Basic Air Pollution

Meteorology
This course is designed for scientists, engineers and other technical personnel
who would like to gain an introductory level understanding of basic air
pollution meteorology. Specifically, this course focuses on the meteorological
aspects that affect air pollution transport and dispersion in the ambient
atmosphere. This course includes information on basic meteorology,
meteorological effects on air pollution, meteorological instrumentation, air
quality modeling, and the use of meteorology in regulatory programs.

Self Instructional Manual

APTI Course SI: 409 (Rev. April, 2005)
www.epa.gov/apti

Contents
Figures .................................................................................................................v
Tables.................................................................................................................vii
Notation.............................................................................................................viii
Unit Conversion Factors.....................................................................................x
Course Description ............................................................................................xi
Lesson 1
Meteorology and the Atmosphere ......................................................................................... 1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Composition of the Atmosphere.......................................................................................... 2
Layers of the Atmosphere................................................................................................... 2
The Importance of Air Pollution Meteorology...................................................................... 3
Review Exercise.................................................................................................................. 3

Lesson 2
Heat Balance of the Atmosphere ........................................................................................... 7
Radiation and Insolation...................................................................................................... 7
Solar Constant .............................................................................................................. 8
Transparency................................................................................................................ 9
Daylight Duration ........................................................................................................ 13
Angle of Rays ............................................................................................................. 14
Heat Balance..................................................................................................................... 15
Heat Distribution................................................................................................................ 15
Differential Heating............................................................................................................ 16
Transport of Heat .............................................................................................................. 16
Global Distribution of Heat ................................................................................................ 16
Review Exercise................................................................................................................ 18

Lesson 3
The Dynamic Structure of the Atmosphere ........................................................................ 22
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 22
Atmospheric Circulation .................................................................................................... 23
Air Pressure ................................................................................................................ 23
Wind............................................................................................................................ 24
Coriolis Force ....................................................................................................... 24
Pressure Gradient Force...................................................................................... 25
Friction ................................................................................................................. 26
Pressure Systems ...................................................................................................... 29
Effects of Pacific High and Bermuda High on Air Pollution.................................. 30

General Circulation..................................................................................................... 30
Air Masses ........................................................................................................................ 33
Fronts ................................................................................................................................ 35
Frontal Trapping................................................................................................................ 38
Topographical Influences .................................................................................................. 39
Flat Terrain ................................................................................................................. 40
Mountain/Valley .......................................................................................................... 42
Land/Water ................................................................................................................. 45
Urban .......................................................................................................................... 48
Review Exercise................................................................................................................ 49

Lesson 4
Vertical Motion and Atmospheric Stability ......................................................................... 55
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 55
Principles Related to Vertical Motion ................................................................................ 56
Parcel.......................................................................................................................... 56
Buoyancy Factors....................................................................................................... 56
Lapse Rates................................................................................................................ 57
Dry Adiabatic........................................................................................................ 57
Wet Adiabatic ....................................................................................................... 58
Environmental ...................................................................................................... 59
Mixing Height .............................................................................................................. 61
Atmospheric Stability......................................................................................................... 62
Unstable Conditions ................................................................................................... 62
Neutral Conditions ...................................................................................................... 64
Stable Conditions ....................................................................................................... 65
Conditional Stability and Instability ...................................................................... 66
Illustration of Atmospheric Stability Conditions .......................................................... 66
Inversions ................................................................................................................... 68
Radiation .............................................................................................................. 68
Subsidence .......................................................................................................... 69
Frontal .................................................................................................................. 70
Advection ............................................................................................................. 71
Stability and Plume Behavior ............................................................................................ 72
Review Exercise................................................................................................................ 76

Lesson 5
Meteorological Instruments.................................................................................................. 85
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 85
Wind Speed....................................................................................................................... 86
Rotating Cup Anemometers ....................................................................................... 87
Vane-Oriented and Fixed-Mount Propeller Anemometers ......................................... 87
Wind Speed Transducers ........................................................................................... 88
Wind Direction................................................................................................................... 89
Wind Vanes ................................................................................................................ 89
Fixed-Mount Propeller Anemometers......................................................................... 90

Wind Direction Transducers ....................................................................................... 90

Siting and Exposure of Wind Measuring Instruments ................................................ 90
Temperature and Temperature Difference ....................................................................... 92
Classes of Temperature Sensors............................................................................... 92
Temperature Difference.............................................................................................. 92
Siting and Exposure of Instruments to Measure Temperature
and Temperature Difference.................................................................................. 92
Radiation ........................................................................................................................... 93
Siting and Exposure of Radiation Measuring Instruments ......................................... 94
Mixing Height .................................................................................................................... 94
System Performance......................................................................................................... 94
System Accuracy........................................................................................................ 95
Response Characteristics of On-Site Meteorological Sensors .................................. 96
Quality Assurance and Quality Control ............................................................................. 97
Review Exercise................................................................................................................ 99

Lesson 6
Plume Dispersion and Air Quality Modeling..................................................................... 104
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 104
Plume Rise...................................................................................................................... 105
Momentum and Buoyancy........................................................................................ 106
Source Effects of Plume Rise................................................................................... 107
Formulas................................................................................................................... 108
Dispersion Estimates ...................................................................................................... 108
Air Quality Dispersion Models......................................................................................... 109
Gaussian Distribution ...................................................................................................... 110
Stability Classifications ............................................................................................ 112
Screening Level Modeling ....................................................................................... 113
Refined Modeling...................................................................................................... 113
Long Range Transport .................................................................................................... 114
Review Exercise.............................................................................................................. 115

Lesson 7
Use of Meteorology in Air Quality Regulatory Programs ................................................ 121
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 121
State Implementation Plans ............................................................................................ 121
New Source Review........................................................................................................ 122
Air Quality Modeling ................................................................................................. 123
Visibility..................................................................................................................... 123
Pollutant Deposition.................................................................................................. 124
Vapor Plume Induced Icing ...................................................................................... 124
Emergency Planning and Response............................................................................... 125
Review Exercise.............................................................................................................. 126

Glossary...........................................................................................................130

Figures
Figure 1-1.
Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-6.
Figure 2-7.
Figure 2-8.
Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-4.
Figure 3-5.
Figure 3-6.
Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-8.
Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-10.
Figure 3-11.
Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-14.
Figure 3-15.
Figure 3-16.
Figure 3-17.
Figure 3-18.
Figure 3-19.
Figure 3-20.
Figure 3-21.
Figure 3-22.
Figure 3-23.
Figure 3-24.
Figure 3-25.
Figure 3-26.
Figure 3-27.
Figure 3-28.

The four atmospheric layers .................................................................................. 3

Wavelengths at which the sun radiates 99% of its energy .................................... 8
Two factors that reduce atmospheric transparency............................................... 9
Relationship of transparency to latitude............................................................... 12
Seasonal effect of transparency at a particular location ...................................... 12
Seasonal variations in daylight duration .............................................................. 13
Oblique and vertical rays ..................................................................................... 14
The mean annual radiation and heat balance of the atmosphere relative to 100
units of incoming solar radiation .......................................................................... 15
Distribution of heat latitudinally ............................................................................ 17
Isobars around areas of low and high pressure................................................... 23
The Coriolis force ................................................................................................. 24
The deflection of large-scale winds in the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres ........................................................................................................ 25
Pressure gradients ............................................................................................... 26
Balance of forces resulting in geostrophic wind................................................... 27
The Coriolis force combines with friction to balance the horizontal pressure
gradient force ....................................................................................................... 28
The Ekman spiral of wind in the Northern Hemisphere ....................................... 29
Surface air flow around low and high pressure systems ..................................... 29
Hypothetical planetary air circulation for nonrotating earth of uniform surface.... 31
General atmospheric circulation patterns including mean surface winds............ 32
Trajectories of air masses into North America..................................................... 33
Advancing cold front ............................................................................................ 35
Advancing warm front .......................................................................................... 36
Occluded front...................................................................................................... 36
Cold and warm front occlusions........................................................................... 37
Stationary front represented on a map ................................................................ 37
The life of a cyclone ............................................................................................. 38
Topography .......................................................................................................... 39
Topographical effects on heat and wind flow....................................................... 39
Flat terrain ............................................................................................................ 40
Examples of variations of wind with height over different surface roughness
elements .............................................................................................................. 41
Differential heating ............................................................................................... 41
Mountain/valley complex terrain .......................................................................... 42
Wind flow over and around mountains (geometric effect) ................................... 43
Thermal effect in valley ....................................................................................... 44
Diurnal variations in mountain/valley flow due to solar heating ........................... 44
Thermal effect at land/water interface.................................................................. 45
Sea breeze due to differential heating ................................................................. 46

Figure 3-29.
Figure 3-30.
Figure 3-31.
Figure 4-1.
Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-3.
Figure 4-4.
Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-6.
Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-8.
Figure 4-9.
Figure 4-10.
Figure 4-11.
Figure 4-12
Figure 4-13.
Figure 4-14.
Figure 4-15.
Figure 4-16.
Figure 4-17.
Figure 4-18.
Figure 4-19.
Figure 4-20.
Figure 4-21.
Figure 4-22.
Figure 4-23.
Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-4.
Figure 5-5.
Figure 5-6.
Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-3.
Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-5.
Figure 6-6
Figure 6-7.

Land breeze due to differential heating ............................................................... 46

Mechanical effect at land/water interface ............................................................ 47
Thermal and mechanical effects of cities............................................................. 48
Dry adiabatic lapse rate ....................................................................................... 58
Wet adiabatic lapse rate ...................................................................................... 59
Environmental lapse rate ..................................................................................... 60
Temperature inversion ......................................................................................... 60
Relationship of adiabatic lapse rate to air temperature ....................................... 61
Mixing height ........................................................................................................ 62
Enhanced buoyancy associated with instability (superadiabatic lapse rate) ....... 63
Unstable conditions.............................................................................................. 63
Neutral conditions ................................................................................................ 64
Stable conditions.................................................................................................. 65
Conditional stability .............................................................................................. 66
Atmospheric stability conditions........................................................................... 67
Temperature inversion ......................................................................................... 68
Diurnal cycle......................................................................................................... 69
Subsidence inversion ........................................................................................... 70
Frontal inversion (cold front) ................................................................................ 71
Surface-based advection inversion...................................................................... 71
Terrain-based advection inversion....................................................................... 72
Looping plume...................................................................................................... 73
Fanning plume ..................................................................................................... 73
Coning plume ....................................................................................................... 74
Lofting plume........................................................................................................ 74
Fumigation ........................................................................................................... 75
Two types of anemometers.................................................................................. 87
Fixed mount (uvw) anemometer .......................................................................... 88
Wind vanes .......................................................................................................... 89
Distance siting criteria for wind measuring instruments....................................... 91
Recommended mounting locations for wind instruments .................................... 91
Pyranometer......................................................................................................... 93
Plume rise .......................................................................................................... 105
Wind speed affects entrainment ........................................................................ 106
Two examples of downwash.............................................................................. 107
Gaussian distribution ......................................................................................... 110
Schematic representation of Gaussian plume ................................................... 111
Horizontal and vertical dispersion coefficients................................................... 113
Northeast ozone transport region ...................................................................... 114

Tables
Table 1-1.
Table 2-1.
Table 2-2.
Table 2-3.
Table 3-1.
Table 3-2.
Table 5-1.
Table 5-2.
Table 6-1.

Chemical composition of dry atmospheric air ........................................................ 2

Values for solar constant ....................................................................................... 9
Albedo values for various surfaces ...................................................................... 10
The greenhouse gases ........................................................................................ 11
Classification of air masses ................................................................................. 34
Examples of different surface roughness ............................................................ 40
Recommended system accuracies and resolutions ............................................ 95
Recommended response characteristics for meteorological sensors ................. 97
Key to stability categories .................................................................................. 112

Notation
Units of Measurement
Abbreviation

Unit

Btu

British thermal unit

cal

calorie

cm

centimeter (10-2 meter)

degree Centigrade

ft

feet

degree Fahrenheit

in.

inch

in. Hg

inches of mercury

km

kilometer

kJ

kilojoule

kP

kilopascal

meter

mb

millibar

mi

mile

min

minute

mm

millimeter (10-3 meter)

micrometer (10-6 meter)

nanometer (10-9 meter)

nm
ppm

parts per million

psi

pounds per square inch

second

Watt

Symbols
Symbol

Definition

buoyancy flux

gravitational constant (acceleration due to gravity), 9.8 m/s

effective stack height

hs

physical stack height

plume rise (above stack)

mass of pollutant emitted per unit time

standard deviation in y direction

standard deviation in z direction

Ts

temperature of stack gas

Ta

temperature of ambient air

wind speed

average wind speed

volumetric flow rate of stack gas

downwind distance from the stack/source (Briggs plume rise eq.)

ground level pollutant concentration (g/m3)

distance in horizontal direction (Gaussian distribution eq.)

distance in vertical direction (Gaussian distribution eq.)

pi (3.14156)

Unit Conversion Factors

Concentration

ppm
= concentration in % of total
10 4
Distance

1 in.

2.54 cm

1 yd

0.9144 m

1 mi

1.6093 km

1m

3.2808 ft

1 km

0.62137 mi

252 cal

1013 mb

1.013 kP

14.7 psi

29.92 in. Hg

Heat

1 Btu
Pressure

1 atm

Temperature Conversions
C

= (F32)/1.8

= 32 + 1.8 (C)

Course Description
This course is designed for scientists, engineers and other technical personnel who would like to gain an introductory
level understanding of basic air pollution meteorology. Specifically, this course focuses on the meteorological aspects
that affect air pollution transport and dispersion in the ambient atmosphere. This course includes information on basic
meteorology, meteorological effects on air pollution, meteorological instrumentation, air quality modeling, and the use
of meteorology in regulatory programs. Major topics covered in this course include:

Solar and terrestrial radiation

Heat balance of the atmosphere

Wind speed and direction

Cyclones, anticyclones, frontal systems, and air masses

Atmospheric circulation

Vertical structure of the atmosphere

Atmospheric stability and turbulence

Meteorological instrumentation

Plume rise and effective stack height

Air quality models

Use of meteorology in regulatory programs

Objectives
Upon completion of this course, you will be able to do the following:
1. Briefly describe the heat balance of the earth-atmosphere system including the effect of solar radiation.
2. Describe the relationship of atmospheric pressure and wind.
3. Describe the general circulation of the atmosphere.
4. Describe how topographical features influence wind flow and affect pollutant dispersion.
5. Describe the importance of turbulence in the atmosphere for dispersing air pollutants and explain the different
classifications of atmospheric stability.
6. Briefly describe how the vertical temperature distribution influences atmospheric stability.
7. Identify the key meteorological instruments that are used to collect data for air pollution studies.
8. Briefly define plume rise and effective stack height.
9. Describe how air quality models utilize meteorological data and how these models are used to make
quantifiable dispersion estimates of air pollutant concentrations.
10. Generally describe how meteorology is used in regulatory programs affecting air quality.

Audience
This course is designed for scientists and engineers who work in the air pollution field and require a basic
understanding of meteorology and the role it plays influencing ambient air quality.

Course Length and CEUs

This course will take approximately 20 hours to complete. The number of Continuing Education Units (CEUs)
awarded with successful completion of the course is 2.0.

Prerequisites
Course SI: 409 is one of the initial courses included in the APTI curriculum. Accordingly, there are no strict
prerequisites. However, it is recommended that one of the following courses be completed prior to starting Course
SI:409:

Air Pollution Control Orientation course, which can be found at http://epa.gov/apti/course422/indexb.html

452 Principles and Practices of Air Pollution Control which is a classroom course. A description of this course
can be found at: http://epa.gov/air/oaqps/eog/catalog/cc452.html

or

Required Materials

Self-Instructional Manual, Basic Air Pollution Meteorology which is available at:

http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/eogtrain.nsf/DisplayView/SI_409_0-5?OpenDocument

Taking the Course

Proceed sequentially through the manual until you have completed Lesson 7. The review exercises located at the
end of every lesson test your mastery of the objectives covered in the lesson. Review the material for any review
questions that you answer incorrectly.

Completing the Course

After you have completed the course, a final examination is available online. Passing the final exam with a score of
90% or better allows you to print a certificate of completion for the course.
If you would like to receive CEU credits, and have met all 3 CEU eligibility criteria below, you can do so by
providing your name, PIN and email address after completing the final exam.

Registering with the Air Pollution Training Institute (APTI)

Users who would like to receive CEU credit for a course must be registered with APTI and have a valid PIN. New
users can register with APTI online (http://www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/eog/apti/training.html). The registration process
only needs to be completed one time. In registering, you will need to assign a PIN, which should be a maximum of
10 digits. In order to receive CEU credits, you must meet 3 criteria:
1)

You are employed by a state, local or tribal agency

2)

You are a registered APTI user

3)

You obtain 90% or better on the final exam.

If you have registered with APTI, but forgotten your PIN, contact at 919-541-2497 or fabiano.rose@epa.gov.

Registrar - EPA/State Agency

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Mailcode E 143-01
Research Triangle Park, NC
27711
www.epa.gov/apti

Lesson 1
Meteorology and the Atmosphere
This lesson introduces you to meteorology and provides a general overview of the atmosphere. This lesson also
explains how meteorology is a vital component of understanding air pollution transport and dispersion.

Goal
To provide an overview of the atmosphere and air pollution meteorology and to explain the importance of
meteorology in air pollution studies.

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to do the following:
1. Define the term meteorology.
2. Define the term air pollution meteorology.
3. Describe how air pollution meteorology is used.
4. Name the four layers of the atmosphere and identify which layer is most important in air pollution
meteorology.

Introduction
Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is the media into which all air pollution is emitted.
Atmospheric processes such as the movement of air (wind) and the exchange of heat (convection and radiation for
example) dictate the fate of pollutants as they go through the stages of transport, dispersion, transformation and
removal. Air pollution meteorology is the study of how these atmospheric processes affect the fate of air
pollutants.

Knowledge of air pollution meteorology is used to manage and control the release of pollutants into the ambient air.
Managing the release of air pollutants helps ensure that ambient pollutant concentrations comply with ambient air
quality standards. Knowledge of air pollution meteorology is essential in order to understand the fate and transport
of air pollutants.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere surrounds the earth and rotates with the earth as it orbits the sun. As Table 1-1 shows, dry air
consists of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and one percent argon. Trace gases such as carbon
dioxide, neon and helium also exist as does water vapor. Although the water vapor content of the air is fairly small,

it absorbs six times more radiation than any other atmospheric constituent and is therefore a very important
component of the atmosphere.

Table 1-1.

Chemical composition of dry

atmospheric air
Concentration (ppm)1

Substance

1.

Nitrogen

780,900

Oxygen

209,400

Argon

9,300

Carbon dioxide

315

Neon

18

Helium

5.2

Methane

2.3

Krypton

0.5

Hydrogen

0.5

Xenon

0.08

Nitrogen dioxide

0.02

Ozone

0.01-0.04

ppm is an abbreviation for parts per million. To convert from a concentration expressed as ppm to a concentration expressed as a percent of a
total, divide the ppm concentration by 10,000.
Source: Handbook of Air Pollution 1968.

Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided into four distinct layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere
(Figure 1-1). The lowest layer is called the troposphere which accounts for about three quarters of the mass of the
atmosphere and contains nearly all of the water associated with the atmosphere (vapor, clouds and precipitation).
The troposphere, where air masses, fronts, and storms reside, is the most unsettled layer and provides earth its
weather. The depth of the troposphere varies with latitude and season. The top of the troposphere (tropopause) is
about 16.5 km (54,000 ft) on average over the equator and about 8.5 km (28,000 ft) over the poles. Seasonal
changes affect the thickness of the troposphere causing it to be thicker in summer (when the air is warmer) than in
winter. The depth of the troposphere changes constantly due to changes in atmospheric temperature.

Therm osphere

M esosphere

Stratosphere

Figure 1-1.

The four atmospheric layers

Source for data: Moran and Morgan, 1994

Virtually all air pollution is emitted within the troposphere. Air pollution transport is governed by the speed and
direction of the winds. The rate of dispersion is influenced by the thermal structure of the atmosphere as well as by
mechanical agitation of the air as it moves over the different surface features of the earth. Transformation of the
emitted air pollutants is impacted by exposure to solar radiation and moisture as well as other constituents in the
atmosphere. The removal of pollutants depends not only on the pollutants characteristics but also on weather
phenomena such as rain, snow and fog. These interactive meteorological phenomena are studied as part of air
pollution meteorology.

The Importance of Air Pollution Meteorology

Since the atmosphere serves as the medium into which air pollutants are released, the transport and dispersion of
these releases are influenced significantly by meteorological parameters. Understanding air pollution meteorology
and its influence in pollutant dispersion is essential in air quality planning activities. Planners use this knowledge to
help locate air pollution monitoring stations and to develop implementation plans to bring ambient air quality into
compliance with standards. Meteorology is used in predicting the ambient impact of a new source of air pollution
and to determine the effect on air quality from modifications to existing sources.
When meteorological conditions develop that are not conducive to pollutant dispersion, governmental air pollution
agencies must act fast to ensure that air pollutants dont build up to unacceptable levels in the air we breathe. When
pollutant levels become excessively high, an air pollution episode results and emissions into the atmosphere must be
curtailed. Donora, Pennsylvania provides an extreme example of this situation. In 1948, Donora suffered a
disastrous air pollution episode. Donora is located in the bottom of a valley surrounded by rolling hills. The
townspeople were accustomed to receiving some emissions from the local steel mill, zinc smelter, and sulfuric acid
plant. But, they were not prepared for the dangerously high concentrations of pollutants that built up and became

trapped over the town. The meteorological conditions in Donora during this five-day period (high pressure system
and strong temperature inversion) produced light winds and dense fog. The air was not able to move horizontally or
vertically and just lingered over the town. The factories continued to operate, releasing their pollutants into the air.
Many people became ill and 22 people died. Finally, high concentrations of pollutants subsided as the weather
pattern broke, winds picked up and the valley experienced rain (Ahrens 1993).

Review Exercise
1. The two major components of the atmosphere are ____________________ and ____________________.
2. What atmospheric constituent absorbs more radiation than any other?
___________________________________________
3. What are the four layers of the atmosphere?
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
4. True or False? The stratosphere is the lowest atmospheric layer where virtually all air pollutants are emitted.
a. True
b. False
5. Define meteorology.
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
6. Define air pollution meteorology.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Review Exercise Answers

1. Nitrogen
Oxygen
The two major components of the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen.
2. Water vapor
Water vapor absorbs more radiation than any other atmospheric constituent.
3. Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
The four layers of the atmosphere are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
4. b. False
The troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer where virtually all air pollutants are emitted.
5. Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere.
6. Air pollution meteorology is the study of how atmospheric processes affect the fate of air pollution.