WATER QUANTITY Read WQ Chapter 1. and/or M 2.2 to get a general familiarization with the topic.

Look at the numbers and be careful to watch the units. IMPORTANCE OF WATER Water is vital to the well being of all living creatures. Water is required for growing food, fluctuations in water supply has caused starvation in many instances throughout history Water is also required for many other purposes in industrialized nations. Some of these requirements include: firefighting transportation manufacturing food processing SOURCES OF WATER Hydrologic cycle Overhead (Figure 2.1 T&S). Typical Qualities of various water sources. (Overhead Table 3.1 S&T) 1. Surface water - lakes, rivers, wetlands, ice and snow. Surface waters are subject to animal runoff, contamination from agricultural and industrial practices etc. so are usually turbid from suspended solids, and are required to be treated before use as drinking water, in some cases they may be used directly for industrial or agricultural purposes, but often some kind of treatment is necessary. 2. Ground water - contained in underground water systems called aquifers Ground waters are generally of better quality than surface waters and require less treatment, but they will often contain higher total dissolved solids as they pick up minerals from soil and rocks in the aquifer. 3. Sea water or brackish water (TDS of 1500 g/m3 and up) Contain salts that must be removed for any use the water is put to. Sea water has been put to limited use as a water source for arid lands near the ocean. It is a very expensive water source because of the cost of the treatment.

Water Use The water we use is put to many different uses. As engineers concerned with water quality, you must be somewhat familiar with the quantities of water required for different purposes. 1. Municipal Water Usage The municipal water supplier generally supplies water for the community needs. This water is treated to drinking water standards in order to fit the most stringent of the uses the water is put to. The regulations concerning drinking water quality will be discussed later. The usage can be divided into categories by the type of consumer. The quantities of water used for these purposes will vary between communities depending on the activities that the community undergoes but most communities will generally fit within the ranges given in table 1.2 from your text (p. 7 in your text). These municipal water suppliers do not usually supply water for non-domestic industries. a) b) c) d) Domestic Commercial or Industrial Public Service leakage

a) Domestic Text table 1.3 Total average 220 L/capita day. Largest % toilet and washing Many conservation factors being put into place by intelligent communities Charging for water often decreases usage. b) Commercial or industrial Text table 1.4 (overhead) variable usage largest being laundry and department store units can be deceiving. must look at these to interpret any numbers. c). Public Service Water Use street cleaning, watering parks, hospitals, schools, prisons etc. another major concern is fire protection. very important - if supply does not meet fire demand then insurance rates go up. To calculate fire demand two equations in book newest - F = 320 c A Where F = required fire flow (m3/d) c = coefficient related to type of construction

A = total floor area in building (m2) Qualifications of A fire resistive buildings - unprotected openings 6 largest successive floor areas fire resistive buildings - protected openings 3 largest successive floor areas Values for C 1.5 - wood frame 1.0 - ordinary 0.8 - non-combustible 0.6 - fire resistive Adjustments i) occupancy ii) sprinkler system iii) exposure Amount of adjustment will be given in problem. Max. fire flow must not exceed 43,600 m3/d for wood frame and ordinary 32,700 for non-combustible and fire resistive F must be available in addition to max. daily flow rate for at least 10 h. Design Factors for Municipal Water Use Municipal water use will fluctuate on a seasonal and daily basis always have a late afternoon peak (5-9 p.m.) and an early morning low (1-6 a.m.). A municipal system must be designed to be able to meet the peak demands and the fire flow demands. need to estimate peak consumption p = 180t -0.10 where p = percentage of the average annual demand t = time (d) Table 1.9 has some values calculated for you (p. 21)

Problem p. 21 in text. Estimate water requirements for a community of 200,000 persons. (peak day flow and fire flow). What do we need to do this

peak day flow, peak hour flow, fire flow To get peak day flow Qpeak day = Qavg day x 1.8. (from table 1.9 180% = 1.8) Qavg. day = Qflow /capita d x capita. (table 1.2) = 600 L/capita d x 200,000 capita x 1000 L/m3 = 1.2 x 105 m3/d Qpeak day = 1.2 x 105 m3/d x 1.8 = 2.16 x 105 m3/d Qpeak hour = Qavg. day x 2.7 (from table 1.9 again 270% = 2.7) = 1.2 x 105 m3/d x 2.7 = 3.24 x 105 m3/d Fire flow (using old equation because we know nothing about construction) Q f = 386 p 1 0.01 p m3/min. .

p = population in thousands Q f = 3.86 200 (1 0. 01 200 ) m3 / min = 46.87 m3/min. must convert to days 46.87 m3/min. x 1,440 min./d 0.67 x 105 m3/d Peak day and fire flow 2.16 x 105 m3/d + 0.67 x 105 m3/d = 2.83 x 105 m3/d Design of the system is controlled by the largest value, in this case peak hour flow. Storage needs Fire flow 0.67 x 105 m3/d x 10 h x 1d/24h = 0.28 x 105 m3. 2. Non-Domestic Industrial In many cases the municipal water supplies do not supply water for commercial or industrial purposes. These industries often require too much water and they do not always require it to be treated to drinking water standards. The largest non-agricultural, industrial use is for cooling in power generating stations. Cooling Water use - Steam electric power (largest user of cooling water) - The source and receiving waters are very important for cooling waters Problems slime growth

scale formation Engineers must develop good non-polluting method to correct these problems. The water must be treated to prevent the problems from occurring but the treatment cant turn the water into a hazardous waste that will have to be disposed of. This is an area of active research for Universities and Industrial concerns. Water requirements for cooling Calculation p. 12-13 in text. to solve these problems need to know (1.) How much heat needs to be dissipated (Hd)? (2.) What is the increase in temp of the cooling water due to this heat? Hd Tc = Cp Where Hd = heat to be dissipated Cp = absorbance capacity of water = 4.186 J/g C. want volume not weight 1g = 1 cc of water and 106 cc in m3 4.186 J/g C x 1 cc/g x 106 cc/m3 = 4.186 x 106 J/m3 C. (3) How much water will it take? Qc = Tc limit of increase

Problem - Steam power plant. 33% efficient means that to get 1 MW of power they generate 2 MW of heat. They must remove this heat so as to maintain a constant temperature in the generator.

Factors 2 MW heat to be removed once through cooling cooling water temp increase can be no more than 0.3 C 1. What is Hd = 2 MW convert to units we can use. e.g. Joules 1 MW = 106 J/s

H d = 2 MW

106 J / s 1 MW = 2 x 106 J/s

2. What is Tc Cp = 4.186 x 106 J/m3 C. Tc = or = 0.48 C m3/s 3. What is Qc Qc = 0. 48 C m3 s 0.3 C = 1.6 m3/s 2 106 J s 4.186 106 J m3 C = 0.48 m3/s C

Therefore required flow is 1.6 m3/s

Agricultural Water use Sources - groundwater, rivers Quality - salt content important overuse of water for agricultural purposes will concentrate the salts on the agricultural land and in the receiving water Some crops do not consume as much water as other crops do. Using the Blarney Criddle equation, and knowing the rainfall, the temperature and the % of daytime hours, the consumptive use of different crops can be estimated. For example Corn has a high rate of consumptive use of water (0.0089 m/d in California) while potatoes and oranges have lower values (0.0041 and 0.0046 respectively) FACTORS AFFECTING WATER USE. Geographic location (climatic more than geography) Community how much commercial activity economic status water pressure (age of system) Cost Conservation measures Table 1.8 in text (p. 17) can reduce flows from 220 L/capita d to 36 L/capita d most productive measures are reducing toilet flush volume air assisted shower heads

REGULATING WATER QUALITY Due to our own industrial needs and the size of our cities, the government was forced to step in and control the activities that effect our natural water resources. The first legislation was introduced in 1972 and was called the "Clean Water Act". This has been amended a few times as new problems and issue arise. The goal of the legislation was and still is the preservation of the quality of our natural bodies of water, both surface and subsurface. The EPA overseas the enforcement of this legislation, in many cases Individual States have taken over the role and set even sterner regulations. A short summary of some EPA standards has been provided in a handout. (Overhead) The EPA website may be very informative for you. It can be found at: http://www.epa.gov/ The state of Texas has appointed the Texas Natural Resources Conservation Comision (TNRCC) as the body in Texas that is responsible for the upkeep of our environment. The TNRCC website can be found at: http://www.tnrcc.state.tx.us/ In 1974 another piece of legislation known as the "Safe Drinking Water Act" was created to protect the public that consume water supplied by public utilities. This act has also been amended several times to update and keep it modern as new contaminants are discovered to be harmful or new technologies allow us to achieve cleaner water. In 1989 the "Surface Water Treatment Rule" was enacted to further protect the pulic. Drinking water standards can be foundat : http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html. Search for 40 CFR141 National Primart Drinking Water Regulation. Important sections 141.50, 141.51, 141.52, 141.11,141.12. A few terms to you will see. MCL - Maximum contaminant level (the enforceable legal standard) This level is based on available treatment technology, analytical techniques, and the MCLG MCLG - Maximum contaminant level goal (the level at which no known or anticipated adverse health affects occur and which allows an adequate margin of safety. This is determined from risk assessment.

WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT There are many methods of accomplishing the removal of physical, chemical and biological contaminants in water. The design of these methods is the subject of 4333 and graduate courses in environmental engineering. The objectives of this portion of the course is to briefly introduce you to the concepts, and theory of WW treatment and present a quick summary of the accepted and newly developed methods. The material is found in your text Chapter 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. You need not read all of the material in the text, just use it for background if you need it. A typical waste water treatment scheme would include physical, chemical and biological processes to produce a good quality water or waste water. The impurities are usually removed from the water and end up as sludge. This sludge must then be disposed of or further treated to make a useful product. An example treatment system to convert surface water to drinking water is found in Figure 11.2 of your text. (overhead) An example treatment system to convert ground water to drinking water is found in Figure 11.5 of your text. (overhead) Typical Wastewater treatment systems for treating WW are found in figure 11.3 and 11.4 of your text (overhead) Just as the properties of water are divided into physical, chemical and biological, The treatment unit processes are divided into chemical physical and biological.

PHYSICAL UNIT OPERATIONS. There are several physical unit operations that are used in almost every WW treatment facility. These can be used as stand alone treatment facilities or combined as stages in a large treatment system. Screening (p 466-469 WQ) Usually used at the inlet to WW and DW treatment plants, they are used to remove large debris. In many cases there is a series of screens to remove successively smaller debris. Examples of debris are trees, fish, rags, diapers etc. Comminution (p 469 WQ) Used in the inlet to WW treatment plants to chop up debris that is flexible enough to pass through the screens. In some cases these are used in conjunction with screen. They are systems with a blade included that will chop up the debris.

Aeration (p 470 - 479 and 533 - 540 WQ) Used to replenish oxygen into the waste water and drinking water stream. Also can be used to strip other gasses or volatile compounds from the waste. Aerators can come in many styles. Water fall types - (spray or cascade) use the natural transfer of air in through the water. The principle is to keep a large surface area of water to air interface. Bubble aerators - (diffused air aerators) air is forced through a piping system (usually under the water) and is released through fine or course bubblers. This creates a large surface area for gas transfer from the gas to the liquid phase. Pure O2 or gasses enriched with O2 can be used to allow more O2 into the water. This is usually an added expense. Many types, each with its own advantage or disadvantage. One main disadvantage is clogging of the aerator with debris or microbial growth. mechanical aerators - large propeller or mixmaster like devices that aerate by physically mixing the water with atmospheric air. These tend to create a lot of aerosols. Mixing (p. 479 - 485) Used in almost all processing applications (waste water and drinking water) (e.g. adding chemicals, adding air, keeping a constant temp). Many different types of devices are used for mixing: turbine or paddle mixers propeller mixers pneumatic mixers hydraulic mixing in-line hydraulic and static mixers. The mechanical generation of eddy currents (turbulence) allows the mixing of particles in water. Particles smaller than the eddy size will move in a fixed position to each other within the eddy and will not be mixed properly. Flocculation (485 - 490 WQ) Rotating paddles generate particle collisions, stimulating them to stick together and form larger particles . In some cases chemicals are added to speed up the process. The larger particles will settle out faster than small particles so this aids in settling. Used in waste water or drinking water. Sedimentation (491 - 506 WQ) Suspended particles are settled out of the water by gravity. Used as a pretreatment in most treatment plants and after flocculation or biological treatment. Used in waste water and drinking water streams

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Filtration (506 - 529 and 540 - 545 WQ) Used to remove suspended solids and for sludge thickening. Membrane filters are also used for reverse osmosis treatment of water. There are two main types of filters, granular medium filters and surface filters. Used in waste water and drinking water streams. Granular medium filters are usually composed of beds of granular medium (such as sand, or gravel) that filter the suspended solids out by a sieving type activity within and on the surface of the filter. Surface medium filters remove the suspended particles only on the surface of the filter. Reverse osmosis membrane filters, the paper filters you used in chemistry and your home colander are examples of surface filters. Adsorption (529 - 533 WQ) Accumulation of material on a solid phase, usually activated carbon. Activated carbon is made from organic material (coal, bone, hardwood), heated under O2 limiting conditions (so it doesnt burn up completely) then steam or hot air oxidation to produce a residue that is porous and has an activated surface. Is non-polar so it doesnt attract water. Used in drinking water. Lots of different commercially available ones. Can be powdered or granular. Usually regenerated by heating to burn off the compounds adsorbed onto the surface. Modeled using Langmuir or Freundlich models as discussed later in the class CHEMICAL TREATMENT METHODS The use of chemical addition to alter water quality. Chemicals are used to react with contaminants in water and either disinfect, oxidize, precipitate, coagulate or participate in ion exchange reactions. (Chapter 13 in WQ) Disinfection ( 560- 571 WQ) disinfection = destruction of some but not all microorganisms in water. It is really the reduction in microbial numbers to an acceptable level. Destruction of all organisms in water is called sterilization. This is much too costly to achieve and much too hard to maintain. Used in both waste water and drinking water systems. Disinfection can be performed in several ways: Chemical addition such as chlorination is the most widely practiced method of disinfection in the U.S. Chlorine is added either as Cl2 gas, chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite. The hypochlorite ion is the active form. This ion is a strong oxidant and destroys the cells. The contact time of the chlorine with the cells is the important parameter to monitor and certain contact times must be achieved to get the desired levels of disinfection. Chlorination byproducts (trihalomethanes etc. discussed in organic chemistry section) are an important consideration when using chlorination. The ability to establish a residual chlorine level in the transported water is a very important factor for chlorination.

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The chlorine residual in the delivered water is needed to ensure that pathogens do not regrow in the delivery system. Other chemicals that can be used to disinfect are Ozone and peroxide. These compounds oxidize organic material by the production of free radical OH species. These are very reactive compounds and transfer the free radical to the organic matter which then falls apart. These are good disinfectants but are not good for leaving residuals because they are so unstable. Residuals are required to assure that bacterial regrowth in distribution lines does not get out of control. Physical methods such as exposure to UV light or other forms of radiation are also used as disinfectants and to oxidize organic matter. UV light in combination with chemicals is also used. The UV light causes the DNA of organisms to become bonded incorrectly and renders reproduction impossible. UV light in combination with ozone or with peroxide enhances the production of free radical hydroxides, thus the oxidation of organic matter or disinfection occur at a more rapid rate. Heat can be used to disinfect or sterilize, but due to the poor heat transfer of water, it takes a lot of energy input and is not really used on a large scale for water treatment. Destruction of organic matter - Other chemical oxidants are used to destroy organic matter in water. These include oxygen, permanganate, ozone and peroxide. One example is the oxidation of iron and manganese with oxygen. The metals are converted from the reduced, more soluble form to the oxidized, less soluble form. The insoluble oxides are then removed during settling or clarification. Another example is the oxidation of cyanide to cyanate with hypochlorite. Cyanate is formed at high pH values and then will hydrolyze to CO2 and ammonium when the pH is reduced to 7. Thus the complete removal of cyanide is accomplished. Precipitation (p. 571 - 577) The addition of chemicals that will cause the precipitation of metals and PO4-3 from the water. Lime is commonly used as a precipitant. The lime is added in amounts that are 1 eq/m3 in excess of that required for Mg+2 removal in order to bring the pH to a value above 11. The precipitate is settled out and then recarbonation with CO2 is performed to remove excess lime and to bring the pH back down to a value of 9.2 - 9.7. Phosphate is generally removed by precipitation Fe+3, Al+3, or Ca+2. The Al+3 is supplied as alum, while the Ca+2 is supplied as lime. Lime is the most common precipitant added and again the reaction must take place at a pH above 11, so enough lime to bring the pH up to this range is required. Cooagulation (p. 577 - 582) This is the process of destabilizing colloidal particles so that particle growth can occur during flocculation. The colloidal particles have a net negative charge on their surfaces and tend to repel each other so it is difficult to get them to form larger particles during flocculation. The coagulation process changes the properties of the colloids so they will form larger particles. Four main mechanisms exist.

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1) double layer compression - the total ion concentration is increased by the addition of counter ions. This reduces the width of the electrical double layer and reduces the size of the repellent forces. 2) charge neutralization - pH control or the addition of cations that adsorb to the particle surfaces is used to counteract the negative charge and destroy the repellent forces. 3) Interparticle bridging - polymers form and connect particles together as the floc sweeps through the water. 4) precipitate enmeshment - the colloidal particles are trapped in precipitate as it forms and are taken out of solution as the precipitate settles. With the exception of double layer compression, all of the mechanisms are important in coagulation and the choice of coagulant determines which mechanism predominates. The most common coagulants are alum, ferric chloride, lime and various polyelectrolytes. Ion exchange (P. 584- 589) Ion exchange relies on the principles of ionic bonds forming between the ions to be removed and an exchange resin. Both cations or anions can be removed, depending on the resin used. Although in theory any charged species can removed during ion exchange, the most common contaminants removed with ion exchange are, Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+2, NH4+, NO3, and SO4-. Several different resins have been developed and can be classed as: natural zeolites (Z) - these exchange positive ions e.g. ZNa2 + Ca+2 ZCa + 2Na synthetic resins (R) - can be divided into strong acid cation exchange RSO3H + Na+ RSO3Na + H+ 2RSO3Na + Ca+2 (RSO3)2Ca +2Na+ Weak acid cation exchange RCOOH + Na+ RCOONa + H+ 2RCOONa + Ca+2 (RCOO)2Ca + 2Na+ Strong base anion exchange RR3NOH + Cl- RR3NCl + OH2RR3NCl + SO4-2 (RR3N)2SO4 + 2ClWeak base anion exchange RNH3OH + Cl- RNH3Cl + OH2RNH3Cl + SO4-2 (RNH3)2SO4 + 2Cl-

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When the ion to be removed has saturated the ion exchange capacity of the resin then it will start breaking through into the water. When this occurs the resin must be regenerated. In most cases the resin is regenerated by flushing through a strong solution of the original counterion. In some cases a strong acid may be used to remove all of the ions bound and bring the resin to its original state. The brine which is washed out of the column during regeneration is now a concentrated solution of the ions that were removed and must be disposed of. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT METHODS. (CHAPTER 14) The principle use of biological treatment methods is to remove organic matter from water. This is often done using aerobic technologies. Other, expanded, uses of biological treatment are becoming popular as well. These include the use of anaerobic technologies for organic removal and the use of biological treatment to remove nontraditional contaminants. These include the oxidation of H2S to SO4 or So, the use of sulfur oxidizing bacteria to produce acid for mineral leaching and the use of biological treatment to remove nutrients (NH4+, NO3- and PO4-3), too name a few. Another common use of biological treatment is to oxidize/stabilize organic sludges. Aerobic Biological Treatment (p. 599 - 648) There are several different processes developed that take advantage of the ability of microorganisms to degrade dissolved and suspended organic materials. The basic principle is that the organisms use the organic material as a carbon source for growth and energy. Thus converting the dissolved carbon into cell material and CO2. The oxygen is required as an electron acceptor during the electron transfer reaction that the cell uses to get energy. This can be explained as follows. The cells use enzymes to oxidize the organic substrates through a series of steps to CO2. Certain of these metabolic steps involve the release of electrons from the substrate to an electron carrier molecule. The electron is transferred to the cell membrane where it is allowed to be transferred through a series of membrane bound carriers, finally to O2 which is then reduced by the electron. As the electron is passed from carrier to carrier, some of the steps produce enough energy to transport a H+ ion across the membrane. This is used to set up a potential, with H+ on the outside of the cell and OH- on the inside. The potential energy is then used to do work by allowing the controlled entry of H+ through the membrane. This is usually coupled to the creation of high energy transfer compounds that will then take this energy to the reactions that need the energy. With aerobic treatment processes the electron acceptor is always oxygen. org-C + enzymes + carrier (NADH) oxidized org-C (eventually CO2)+ reduced carrier reduced carrier + membrane transport +O2 oxidized carrier + H2O (H+ outside, OHinside). Aerobic treatment can be a suspended growth treatment - activated sludge is the most common example- or a solid phase growth treatment. Solid phase growth

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technologies include trickling filters, and rotating biological contactors. The solid phase growth technologies do not require oxygen input as they take advantage of natural oxygenation. The use of aerobic treatment to remove organic compounds requires the input of oxygen and a proper balance of N and P as nutrients. This treatment allows for a lot of growth by the microorganisms and therefore produces a lot of sludge to be disposed of. Sludge disposal is very important and sometimes the most expensive part of biological treatment. There are many ways to dispose of sludge. 1. Further biological treatment- anaerobic or aerobic digestion, composting, 2. Land disposal 3. Volume reduction - dewatering, thickening (use physical processes), drying In many cases the methods that are chosen for sludge disposal are designed to provide a salable product. Composting provides a product that can be sold as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer or as potting soil, depending on the amount of treatment used. Dry sludge can be sold as fertilizer etc. In each case the metals content, and the coliform content is very important. Both composting and drying will eliminate the coliforms and any pathogenic bacteria, but they cannot remove metals. Most treatment plants do not allow companies to put metals into the collection systems. Other Biological Treatment Processes There are many other treatment processes that can be used today. These include (overhead). Anaerobic (used to denote a complete lack of oxygen and methanogenic conditions) The anaerobic treatment procedures take advantage of lower sludge production and the production of methane which can be used as a fuel. These usually require a more concentrated waste stream as the organisms need a larger amount of carbon to get any cell mass. e.g. In an anaerobic process you might get up to 95% of the carbon turned into CO2 and CH4, this leaves only 5% for cell mass, in an aerobic treatment procedure you might get 50% of the carbon retained as cell mass (sludge) to be disposed of. Anaerobic processes are also more likely to be upset due to changes in the influent, but with a good design and an experienced operator these processes can be the most economical to use, once the initial construction costs are paid. Nitrification-Denitrification Can be used together or separately. Nitrification - an aerobic procedure that uses nitrifying organisms to convert ammonium to nitrate. These organisms are fussy, are stressed out and cannot compete with the organic utilizing aerobes. Requires experienced personnel and some control over what goes in to the reactor. Many industries have a hard time keeping nitrification reactors functioning since they keep putting in waste that the treatment process was not designed to treat.

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Denitrification - an anoxic process in which nitrate is converted into N2 gas. The organisms that do this are usually facultative aerobes that can use nitrate as an electron acceptor in the absence of O2. This process is much more stable and can be operated in a much more flexible manner. The organic load has to be high enough to allow for the removal of all of the oxygen, and the nitrate. In many cases methanol is added as an excess source of organic compounds for energy. In some cases, the waste stream is split so the waste is used as excess carbon source. MEASUREMENT OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS In order to discuss water quality we must learn some terminology and units. The basic terms and units will be discussed here and the specific methods will be discussed when we discuss each individual water quality parameter. TERMS AND UNITS Gravimetric methods (weights) used for solids analysis Volumetric Methods concentration or weight per unit volume usually used for dissolved species relate concentration to concentration of known solution Physicochemical Methods measured with instruments or chemical reagents turbidity, colorimetry, titrimetry, potentiometry, polarography, adsorption spectrometry, fluoremetry, spectroscopy, nuclear radiation. relies on the physical or chemical properties of chemicals. e.g. adsorption spectroscopy due to the nature of chemical bonds most organic compounds absorb light at specific wavelengths. This absorbance is directly related to concentration or amount of compound. (up to a point.) overhead - two specific compounds - monitor absorbance at peaks - absorbance directly related to amount of material in sample. Beer's Law A = abc A = absorbance a = specific absorvity b = path length of cell c = concentration keep path length of cell constant and A = ac (straight line plot)

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best at low concentrations (instrument has limitations)

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Units of Expression will use metric units in this class - conversion of units 1 cubic foot = 7.481 gallons 1 gallon = 3.785 liters 1 cubic meter = 1000 liters = 264.2 gallons

Mole that quantity of a substance that contains the same number of ultimate particles as are contained in 12 g of carbon 12. Avagadro's Number: 6.0228 x 1023 particles easy way for chemicals 1 mole = molecular weight of chemical Molarity (M): number of moles of solute per liter of solution ethanol C2H5OH (46 g/mole); use 23 g/L = 0.5 M Molality (m): the number of moles of solute dissolved per kilogram of solvent. Parts Per Million: mass of solute (g) per million g of solution 1 ppm = 1 mg/kg Mass Concentration weight per volume e.g. mg/L Equivalent charge valence or replaceable hydrogens i.e. # of electrons involved in reaction Normality (N): the number of equivalent moles of solute per liter of solution 0.1 N HCl = ?? M HCl (answer: 0.1 M) 0.1 M H2SO4 = ?? N H2SO4 (answer: 0.2 N) Mass Equivalent Concentration as CaCO3 CaCO3 = 100 g/mole and two equivalents/mole (Ca is +2 charge) CaCO3 = 50 g/eq. - i.e. we have 4.5 eq./L of Ca 4.5 eq./L * 50 g/eq. = 225 g/L as CaCO3 Density () = kg/m3 = mass of solution (kg)/ volume (m3)

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Percent by mass =

mass of solute x 100 mass of solute + solvent moles of solute all moles of all species including solvent

Mole fraction =

Electroneutrality - is where cations = anions cations = + charged ions (eq./L) anions = - charged ions (eq./L) Ionic strength - is to take into account the activity of ions in concentrated solutions. = 1 2 ( Ci z2 ) i Ci = concentration of ionic species (M) zi = charge of ionic species SAMPLING most basic and important aspect of water quality analysis. without good representative samples, analyses are useless. Questions about sampling (1) where to sample? (2) how to sample? (3) how to preserve sample (1) Where - need to know physical parameters of the area. Samples should be taken at areas having different properties e.g. river bottom and sides have slower flow rates than center. Sample center, sides and bottom so as not to miss something (diagram) must mark exact sampling location e.g. depth, position etc. on sample container. must think about the area you are sampling, i.e. physical properties, so as to design an intelligent sampling plan timing is important as well daily or seasonal changes record meteorological data for sampling period

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(2) How to sample a.) samples from open water Grab samples best way sterile, clean sampling container eliminate extra biological activity open only at wanted depth many commercial water samplers available b) samples of groundwater. drill well to desired depth screen only at desired depth. (careful of contaminating environment with drilling mud). pump water for one well volume then take sample (3) Sample preservation sealed samples - prevents loss of volatile compounds refrigeration on ice immediately prevents biological activity without killing organisms (in case you want to count bacteria later) biological poisons - kill or inhibit bacteria right away - use only for chemical analyses, and when chemical reactivity is known.

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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

1. TURBIDITY - the scattering of light by colloidal particles in water Measurement Secchi disk - black and white disk on a string, lowered into water. Measurement made to determine at which depth the disk can still be seen Turbidimeter - measures light scattered at 90 angle. compare to standard solution (mixture of carcinogenic substances) specific concentration of this has 40 NTU. NTU = nephelometric turbidity units make dilutions of the standard so you get a range from 0 to 40 units. Significance only important for drinking water high turbidity is not aesthetically pleasing high turbidity also usually indicates a problem with the drinking water treatment system may indicate that organisms like Cryptospiridium may be missed by treatment system objective = 1 NTU Treatment Methods Turbidity is generally removed through settling and/or through media filtration, such as rapid sand filters. 2. SOLIDS All contaminants in water contribute to the solids load of that water. Solids can be divided into several categories. Dissolved (includes colloidal and small suspended solids) Dissolved pass through 1.2 m filter (also called filterable) Suspended (large suspended and settleable). Settleable quantity settled in Imhoff cone after 1 h. e.g. bacteria (some) algae (most) precipitates

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Measurement i) Total solids (TS) Method

a. Weigh a porcelain or aluminum dish b. Add a specific volume of well mixed sample c. Put in oven at 104C for 4 hr (till constant wt.) (removes water) d. Weigh again, after cooling, difference of this and wt. from a. is total solids ii) Suspended solids (SS) Method a. Weigh glass fiber filter paper b. Filter specific volume of well mixed sample solids will be retained on filter. c. Put in oven at 104C for 4 hr (till constant wt.) d. Weigh again, after cooling, difference of this and wt. from a. is suspended solids. iii) Filterable solids (FS) Method a. Take filtrate from SS put in pre weighed dish. b. Put in oven at 104C for 4 hr (till constant wt.). d. Weigh again, after cooling, difference of this and wt. of dish is filterable solids. iv) Volatile solids (VS) and Fixed solids (FS) Method a. Take residue from SS or FS and put in oven at 550C for 4 h. (till constant weight). b. cool and weigh. c. the weight lost during the process is the volatile solids VSS = volatile suspended solids = organic portion VFS = volatile filterable solids = inorganic portion

Diagram p. 60 in text. figure 2.7. (OVERHEAD) The volatile suspended solids (VSS) are often considered to be the most important as they comprise the bulk of the organic compounds present in water. This fraction also contains the bacterial content of the sample. The volatile filterable solids (VFS) are the dissolved organic compounds which may contain toxic, carcinogenic and or other problem causing organic compounds. Example Determine suspended solids for a water sample volume filtered = 200 mL filter mass = 1.3255 g filter after drying 1.3286 g

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suspended solids = (filter + solids) - filter 1.3286 g - 1.3255 g = .0031 g this was in 200 mL 0.0031 g / 200 mL x 1000 mg/g x 1000 mL/L = 15.5 mg/L additional to this - put filter in muffle furnace at 550C for 4 h. new wt. of filter = 1.3274 g Determine VSS and FSS FSS = wt. after furnace - tare wt. = 1.3274 g - 1.3255 g = 0.0019 g in 200 mL = 9.5 mg/L VSS = SS - FS = 15.5 mg/L - 9.5 mg/L = 6 mg/L or you can use filter wt. = wt of filter before furnace - wt of filter after furnace = 1.3286 - 1.3274 = .0012 g = 6 mg/L Significance Solids- must be removed in order to produce clean clear safe drinking water and for food processing industries. objectives Total solids DW 500 mg/L (g/m3) WW 700 g/m3 Suspended solids WW 200 g/m3 Treatment Suspended solids are removed from water through many mechanisms. Settlleable solids are removed through settling, such as gravity sedimentation. Small suspended solids that are not settleable are usually removed through media filtration. In some cases dissolved air floatation is used to remove solids. Dissolved solids such as inorganic ions are usually removed through chemical addition, coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation or through ion exchange. In some cases, such as salt water, the inorganic solids are removed by membrane technologies. More of these will be discussed when we discuss the specific ions to be removed. 3. ODORS Usually from H2S gas decaying organic matter

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Measurement subjective, no real mechanical way of measuring it can set concentrations limits for specific chemicals at which no odor should be detectable. Minimum detectable Threshold Odor Concentration (MDTOC) make dilutions and in a blind test ask people whether they can smell them Example Odor causing compounds Amines - fishy smell Ammonium - bleach Diamines - decayed flesh H2S - rotten egg Mercaptans - skunk Organic sulfides - rotten cabbage Organic acids (volatile e.g. butyrate) - barnyard hydrocarbons, - oil Significance Aesthetics only May indicate presence of dangerous compounds Treatment Many treatments can be used to remove odors from water. One common one is air stripping. The odors are often caused by volatile compounds, these can be removed by stripping them with a flow of air. Activated carbon can be used to remove dissolved organic odor causing agents. Various oxidants (Chlorine, peroxide etc. as well as biological oxidation) can convert odor causing agents to non odorous agents. 4. TEMPERATURE Usually most serious cause is warming due to use as cooling water Measurement Thermometer or thermocouple Significance temp increases reaction rates of chemical and biological reactions temp decreases gas solubility temp increases mineral solubility temp increases microbial growth and respiration temp changes the biological species, e.g. some fish are very temperature sensitive Normal Rivers 0.5C to 3.0C winter 23 to 27C summer WW 10-22C avg. 15.6C

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Treatment The temperature of water can be adjusted by heeting or cooling. When it is required to heat water. A sidestream of the water is put through a heat exchanger and mixed into the mainstream. When cooling is required, cooling towers are used. 5. COLOR mostly due to colloidal particles in suspension dissolved materials, tannins - from organic matter give water a brownish tint industrial wastes, colors due to specific chemicals minerals (iron) can also add color to water Measurement Use colorimeter and compare to colored standard Significance Aesthetics - makes otherwise healthy water non-acceptable, especially yellows and greens hard to remove Treatment Color is usually removed from waste water through biological treatment or chemical oxidation. Color is usually removed from drinking water through activated carbon adsorption of the colored compounds.

Table 3.1 Discusses the typical values of these parameters in waters (overhead)

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