Foundrymen. Used with permission.
Figure extra Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern. (b) Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.
VIDEO
Figure extra Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (continued)
Figure extra (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
Dump-Box Technique
Figure extra A common method of making shell molds. Called dump-box technique, the limitations are the formation of voids in the shell and peelback (when sections of the shell fall off as the pattern is raised). Source: ASM International.
Composite Molds
Figure 5.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a semipermanent composite mold. Source: Steel Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. (b) A composite mold used in casting an aluminum-alloy torque converter. This part was previously cast in an all-plaster mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Figure extra Schematic illustration of the expendable pattern casting process, also known as lost foam or evaporative casting.
VIDEO
Ceramic Molds
Figure 5.25 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Figure extra A typical ceramic mold (Shaw process) for casting steel dies used in hot forging. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Investment Casting
Figure 5.26 Schematic illustration of investment casting, (lostwax process). Castings by this method can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America.
VIDEO VIDEO 2
Figure extra Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly. (b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum, with molten superalloy. (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or nearnet shape. Source: Howmet Corporation.
Figure 5.27 Crosssection and microstructure of two rotors: (top) investment-cast; (bottom) conventionally cast. Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, October 1990, p. 25 ASM International
Vacuum-Casting Process
Figure 5.28 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source: From R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and Processes, February 1990, p. 18. ASM International.
Permanent Mold
Pressure Casting
Figure 5.29 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of steel railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b) Gravitypouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser. Railroad wheels can also be manufactured by forging.
VIDEO
Figure 5.30 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.
Figure extra (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine. These machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are required to keep the two halves of the dies closed.
VIDEO
Figure extra (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made in Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world and costs about $1.25 million.
VIDEO
VIDEO
Figure extra Examples of cast-in- place inserts in die casting. (a) Knurled bushings. (b) Grooved threaded rod.
Alloy
Aluminum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 Si)
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
2.5 2.5
Applications
Appliances, automotive components , electrical motor frames and hous ings Complex s hapes with thin walls , parts requiring strength at elevated temperatures Plumbing fiztures , lock hardware, bushings, ornamental cas tings Power tools, automotive parts , s porting goods Automotive parts, office equipment, hous ehold utens ils, building hardware, toys Appliances, automotive parts, building hardware, bus ines s equipment
Brass 858 (60 Cu) Magnes ium AZ91 B (9 Al-0.7 Zn) Zinc No. 3 (4 Al)
200 160 --
15 3 10
320
--
Figure 5.33 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process.
Semi-centrifugal Casting
Figure 5.34 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.
Squeeze-Casting
Figure 5.35 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.
VIDEO
Figure 5.37 Two methods of crystal growing: (a) crystal pulling (Czochralski process) and (b) the floating-zone method. Crystal growing is especially important in the semiconductor industry. Source: L. H. Van Vlack, Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Melt Spinning
Figure 5.38 Schematic illustration of meltspinning to produce thin strips of amorphous metal.
* VIDEOs 1. Cold box molding, automatic cold box molding 2. Hot box molding 3. Hunter process 4. Pit molding 5. Gravity die casting 6. Tilt casting Optimization of Casting Processes 1, 2
Heat Treatment
Figure 5.39 (a) Austeniteto-pearlite transformation of iron-carbon alloy as a functionof time and temperature. (b) Isothermal transformation diagram obtained from (a) for a transformation temperature of 675 C (1247 F). (continued)
Figure extra Microstructure of eutectoid steel. Spheroidite is formed by tempering the steel at 700 C (1292 F). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
Pearlite Microstructure
Figure extra Microstructure of pearlite in 1080 steel, formed from austenite of eutectoid composition. In this lamellar structure, the lighter regions are ferrite, and the darker regions are carbide. Magnification: 2500X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
Martensite
(b)
Figure extra (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite; they have the same composition as the original austenite (white regions). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
Figure extra (a) End-quench test and cooling rate. (b) Hardenability curves for five different steels, as obtained from the end-quench test. Small variations in composition can change the shape of these curves. Each curve is actually a band, and its exact determination is important in the heat treatment of metals, for better control of properties. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Age Hardening
Figure extra The effect of aging time and temperature on the yield stress of 2014-T4 aluminum alloy. Note that, for each temperature, there is an optimal aging time for maximum strength.
Figure extra Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and microstructure. Note (in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with increasing amounts of pearlite and iron carbide. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Carbonitriding
Low-carbon steel
C and N
Cyaniding
Nitriding
Boronizing
Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy steels (0.080.2% C) Steels (1% Al, 1.5% Cr, 0.3% Mo), alloy steels (Cr, Mo), stainless steels, high-speed tool steels Steels
C and N
Gears, shafts, sprockets, valves, cutters, boring bars, fuel-injection pump parts
Flame hardening
None
Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene torch, then quenched with water spray or other quenching methods. Metal part is placed in copper induction coils and is heated by high frequency current, then quenched.
Induction hardening
Same as above
None
Gear and sprocket teeth, axles, crankshafts, piston rods, lathe beds and centers Same as above
Induction Heating
Figure extra Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.
Figure extra Hardness of steels in the quenched and normalized conditions, as a function of carbon content.
Figure 5.42 Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations.
Figure 5.42 Examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross- sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
Chills
Figure extra The use of metal padding (chills) to increase the rate of cooling in thick regions in a casting to avoid shrinkage cavities. Source: Steel Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. Used with permission.
TABLE 5.9 Metal Gray cast iron White cast iron Malleable cast iron Aluminum alloys Magnesium alloys Yellow brass Phosphor bronze Aluminum bronze High-manganese steel
Percent 0.831.3 2.1 0.781.0 1.3 1.3 1.31.6 1.01.6 2.1 2.6
Parting Line
Figure extra Redesign of a casting by making the parting line straight to avoid defects. Source: Steel Casting Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. Used with permission.
Figure 5.43 Examples of casting design modifications. Source: Steel Casting Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. Used with permission.
Economics