THE TIBETAN PLATEAU

AND ITS WILDLIFE

The Tibetan Plateau is a vast upland region the size
of western Europe. Higher than most of the Alps, it is not
surprising that this region has been called 1/ roof of the world. /I
KEY FACTS
HOW THE PLATEAU DEVELOPED
Over 70 million years ago, India
was separated from the rest of
Asia by a sea. Tibet was a low-
land plain north of this sea. Very
slowly, over millions of years,
India moved north in a process
called continental drift. The sea
narrowed, and the sediments
on its bed eventually crumpled
! up into mountains.
Then, one to two million
years ago, the entire Tibetan
plain was gradually pushed
upward by 10,000 to 13,000
feet. As a result, it changed
from a fertile plain into a high,


",:::o\TAN
J' ........ ....)
cold desert. Meanwhile, the INDIA
old seabed to the south crum-
pled up still higher to form the
lofty Himalayan peaks.
Right: To the south of the Tibetan
Plateau are the high peaks of the
Himalayas.
.... ..."
CHINA
,
THE TI BETAN PLATEAU RANGE ____ ____________ ........,

Above: A marmot gives a high-
pitched call to warn others of
approaching danger.
Right: The Tibetan Plateau rises
miles above sea level.
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L,
The Tibetan Plateau is the biggest and highest
plateau in the world. It was created millions
of years ago by the collision of continents.
Few people live on its bleak terrain.
But it is home to the yak, the snow leopard,
and many other hardy creatures that have adapted
to life in the often harsh conditions.
TIBETAN PLATEAU
A great uplifted block of the
earth's crust, the Tibetan
Plateau lies at an altitude of
about 13,000 feet. Much of it
is a level plain, broken by a few
deep valleys and by mountains
that rise another 6,500 to
10,000 feet. Still higher are the
Karakoram and Himalaya
ranges to the west and south.
Conditions for wildlife are
difficult on the plateau. There
are glaciers in the mountains,
and average temperatures on
the plateau are just above
freezing. Strong winds howl
across the treeless landscape.
Right: The pika looks like a
guinea pig but is actually re-
lated to rabbits.
They intensify the cold but
bring little rain. There is so little
moisture that the region is
classified as a cold desert.
Soils over most of the pla-
teau are thin, and many are
frozen like Arctic tundra.
Grazing animals feed on the
lush, grassy slopes surrounding
the depressions and lakes of
the plateau interior.

The birds on the Tibetan
Plateau include those hardy
species found in mountains
and deserts. The raven is
common, soaring over the
land in search of carrion and
small prey. On the ground, the
horned lark, desert wheatear,
Left: The yak's thick coat of
dense fur protects it from cold.
Front cover insets: The snow-
finch and snow leopard are both
found on the plateau.
and snowfinch forage for seeds
and invertebrates.
Birds unique to the plateau
include the Tibetan sand-
grouse and the Tibetan snow-
cock. The snowcock searches
for food up to and beyond
the snowline. The bar-headed
goose is also well suited to the
high elevations. its muscles can
function in thin air because
oxygen passes very efficiently
around its body.
REPTILES & INVERTEBRATES
Although a reptile's body
temperature depends on the
warmth of the air, 25 species
of snakes and several species
of viviparous lizards live on the
plateau. Since viviparous lizards
are born live, rather than from
eggs, the young develop in the
warmth of the female's body.
Most of the invertebrates live
in the soil, which provides in-
sulation. They eat dead plant
matter and living roots, or they
prey on one another.
Insects are often dark in color.
The dark pigment allows heat
to be absorbed from the sun,
and at the same time it pro-
vides protection from ultra-
violet rays.

A variety of animals thrive on
the Tibetan Plateau. Each has
adapted to withstand the
harsh conditions. One of the
best adapted animals is the
yak, a species of wild cattle
found only in Tibet. With its
great bulk and shaggy, double-
layered coat, it retains enough
body heat to survive altitudes
of 20,000 feet. Although water
is scarce, the yak gets enough
moisture from eating snow.
The chiru, or Tibetan ante-
lope, has teeth that can grind
up the tough vegetation of the
plateau. Its enlarged nose
Left: The red fox has a larger
range than any other carnivore
(flesh eater) on the plateau.
Above: The
bar-headed
goose nests
near pools on
the plateau in
summer.
Left: The
Tibetan
snowcock is
weI/camou-
flaged as it
forages for
food.
apparently lets it draw in more
of the thin air. As a result, it
gets more oxygen from each
breath.
Among the smaller plant-
eaters are rodents like the
Tibetan hamster and the
Himalayan marmot. They find
shelter by burrowing. Often a
thin layer of soil is enough to
insulate them from the cold.
These small mammals fall
prey to carnivores, including
the Tibetan sand fox and the
corsac fox. They may also be
eaten by the snow leopard.
This rare cat has a thick coat to
keep out the cold. Its pale gray
coloration provides camou-
flage among the rocks.
THE ANTARCTIC SEAS AND
THEIR WILDLIFE
,
- - -- -- -- ---- - - - - - - -'
The icy seas encircling Antarctica are whipped by furious gales.
Although these waters seem inhospitable, they are filled with
wildlife, from microscopic plankton to huge whales.
'----- ..... _-
KEY FACTS
ICEBERGS
Every year about 480 cubic
miles of ice break off from the
Antarctic ice sheet, forming
icebergs in a process known as
calving. Often hundreds of feet
across and just as deep, the
icebergs drift in the surround-
ing seas. They pose a hazard to
shipping because just one-ninth
of the iceberg is visible. The rest
is hidden under the waves.
Sometimes vast sections of
the ice shelves drift away into
the ocean to form icebergs of
staggering dimensions. The
greatest on record was sighted
in 1956. At 208 miles long and
60 miles wide, it was the size of
Maryland.
As icebergs drift away from
the continent, they start to melt
and break into smaller chunks.
Some develop irregular or fan-
tastic shapes. Different sections
melt at different rates, but a
berg may take several years to
vanish completely. Drifting at a
rate of about eight miles a day,
some fragments travel as far
north as the Antarctic Converg-
ence before disappearing.
"..."..,....-------- .............
At/antic Ocean // Bouvetgya "',

1/ South " Indian
South Georgia_ A. Sandwich 'QCllan
r ; Islands '\. ..
} South \
Falkland Islands .. ' Orkney \
d'iJ' Islands

I i Kerguelen \
c-d.l. . Island'il
A J;",,;ll ill A :..:. McOonald Island. \
a.11 I Sou Heard Island I
I
/ Islands
O
... I
I
Peter I 0 South Pole I
I
I
I I
\ I
\ /
/
Seo# Island. . Islands /
./
, ./'
'--. Antarctic Convergence ,/
Pacific Ocean
left, above,
and right:
With the relent-
less attack of
harsh weather,
icebergs slowly
change from
flat-topped
slabs into irreg-
ular, beautiful
forms. As they
drift north,
they become
rounded and
melt away.
Southern Ocean
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The Antarctic seas are surprisingly rich in plant
and animal life. But the ice and chilly ocean depths
require special adaptations from the creatures
that inhabit these waters. To fight off the constant
cold, some animals have a natural antifreeze
in their body fluids. Other animals have
permanently cool feet or layers of fat.
~ ICE, WATER, WIND &: CURRENTS
Antarctica's shores change
continually. The thick ice
covering the continent creeps
over the true coastline and
creates huge fringes known as
ice shelves. Towering sections
of ice break off these shelves
to form icebergs.
The sea's surface is frozen
around much of the contin-
ent. The ice swells from 1 .5
million square miles at sum-
mer's end to nearly 8 million
in winter. In spring the extra
ice thaws and splits into floes.
Farther from Antarctica,
the surface is largely ice-free.
Cold ocean currents sweep
Front inset
left: The fast-
swimming sei
whale filters
fish and krill
from the deep
open sea off
Antarctica.
Like the rare
blue whale, its
population has
dropped
drastically
because of
whaling.
Front inset
right: The krill
is a vital link
in Antarctic
food chains.
north and west until, at 50
to 60 degrees latitude, they
meet warmer water and sink
below it. The belt where the
currents meet is called the
Antarctic Convergence. It
forms the boundary of the
Antarctic region.
Inside the convergence, the
water is surprisingly support-
ive of life. The currents stir up
deeper water that is rich in
nutrients, and the cold water
contains a lot of oxygen.
Inshore, the richer waters
tend to be in the pack-ice
zones, where light penetrates
in summer.
~ MAMMALS
The Weddell seal is the mam-
mal found closest to the South
Pole. It can remain in iced-over
seas all winter because its body
fat keeps out the cold. Using
its teeth, it gnaws breathing
holes in the ice. The crabeater
seal swims under pack ice and
feeds on krill. Its young often
fall prey to the leopard seal,
Colonies of seabirds, which
sometimes have millions of
individuals, crowd onto the
ice-free coasts and islands of
the Antarctic seas. Outside the
nesting season, albatrosses and
petrels roam the seas in search
of surface plankton and squid.
Gulls, terns, and skuas remain
in coastal waters, often near
upwelling currents.
Feathers provide good insu-
lation against heat loss. But
Left: The imperial shag has a
tufted crest during the breed-
ing season.
which also kills penguins.
Baleen whales, including
blue, humpback, and right
whales, migrate to Antarctic
seas in summer. Cruising in the
water, they trap and strain
huge mouthfuls of krill. The fat
reserves that they gain from
summer feeding sustain them
when they go north to breed.
naked feet are a liability for
birds that perch on ice floes.
To compensate, some gulls
cool their blood before it
reaches their feet. They re-
cycle the warmth back into
their bodies.
Penguins are well insulated.
Their dense plumage protects
them from freezing winds and
cold water. They also have an
insulating layer of fat beneath
their plumage.
Right: The rockhopper is a small
but aggressive penguin that
breeds on cliff tops.
~ LIFE IN THE SEAS
Unlike the barren ice sheets of
Antarctica, the surrounding
seas are rich in wildlife. As the
pack ice melts in summer, tiny
free-floating plants known as
phytoplankton start to bloom
around nutrient-rich currents.
They are the principal food of
many animals, including zoo-
plankton, krill and other crus-
taceans, squid, and fish.
Shrimplike krill are among
the most abundant animals
in polar waters and are eaten
by many flesh eaters. Huge
Left: The eelpout is a species of
cod that thrives in the coastal
Antarctic waters.
Left: Warmed
by its thick
body fat, the
Weddell seal is
a supreme
diver. It uses
echolocation
to find its prey
offish and
squid in the
dark waters
under the solid
coastal ice.
swarms of krill have been seen
near the surface in summer. In
winter they descend deeper to
feed on plankton remains.
Other invertebrates inhabit
the shallow seabed around
Antarctica where mineral -rich
sediments accumulate. These
invertebrates include filter-
feeding sponges, as well as
mollusks, starfish, sea spiders,
and sea slugs.
Many fish are specially
adapted for the cold. Some
Antarctic cod have an anti-
freeze chemical in their body
fluids that sustains them at
temperatures below freezing.
DEEP OCEAN TRENCHES
AND THEIR WILDLIFE
Trenches in the deep ocean can reach depths of seven miles. At these
depths, survival is very difficult for the small number of inhabitants
that must eat baderio-or each other--in order to survive.
KEY FACTS
FORMATION OF THE TRENCHES
Trenches in the deep ocean
occur in a ring around the
perimeter of the Pacific Ocean.
Several trenches also border
the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
DEEP OCEAN TRENCHES
Trench Depth (ft.)
1 Aleutian 25,194
2 Mid-America 21,857
Some scientists believe that
the trenches were formed by
the continuous movement of
the earth's crust. According to
this theory, the world's conti-
nents sit on huge plates of
land that float on the earth's
molten core. These plates are
continually moving away from
the core, splitting the earth's
crust at various places under
the sea. Lava wells up at these
points to form volcanic moun-
tain chains known as mid-
ocean ridges. As the plates
3 Peru-Chile
4 Java
5 Phil ippine
6 Marianas
7 Japan
~
8 Kuril
9 Tonga
.
10 Kermadec
expand, they push together at
their outer edges, forcing one
plate to move beneath anoth-
er. This movement forms a
trench on the ocean floor. The
earth's crust melts along the
line where the plates meet.
HOT SPRINGS UNDER THE OCEAN
Volcanic action on the ocean
floor causes temperatures to
reach 212
0
F (the boiling point
of water) and huge amounts
of hydrogen sulfide gas to
be produced, creating hot
springs, known as hydrother-
mal vents.
Bacteria thrive in these con-
ditions, getting chemical
energy from the hydrogen
Right: An eco-
system relies on
hot gases from
the Galapagos
vent.
Below: The
flashlight fish
has light-
producing
organs that
illuminate its
body.
26,457
23, 376
32,995
35,840
27,599
31 ,988
35,433
32,963
Above: Deep ocean trenches
occur where plate movement is
common in the Pacific.
This movement and melting
are happening in the Peru-Chile
Trench, which runs alongside
the Andes mountain range.
sulfide gas instead of from
sunlight. Their presence allows
an entire food web to devel-
op. Ten-foot-Iong vestimenti-
feran worms, for example,
get energy from the waste
products of the bacteria that
live inside them. These worms
are part of a unique ecosystem I
that does not get its energy
from light.
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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It has been said that we know more about
the dark side of the moon than about the deepest
parts of the ocean. But scientists are now
beginning to find evidence of many unusual
sea creatures that have developed their own
unique methods for survival in the extreme cold
and darkness of the deep ocean trenches.
~ ADAPTI NG TO THE TRENCH
Smell and touch are important
senses in the trench. Many
deep sea species are blind and
have adaptations that allow
them to detect prey in the
dark. The rattail fish has a long
tail with sensors that detect
movement. The tripod fish
uses its three long fins to prop
itself up 'above the muddy
sediment so it can smell prey
in the clearer water.
Because there is little life in
the trench, animals need to
catch as much food as pos-
sible to survive. Some fish
swim with their huge mouths
open, swallowing everything
in their path. These fish have
elastic stomachs to hold large
Right: The
male deep sea
anglerfish
attaches him-
self to his much
larger mate.
Front insets:
To survive
darkness and
cold, trench
animals have
madeadap-
tations that
give them a
bizarre look
when seen in
the light.
amounts of food. Other fish
can unhinge their jaws to
swallow prey larger than
themselves. Their teeth are
angled inward to prevent
prey from escaping.
Some deep sea animals
produce light by a chemical
reaction. The anglerfish, for
example, dangles a luminous
line from its body to attract
food. This fish also has an un-
usual solution to the problem
of mating in the sparsely pop-
ulated trench. The male is
much smaller than the fe-
male and attaches himself to
her, becoming completely
dependent and even sharing
her blood and skin.
~ CONDITI ONS IN THE DEPTHS
Conditions in the deep ocean
trenches are unique. Visible
light penetrates only 650 feet
below sea level, and by 3,000
feet it is totally dark.
Pressure is one reason so lit-
tle is known about this realm.
At seven miles below the water
surface, the pressure is 1,100
times greater than at sea level.
Movement becomes slow in
the dense, salty water, which
may be below freezing (32
0
F) .
Divers cannot survive at such
depths, and even pressurized
submersible vessels can stay
down for only a few days. In
1960 a submersible first took
two men seven miles down
into the Marianas Trench.
Left: Some
deep sea fish
can unhinge
their jaws to
engulf large
prey.
Below: The
rattail fish uses
its tail to find
prey in the
dark.
~ FEEDING INTHE TRENCH
Plants cannot live in the dark
trenches because they need
light for photosynthesis (con-
verting light into energy). In
the absence of plant life, the
only available food for the
trench animals is detritus-the
remains of dead material- that
has sunk down from above.
The detritus forms a soft, ooz-
Left: Chemicals in the bodies of
trench animals like this deep sea
fish produce light.
ing deposit containing vast
numbers of bacteria. These
bacteria provide food for
deep sea species such as fish,
sea cucumbers, bivalves,
worms, and crustaceans.
The animals living in the
trenches have only two op-
tions for food: They can feed
on detritus or on each other.
As a result of the limited food
supply, few trench inhab-
itants live long.
NAMIBIA AND ITS WILDLIFE
N a m i b i a ~ amazing mix of landscapes reflects the many kinds of
dry habitat in Africa. But one habitat is unlike any other--Q
na"ow coastal desert that is sometimes shrouded in fog.
KEY FACTS
NAMIBIA'S STRANGEST PLANT
When the fog rolls across the
Namib Desert in the morning,
the moist air quenches the
thirst of the plants and the
animals that inhabit this land.
The welwitschia is an unusual
I
plant that lives only in this
desert. It has no obvious stem.
Instead, it has an enormous
tap root that projects above
ground to form a crown up to
three feet across. Two straplike
leaves sprout from this crown.
The leaves grow many feet
long, but they are torn into
ribbons and scorched by the
sun as they rub against the
desert floor in the wind.
The surface of the leaves is
covered with tiny pores-
Above: The welwitschia is a
unique plant that can conserve
water in the desert.
more than 130,000 per square
inch. Most of the time the
pores are tightly sealed to keep
in precious moisture. But in the
morning mist, they open up
to absorb the condensed wa-
ter left on the leaves before it
evaporates. A welwitschia can
live in the desert for up to
2,000 years.
CONSERVATION PROSPECTS
Namibia is a vital refuge for
scarce species like Hartmann's
mountain zebra and the desert
black rhinoceros. Since 1945
its wildlife parks and nature
Below: The horns of black rhinos
are removed in an experiment to
prevent poaching.
reserves have been financed
and run by neighboring South
Africa. But when Namibia
became independent in 1989,
conservation projects lost
Right: A female rhino lives a
normal life, unaffected by the loss
of her horns.
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i
i
i
-- --j
I
i
i
i BOTSWANA
much of their funding. The
new state has less money for
parks, reserves, and game
wardens. As a result, poaching
of elephants and rhinoceroses
has risen dramatically.
There is also increasing
pressure to allow more people
to live and farm within the
wildlife areas. It will take care-
ful management if Namibia
is to prosper without losing
its wildlife heritage.
0160200411 PACKET 41
)
Namibia is home to great populations of Africa's
large mammals as well as some smaller but unique
animals of its own. Their future depends on
establishing a delicate balance between
the protection of the wild and the
needs of Namibia's people.
~ DIVERSITY OF HABITATS
Namibia has the driest climate
of any country south of the
Sahara. It is a region of desert,
semidesert, and dry grassland.
Yet it includes a great variety of
habitats-sandy desert, savan-
na with scattered shrubs, rocky
valleys, and rugged moun-
tains. Flat, lifeless salt pans
contrast with oasislike springs
and rivers surrounded by veg-
etation. Namibia has land-
scapes found nowhere else in
Africa, particularly those of the
Namib Desert along the entire
Atlantic coast.
Namibia's population of less
Right: The
male greater
kudu does not
shed its horns,
which may
take six years
to grow fully.
Front inset
left: The web-
footed gecko
has wide
membranes
between its
toes that
support it on.
the sand.
Front inset
right: Lions
live well in
Namibia.
than one and a half million
people lives in a country twice
the size of California. As a
result, not much of the land
has been affected by human
activity. Furthermore, the best
stretches of wilderness are now
protected by strict laws.
In the grasslands and semi-
deserts of northern and eastern
Namibia, wildlife is abundant.
Vast herds of gnu, eland, and
other horned mammals attract
lions. Many of these species
are protected in their natural
habitat in Namibia's Etosha
National Park.
Left: The male
sandgrouse
has special
belly feathers
that absorb
water. It may
fly more than
60 miles with
water in its
feathers for its
young.
~ THE NAMIB DESERT
About 800 miles long and 60
miles wide, the Namib Desert
forms a narrow strip along the
Atlantic coast. It is made up of
gravel plains and vast areas of
shifting sand dunes. There is
little rainfall, but the air often
becomes humid. About once
every three days, offshore
ocean currents send cold,
foggy air across the desert
in early morning.
Most desert reptiles let the
morning fog condense on
their cold bodies and then lick
the water off. Some, including
the legless skink and fringe-
toed lizard, burrow rapidly
through the sand in a swim-
ming motion. The sidewinder
viper races over the sand by
repeatedly stretching its head
out to one side and then pull-
ing its body up to its head in
an S shape. It often sinks into
the sand with only its eyes
protruding and waits for prey.
It even pokes its tail above the
sand and wiggles it as bait.
In areas with loose sand,
white lady spiders dig pitfall
traps for insects. Each hole is
disguised by a fine web cov-
ered in sand grains.
Right: The golden mole's pale
coat reflects heat.
Left: The
darkling beetle
lifts its back
toward the
morning mist.
Moisture
condenses on
its wing covers
and trickles
down into its
mouth.
~ ETOSHA NATIONAL PARK
A protected area of savanna,
Etosha National Park is about
175 miles across. At its heart
lies the Etosha Pan-a vast,
dusty plain that was once the
bed of a lake. The pan is an
inhospitable place, but springs
around its edge support
abundant plants and wildlife.
The park has the greatest
concentrations of large mam-
mals in all of southern Africa.
Hoofed inhabitants include the
brindled gnu, greater kudu,
Left: The morning mist supplies
water to plants on the edges of
the salt pans.
plains zebra, giraffe, and black
rhino. Cheetahs and lions are
common. Caracals and African
wild cats feed on small mam-
mals and also birds that stop at
the springs to drink.
One year flamingo chicks
were seen crossing the pan in
search of water. A few adults
accompanied the chicks, but
many of the parents made
return trips of up to 60 miles
for food. This care enabled the
chicks to survive. In another
instance, however, the adults
left before the young had
fledged and many chicks died.
THE CHANNEL ISLANDS
AND THEIR WILDLIFE
GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS
The Channel Islands lie in the English Channel and include
Cuernsey, Jersey, and several smaller islands. The mild climate
supports species that do not thrive on Creat Britain mainland.
KEY FACTS
JERSEY ORCHID
The Jersey orchid, also called
the loose-flowering orchid, has
purple flowers. It grows in con-
tinental Europe but not on the
British mainland. In the Chan-
nel Islands most of the plants
grow on Guernsey, not Jersey.
Wet meadows take on a purple
sheen when the orchid flowers
England
Right: The rare Glanville
fritillary is attracted to the
flowers that grow on Guernsey.
in May and June. The orchid is
destroyed when fields are fertil-
ized, but a conservation group
in Guernsey has bought the
best meadows in order to pro-
tect against such threats.
AlDERNEY &
English
Channel
l) HERM
U qJ(SARK


JERSEY WILDLIFE PRESERVATION TRUST
The Jersey Wildlife Preservation
Trust was founded in the
1960s by the naturalist Gerald
Durrell. It runs the Jersey Zoo,
and it preserves endangered
species through research and
captive breeding programs. It
has bred orangutans, gorillas,
lemurs, marmosets, and many
rare birds and reptiles.
GATHERING SEAWEED
An old custom in the Channel
Islands is collecting vraic (the
Norman name for seaweed) to
use as fertilizer. Landowners
and other gatherers used to
argue about who owned the
seaweed on the beaches, and
it was agreed to let the public
gather seaweed on certain
days. People collected seaweed
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Below: The jersey orchid flowers
during May and june in the
Channellstands.
Left: The
gorilla has
been one of
the successes
of the captive
breeding
program at
the jersey Zoo.
Gorillas bred
in jersey now
live in zoos
worldwide.
with rakes and cut living vraic
from rocks at low tide. Today,
people can collect dead sea-
weed, but they can cut living
seaweed only in spring.
0160200411 PACKET 41
The Channel Islands have been part of
Great Britain since 1066, but they are all within
sight of mainland France. Some of the islands are
densely populated, but others are uninhabited.
Each island is quite different. Together, they provide
a home for wildlife that is similar to species in both
mainland England and warmer parts of Europe.
~ H A B I T A T
The separate islands in the
Channel Islands differ in char-
acter because of their location
and the underlying rock they
sit on. Mediterranean plants
grow in their mild, frost-free
climate, and some wildflowers
grow in winter. The wet mead-
ows of Jersey and Guernsey
support purple orchids, ragged
robin, lady's smock, meadow
buttercup, and water forget-
me-not. The rare sand crocus
grows on Sark.
There is relatively little wood-
land, but wooded valleys have
oak, ash, elm, and willow trees.
Front inset left: Green lizards
live on Jersey and Guernsey.
Front inset right: Darford
warblers live on the islands.
Wildlife-rich hedgerows are
more common.
The clifftops are important
wildlife habitats. Much of
Guernsey's coastline is a nature
reserve, covered with a profu-
sion of yellow-flowering gorse
scrub. Bell-heather, thrift, sea
campion, and bird's-foot trefoil
add color to the grassland.
Banks of shingle (small peb-
bles) support plants like sea
rocket, sea kale, and orache,
as well as restharrow, yellow
horned poppy, and sea stock
on the older parts. On Guern-
sey, the rare Cornish mallow is
threatened by the Hottentot
fig. On Herm, one area of sand
dunes is largely made up of
shells, and it supports a variety
of lime-loving plants.
~ INSECTS
The profusion of wildflowers
on the clifftops of the Channel
Islands attracts many butter-
flies, including the common
blue, small tortoiseshell, wall
brown, and the rare Glanville
fritillary. The speckled wood
butterfly is often seen in open
spaces on Guernsey.
Many of the insects on the
~ OTHER WILDLIFE
The Channel Islands are home
to British mammals and Euro-
pean species like the white-
toothed shrew. There are also
pipistrelle, greater horseshoe,
and long-eared bats.
Reptiles and amphibians on
Jersey and Guernsey include
the green lizard and wall lizard.
left: The white-toothed shrew
needs a moderate climate. It
cannot survive harsh winters.
islands are Mediterranean
species that require a mod-
erate climate. They feed on
plants that thrive in the warm-
er weather. For example, the
mole cricket is found bur-
rowing in the sandy soil of
northern Guernsey. It gets its
name from its large front legs,
which it uses to dig holes.
The rare agile frog lives on
Jersey. The ormer is a large
snail that is found in warm
waters around Guernsey. Its
collection is strictly controlled.
Unusual fish include the thorn-
back skate, several rays, the
conger eel, and even the
occasional shark.
Right: The agile frog is a rare
species found on Jersey. It can
jump six and a half feet.
Uninhabited Burhou is known
as Bird Island because of its
puffin and gull colonies. The
number of puffins has dropped
from 100,000 in the 1950s to
only 250 today. The reasons
for this decline are unclear, but
oil pollution may be a factor.
More than 1,500 pairs of
gannets nest on Alderney,
along with guillemots, razor-
bills, fulmars, and petrels.
Puffins and cormorants can be
seen diving off cliffs in Jersey.
Shearwaters, great skuas, little
gulls, and several divers are
also common.
Guernsey and Alderney are
left: The European bee eater is
an unusual bird that is found
on Guernsey.
left: The mole
cricket spends
most of its life
underground
in burrows in
Guernsey's
sandy soil. It
comes to the
surface only
for the mating
season in May
and June.
home to the Dartford warbler,
a small bird with vivid red
eyes. Stonechats, larks, and
pipits are also seen.
Many migrating birds visit
the Channel Islands on their
way north in spring and south
in winter. A quarter of a million
fieldfares were counted in one
night, along with many war-
blers, flycatchers, and finches.
Snow buntings, ring ouzels,
and yellow wagtails are seen
each year on Jersey. Birds of
prey such as black kites and
goshawks visit Alderney.
Unusual birds include ravens
on Herm and Sark and bee
eaters and hoopoes on Guern-
sey. On Herm there is a large
flock of wintering brent geese.
Other geese appear on Jersey.
THE RUSSIAN STEPPES AND
THEIR WILDLIFE
The Russian steppes extend from the Ukraine to southwestern
Siberia. The changing landscape includes woodlands, grassy
plains, and an arid belt, each with its own varied wildlife.
KEY FACTS
A VARYING CLIMATE
Climatic conditions on the Rus-
sian steppes can reach great
extremes. In the drier regions,
summer temperatures can top
100
0
F, while winter tempera-
tures fall well below freezing.
Rainfall is low throughout the
steppes, with an average of
only 10 to 30 inches a year. But
in the wet months, the rainfall .
can be three or four times
greater than in other months.
Strong winds sweep across
the central and the southern
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Above: Once
common on the
steppes, today
the European
bison lives only
on reserves.
Left: Because
the bobak
marmot relies
on grass and
other plants
for most of its
diet, the grassy
steppes are an
ideal home.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
steppes. These winds, com-
bined with the low rainfall,
create conditions that encour-
age the growth of grass but
inhibit the growth of trees.
High winds speed the evapo-
ration of moisture, removing
the humidity trees need. The
winds also dislodge the roots
of saplings. Grass can grow
more easily: it needs less mois-
ture, and it is anchored in the
soil by deep roots and under-
ground runners called rhizomes.
Left: The var-
ied soils of the
steppes deter-
mine what
kind of vegeta-
tion can grow
there. The fer-
tile loam of the
grassy plains is
widely used
for farming.
Steppe condi-
tions occur
elsewhere in
the world, in-
cluding the
western U.S.
0160200451 PACKET 45
The Russian steppes are part of a wider belt
of grassland that stretches nearly 5,000 miles
across Europe and into Asia. Birds and mammals-
both residents and migrants-have adapted
to the extreme climates. Some species
take advantage of the areas where the three
distinct steppe regions meet and blend.
~ THE STEPPE LANDSCAPE
The northern steppe is wood-
ed. The central belt is a grassy
plain with hardly any trees.
For centuries this land was
used as pasture for domestic
animals. Today much of it is
used for growing crops.
Front insets: The stone marten
(left) lives on wooded steppe. The
edible frog (right) prefers ponds
on the grassy plains.
Above: The
suslik is a com-
mon species of
ground squir-
rei on the
steppes.
Right: The
saiga faced
extinction in
the 1930s, but
today it thrives
on the steppes.
Farther south, the grass-
lands are drier and the soil is
sandy. The poor soil, hot, rain-
less summers, and cold win-
ters make the area unsuitable
for farming. Vast expanses of
yellowish ground stretch for
miles, unbroken by natural
landmarks. A steppe of this
type turns into semidesert in
the arid southern region.
~ WILDLIFE OF THE WOODED STEPPE
The wooded steppe is lush,
grassy, and dotted with groups
of trees. It is home to mammals
like the stone marten, badger,
and European hare. Moose and
roe deer have taken refuge on
the wooded steppe because
their forest habitats are threat-
ened. Species like the aurochs
(a large wild ox) and the Euro-
pean bison once moved sea-
sonally from wooded to grassy
areas. The aurochs is now ex-
tinct. The bison survives only on
reserves in eastern Europe.
Songbirds of the wooded
steppe include the linnet, gold-
finch, and thrush nightingale.
The hoopoe, bee-eater, and
roller visit the steppe for part of
the year, but they migrate in
winter to Africa.
~ ANIMALS OF THE DRY STEPPE
Rodents are abundant on the
dry steppe. Many are related to
rodents of the grassy plains. For
example, where the habitat is
too hot for the spotted suslik,
the pygmy and yellow susliks
take over. They survive the cold
winter by nesting underground.
jumping rodents such as the Si-
berian jerboa are also common.
The rodents attract predators.
The steppe or tawny eagle re-
turns to the dry steppe to breed
each year. The marbled polecat
catches rodents in their burrows.
The steppe and European pole-
cats live on the dry steppe as
well as the grassy plains.
~ ANIMALS OF THE GRASSY PLAINS
The grassy plains can support
ground-dwelling birds such as
the demoiselle crane, which
arrives in March to breed. Great
and little bustards were once
common, but today they are
becoming rare.
Birds of prey include the im-
perial eagle and long-legged
buzzard. They range for miles
over the grasslands, dropping
down to snatch small mammals.
Montagu's harrier and the pallid
harrier arrive on the steppe in
spring and summer but return
to Africa in winter when their ro-
dent prey retreats below ground.
The spotted suslik is a squirrel
that is probably the most wide-
spread rodent on the grassy
left top: The demoiselle crane
arrives on the grassy steppe in
spring to breed.
steppe. It lives in large under-
ground colonies. Other small
animals include the common
hamster (larger than the pet
golden hamster) and the bobak
marmot. The green toad and
the edible frog live wherever
there are ponds or lakes.
The saiga is an antelope that
once roamed the grasslands in
large herds and migrated to the
dry steppes in winter. It almost
died out in the 1930s, when
hunting and several severe
winters cut its population from
several million to a few hundred.
Today the saiga is found mainly
in Asia, but a thriving population
lives on the steppes between the
Volga and Ural rivers.
left center: The moose has
moved from its forest habitat to
the more open wooded steppe.
Above: The
long-legged
buzzard is a
bird of prey
of the grassy
plains.
left: The com-
mon hamster
is trapped for
its soft fur and
is now rare in
some places.
THE SCOTTISH SEA LOCHS
AND THEIR WILDLIFE
Scotland's sea lochs are marine habitats that are protected from
severe weather and waves. These sheltered environments are
havens for the plants and animals of the rocky shores.
KEY FACTS
HOW SEA LOCHS WERE FORMED
Unlike freshwater lochs, which
are surrounded by land, sea
lochs open into the ocean and
are salty. They occur around
the north and northwest coasts
of Scotland, and some run in-
land for miles.
Sea lochs were formed at the
end of the last Ice Age, some
10,000 years ago. Glaciers
gouged deep U-shaped valleys
through the mountains to the
coast. As the ice melted and
sea level rose, the valleys were
flooded by the sea.
The water is even in depth
up to the seaward end of the
loch, where it becomes shal-
lower. The reason is that the
glacier spread out when it
reached the coast and bit less
deeply into the earth.
THREATS TO SEA LOCHS
Most sea lochs are isolated
and undisturbed. Ships have
always anchored in their
sheltered waters. But real
t hreats to sea lo-chs -and their
wildlife are more recent.
The sea loch is home to a
range of wildlife also found on
the rocky coast. But its inhabit-
ants benefit from being more
sheltered. Waves in the loch
are not as rough, and the tide
does not rise and fall as much.
OIL POLLUTION
Oil spills are a serious threat.
A tanker going aground near
the mouth of a loch would
threaten its wildlife. Because
the loch is enclosed, the oil
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: Salt marshes sometimes
occur at the head, or landward
end, of a sea loch.
Although rivers may run into
the loch, the waters-as well
as the wildlife-are predomi-
nantly marine.
would be trapped. It would
coat the shores and in time
sink to the bottom and kill
marine life. Seabirds that
winter on the loch are very
vulnerable to oil slicks.
FISH FARMING
Fish farming is becoming
common. Tanks and cages
detract from the beauty of
the loch. More seriously, the
excrement from thousands
of fish and the concentrated
food that is fed to them can
pollute the water. In addition,
disease can spread from stock
fish to wild populations.
Left: Salmon fisheries are not
only unsightly-they threaten
the loch and its wildlife as well.
0160200431 PACKET 43
Carved out by glaciers, sea lochs tend to be long
and straight. At the seaward end, the habitat
resembles the adjacent coast. Farther inland,
the loch supports a greater variety of wildlife,
which benefits from the gentle tides.
~ S H E L L F I S H
Shellfish are found on shore
below the high-water mark or
underwater but near the sur-
face. They are food for a num-
ber of seabirds.
On the upper shore, rough
periwinkles graze on seaweed
such as channeled wrack.
Lower down, flat periwinkles
cling to fronds of knotted
wrack. Also lower down, on
seaweed or clinging to the
rocks, the common limpet,
edible winkle, and clusters of
barnacles can be found.
At or below the low tide-
mark, dogwinkles, gray top-
shells, and mussels cling to the
rocks. Mussels are plucked off
and eaten by eiders.
~ LOBSTERS &: CRABS
The small squat-lobster has a
body less than two inches
long and front claws that are
about the same length. Its
body is red with bright blue
bands. It is found under rocks
on the shore, as is its cousin,
the spiny squat-lobster, which
is three times its size. The
spiny squat-lobster hides in
underwater rock crevices and
emerges at night to feed.
The long-clawed porcelain
crab has a small body (less
than an inch long) but long
claws. It lurks under stones on
the shore or in shallow water.
The larger green crab hides in
seaweed and feeds on mus-
sels. It is in turn a favorite
food of coastal otters.
BIRDS
In summer common eiders
and Eurasian oystercatchers
breed on the loch shore. The
black scoter may also nest
here. The red-breasted mer-
ganser brings its ducklings to
the loch from its nest by a
river. The red-throated loon
often fishes in the loch. Great
cormorants and shags may
nest on the cliffs.
In winter two waders
arrive-the ruddy turnstone
and purple sandpiper. Old
squaws and common loons fly
in from their Arctic breeding
grounds. Storms drive flocks of
scoters and other sea ducks to
the loch. They are joined by
razorbills, common murres,
and black guillemots.
~ SEAWEEDS
Seaweeds grow on each level
of the shore. Channeled wrack
grows near the high-water
mark. Spiral rockweed grows a
little lower, and beneath this
are ropes of knotted wrack as
long as 1 3 feet.
KEY TO SPECIES
1 Common eider
2 Red-breasted merganser
3 Black scoter
4 Eurasian oystercatcher
5 Periwinkle
6 Common limpet
7 Dogwinkle
8 Mussel
9 Green crab
Serrated rockweed grows on
shore that is exposed only at
low tide. This shore area is also
home to Irish moss and pepper
dulse. Sea belt and sea oak
grow on the lowest level of the
shore and under the water.
10 Spiny squat-lobster
11 Butterfish
12 Herring
13 Common shelduck
14 Sea trout
15 Otter
16 Mackerel
17 Herring gull
18 Great cormorant
Front cover insets: The
spiny squat-lobster lives by
the sea loch all year. The
purple sandpiper is only a
winter resident.
THE SUNDARBANS TIGER
RESERVE AND ITS WILDLIFE
The Sundarbans is the w o r l d ~ largest mangrove swamp, located
in the delta of the Ganges River. Most of the area is a reserve for
the Bengal tiger, and other animals benefit from its protection.
KEY FACTS
MAN-EATING TIGERS
Some Bengal tigers have gained
a reputation as man-eaters. As
they grow old, some Bengal ti-
gers lose their canines-the teeth
they use to tear and kill prey. They
may then discover by chance
that they can kill people easily,
and so get a taste for human
flesh. Each year tigers kill up to
45 people, including woodcut-
ters and honey collectors.
Experiments are being carried
Right: The Sundarbans is in the
delta of the Ganges. It stretches
from West Bengal east to Bangla-
desh. The western area is a nation-
al park.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
....... ___ -----0--' 0_
Indian Ocean
Right and
below: A
Bengal tiger
may attack a
person if it is
surprised. If it
kills the person,
it rarely eats
the body. Its
favorite prey is
the axis deer
(left), which is
abundant in
the reserve.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
out to find ways to protect peo-
ple from tiger attacks. Lifelike hu-
man models that give electric
shocks to attacking tigers began
to be used to teach tigers not to
attack people in 1983. Since the
experiment began, the number
of people killed has decreased
considerably. In another exper-
iment, workers wear painted
face masks on the back of their
heads, since tigers attack only
from behind. So far no one
wearing a mask has been killed.
0160200501 PACKET 50
The Sundarbans supports the Bengal tiger
and a variety of other wildlife, including the adjutant
stork, fiddler crab, and axis deer. The area's delicate
ecological balance is maintained by its isolation.
Even though it is close to Calcutta, few people work
in the Sundarbans. Tourists are restricted to the rivers,
where they cruise with armed guards.
~ T H E MANGROVES AT LOW TIDE
The Sundarbans gets its name
from the sundari tree, which
grows in the delta of the sacred
Ganges, where the river fans
out into the Indian Ocean. This
mangrove tree produces stilt-
like roots that grow out from
the trunk and help to keep the
tree upright in water. Sediment
from farther up the river settles
around the roots, forming mud
up to 10 feet deep.
Crabs gather among the man-
grove roots at low tide to feed
on the nutrient-rich mud. The
male fiddler crab has one very
large, brightly colored pincer,
Front inset
left: The
Bengal tiger
has only one
enemy: man.
About 300 of
these tigers
now live pro-
tected in the
5undarbans
Tiger Reserve.
Front inset
right: The
water monitor
is a large lizard
that seeks prey
in water or
on land.
which it waves about to attract
females and deter other males.
Onl y rarely does it use its claw
to fight other males. If danger
threatens, the fiddler crab dis-
appears into the mud within a
few seconds.
Several snail species live in
the mud, providing food for
wading birds. The mudskipper
is a small fish with large eyes. It
can breathe out of water and
"walks" on the mud using its
strong front fins as limbs.
Right: The mudskipper spends
much of its time out of water and
can " walk" on its fins.
~ REPTILES
Mangrove swamps are home to
the largest and fiercest crocodile
in the world: the estuarine croc-
odile. The female lays up to 90
eggs in a mound of leaves and
remains nearby for up to three
months to guard them.
The water monitor may grow
over six feet long. Its flattened
tail helps it to swim, but it also
The mangroves' mud is rich in
food for wading birds such as
the common snipe. Members
of the heron family catch fish
and shrimp in the open water.
One of the ugliest birds that
nests in the Sundarbans is the
greater adjutant stork, which
stands five feet tall. This vul-
turelike bird has a featherless
head and neck, which turn red
in the breeding season. As with
the vulture, this bird's baldness
means that there are no head
Left: The greater adjutant stork is
a large wading bird that feeds
mainly by scavenging.
preys on animals on land. Sev-
eral other lizard species live in
the area, including the rare
Salvator lizard.
Many snakes inhabit the Sun-
darbans, notably the poisonous
king cobra. If it is threatened, a
large snake can rear up to an
average man's height. Its ven-
om can be fatal to humans.
Above: The
Bengal tiger
swims well. It
may feed on
mudskippers or
fiddler crabs in
or near water.
feathers to become matted
with blood when it feeds on
carcasses. The purpose of the
long wattle (a loose fold of skin)
on the bird's neck is not clear.
Although this stork is mainly a
scavenger, it also eats live fish,
frogs, and snakes.
Many water birds can be
seen at the Sajnakhali bird
sanctuary in the Sundarbans.
Pelicans are attracted by the
abundant supply of fish in the
delta rivers.
Right: The 5undarbans provides
the green-backed heron with an
ideal habitat for stalking fish.
The Sundarbans is the world's
largest natural habitat for ti-
gers. Since 1973 a major world-
wide conservation effort called
Project Tiger has increased the
numbers of Bengal tigers in the
Sundarbans. Over 300 tigers
now live in the area.
The Bengal tiger, which may
be 1 3 feet long, is a powerful
hunter on land and a strong
swimmer. This ferocious car-
nivore (meat eater) eats most-
ly deer, wild boar, and fish
stranded on the mud at low
tide. Another cat that is found
in the drier parts of the area is
Left: The eyes
and nostrils of
the estuarine
crocodile are
placed high on
its head, so this
predator can
see and breathe
while the rest
of its body is
underwater.
the sandy-colored jungle cat.
The beautiful axis deer has
benefited from the inaccessi-
bility of the Sundarbans. Ap-
proximately 30,000 of these
deer live there.
Another inhabitant is the wild
boar, which has vicious tusks
that curve upward outside its
mouth. This adaptable animal
can swim well. Although it pre-
fers snails and crabs, it will eat
anything it can find-plant or
animal. The wild boar may have
a litter of up to a dozen young,
which are camouflaged with
stripes for the first few weeks.
BELIZE AND ITS WILDLIFE
A thousand years ago, Belize was inhabited by the ancient Maya
civilization. Today, the main residents of its humid rainforests are
colorful birds, predatory mammals, and rare reptiles.
KEY FACTS
CONSERVI NG THE WILDLIFE OF BELI=Z=. E __________ _
Some of Belize's rainforest has
been destroyed for cattle ranch-
ing, even though the soil is too
poor to support cattle for long.
After the land has been cleared
for grazing, it cannot return to
natural forest.
Sugarcane crops have also
encroached on untouched land.
But other plans to exploit the
forest have met with little long-
term success. As a result, three-
quarters of Belize's rainforest is
still unspoiled.
PROTECTING WILDLIFE
Since 1980 many reserve areas
have been established in Belize,
mostly in the rainforest but also
on the barrier reef.
The black howler monkey is
protected in an unusual re-
serve along the Belize River.
Over 70 landowners have
agreed to protect the mon-
keys by not cutting down the
monkeys' food trees and by
leaving corridors of forest
along fields and rivers. This re-
THE MANGROVE SWAMPS
The coast of Belize is almost en-
tirely mangrove swamp. Red
mangrove trees have tangled
roots that anchor the trees and
serve is an important tourist
attraction, earning money for
the local population.
grow out of the water, so the
plants can get enough oxygen.
As the roots collect mud and
dead leaves, a rich soil builds
~ ~ I I t ; ~ J [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Left: Man-
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
groves grow
rapidly into
dense shoreline
vegetation.
They harbor
many species
and enable
young fish to
find shelter
from predators.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
A BIRD SANCTUARY
The Crooked Tree Wildlife
Sanctuary protects the fresh-
water areas of the lowland rain-
forest. During the dry season
from February to May, it at-
tracts large numbers of water
birds such as cormorants, king-
fishers, waders, storks, and
egrets, as well as orioles, wood
warblers, and hawks.
Left: The black howler monkey has
benefited from conservation pro-
jects in Belize.
up. Oysters and sponges attach
themselves to the roots, and
young fish are protected from
larger predators, who cannot
enter the swamp.
Mangroves produce seeds
that float on the tide until they
hit a shallow place. There the
seedlings grow rapidly, creat-
ing a new swamp. As soil builds
up between the mangrove's
roots, the habitat dries out and
the trees die, but they are re-
placed by new plants.
0160200481 PACKET 48
The Central American country of Belize borders the
Caribbean. Although it covers a small area, Belize has
a varied landscape with hot rainforests, mangrove
swamps, grasslands, and coral islands. Fortunatel}j
large areas of Belize's rainforest and coastal habitats
are still untouched by humans, and a variety of
wildlife is able to flourish there.
~ MAMMALS
The rainforests of Belize are
home to several cat species, in-
cluding the jaguarundi, puma,
margay, ocelot, and jaguar.
The jaguar almost became ex-
tinct, but its numbers have in-
creased since the early 1980s,
when hunting was banned.
This spotted cat preys on plant-
eating mammals such as the
white-lipped peccary (a pig like
mammal), brocket deer, arma-
dillo, and tapir (the largest mam-
mal in Central America and a
relative of the rhinoceros). The
jaguar also hunts the sloth,
a leaf eater that moves very
slowly and hangs from trees
using its long, curved claws.
Right: The rare
green iguana
was once eaten
by humans and
exported as a
pet. Today it is
protected.
Front inset
left: The jaguar
is one of Belize's
rarest species.
Front inset
right: Parts of
Belize's reef are
conservation
areas.
The monkeys of Belize have
prehensile (gripping) tails that
they use like a fifth hand, curl-
ing the tail around a branch to
aid balance and movement.
The spider monkey has a very
long tail with a ridged under-
side to help grip. The black
howler monkey is the largest
monkey in Belize. It is named
for the call that the male makes
at dawn and dusk as well as in
times of danger. Amplified by
a bony chamber around the
monkey's voice box, this noise
is audible for miles.
Right: The lithe ocelot moves eas-
ily through the trees of the rain-
forest in Belize.
~ THE BARRIER REEF
The world's second-largest bar-
rier reef lies off Belize's shores. It
consists of brain, pipestem, fire,
and finger coral. The coral is
home to huge conchs, starfish,
anemones, and schools of color-
ful fish. The fish are hunted by
giant barracuda up to seven feet
long and moray eels.
On the cays (islands formed
The American crocodile is found
in the coastal waters and creeks
of Belize, while the lagoons of
the mangrove swamps harbor
the rarer Morelet's crocodile. The
green iguana is rare due to ex-
ploitation by humans, but a cap-
tive breeding program at Belize
Zoo aims to increase its numbers.
The boa constrictor lives in the
mangroves. The fer-de-lance is a
poisonous pit viper that lives in
the dense foliage of the rainfor-
est but is rarely seen.
Leatherback turtles appear in
by mangroves), turtles breed
and frigatebirds hunt. Soldier
crabs drag their whelk-shell
homes as they search for food in
the sand. In the surrounding sea
there are black-tipped sharks.
Sometimes a manatee, or sea
cow, is seen. This rare mammal
can reach 1 3 feet in length and
may weigh a ton.
the coastal waters, and several
freshwater turtles live in the riv-
ers. The loggerhead, hawksbill,
and green turtles are the main
turtles that lay their eggs on off-
shore coral islands and beaches.
These eggs are often eaten by
the coati (a small, long-nosed
mammal) and other animals,
including humans. This loss of
eggs is a particular threat to the
hawksbill population.
Right: The Morelet's crocodile has
become rare because it is hunted
for its skin.
Depicted on the country's
money, the jabiru stork is
one of the rarest birds of
Belize. It is over six feet tall,
and its wings span 13 feet . It
has a black head, red neck,
and white body.
The scarlet macaw and oth-
er parrots and toucans feed
on seeds and fruit in the rain-
forest. Hummingbirds suck
nectar from flowers such as
orchids that hang from the
trees. Flycatchers, such as the
vivid vermilion flycatcher, dart
out to catch insect prey, and
Left: The vivid and noisy scarlet
macaw inhabits the dense tree
canopy of the rainforest.
Left: Fish living
in the barrier
reef off the
coast of Belize
have strong
markings, such
as those of the
French angel.
Fish thrive here
among the
many types
of coral.
at least one flycatcher species
also eats fruit. Below these
birds, the large ocellated tur-
key scratches at leaves on the
forest floor.
Several eagles live in the for-
est and feed along its rivers,
although little is known about
their habits. The most power-
ful eagle in the world-the
harpy eagle-breeds in Belize,
but it is difficult to study be-
cause it nests high up in the
forest canopy. This eagle uses
its large clawed feet to seize
prey such as monkeys and
coati. It also plucks sloths from
the underside of branches
while flying.
SWISS MOUNTAIN LAKES
AND THEIR WILDLIFE
The mountain lakes of Switzerland were created by powerful
glaciers during the last Ice Age. Many are still chilled by the
meltwater that cascades from glaciers high in the Alps.
KEY FACTS
COLD-WATER FISH
Several fish found in the Swiss
mountain lakes are "glacial
relics," left behind after the last
Ice Age. These species origi-
nated in the lakes and rivers of
the far north but moved south
during the Ice Age. As Europe
warmed up again, they were
driven back north. But fish in
the Alps could survive in cold
mountain lakes. As they moved
higher up in the mountains,
they became cut off from the
fish in northern Europe.
One of these species, the lake
trout, inhabits large alpine lakes
and feeds on insects such as
caddisfly larvae, worms, and
small fish. It migrates up to high
streams to spawn, and there the
young develop for one to three
years before swimming down
to the lake.
A relative of the trout is the
Arctic char, which occurs in sev-
eral forms. A common type
feeds on plankton, insect larvae,
and mollusks. A deep-water
variety preys on fish. There is
also a dwarf species that eats
water fleas near the shore.
DISTURBANCE AND POLLUTION
Today, farmland and human
settlements surround most of
the larger Swiss lakes. Lucerne,
Brienz, and other towns have
become popular tourist resorts.
Lakeside habitats have been
disturbed, and waste has pol-
luted the water. Even remote
lakes are at risk from acid rain.
Wildlife species and numbers
have declined. Otters have
dwindled, and the Arctic char
left: Some lakes
like Lake Geneva
have become
tourist centers
and are less
hospitable to
wildlife.
Right: The num-
ber of otters
has declined
with human
settlement.
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. '
left: The
dwarf char
swims near the
surface of lake
shallows and
searches for
the water fleas
that feed there.
Above: The lake trout noses for in-
vertebrates that live near the bot-
tom of the lake.
Another cold-water fish is the
bottom whitefish, which scours
the lake bed for invertebrates at
depths of 65 to 460 feet.
has declined in polluted lakes.
Only the scavenging black kite
has benefited, supplementing
its food supply with trash found
around the shores and fish
killed by pollution.
0160200461 PACKET 46
There are well over a thousand Swiss lakes. In
addition to serving as a magnet for vacationers,
these lakes provide a haven for thousands of visiting
wildfowl in winter. Deep below their surface swim
cold-loving fish that first took refuge in these
waters as the glaciers receded at the close of
the last Ice Age, 10,000 years ago.
~ LAND OF LAKES
Switzerland, a country less
than half the size of Maine,
has 1,484 natural lakes. Many
are small lakes, only about
300 feet across, at the foot
of mountain peaks. But Lake
Geneva and Lake Constance
are more than 35 miles long,
filling the Rhone and Rhine
valleys respectively.
Most of the Swiss lakes owe
their origins to the last Ice Age,
when huge glaciers gouged
out the alpine valleys and left
hollows that later filled with
Right: The
gray heron
wades in the
shallows at the
lake's edge
looking for fish.
Front inset
left: The green-
winged teal is a
regular visitor
to Swiss moun-
tain lakes.
Front inset
right: The otter
is now only
rarely glimpsed
searching for
fish by the
lakeshores.
water. Many of the lakes are
very deep. Lake Maggiore,
which is partly in Italy, is more
than 1,200 feet deep.
High altitude and deep wa-
ter help keep the Swiss lakes
permanently cold. Much of
the water in the highest lakes
comes from ice and snow on
the peaks. Lakes above the
tree line may be free of ice
for only 20 weeks a year.
Right: The black kite is a scavenger
that thrives on dead and stranded
fish from the lakes.
~ B I R D S
Fishing birds such as grebes,
wintering loons, and mergan-
sers cruise the open water of
larger lakes, diving to catch
their prey. The most common
is the great crested grebe, with
more than 300 nesting pairs
counted along two and a half
miles of Lake Geneva's shore.
The coot dives for food but
mainly eats bottom-rooted
plants at the lake edges. This
bird began breeding on Swiss
lakes early in this century and
is now widespread. It is found
over 3,250 feet above sea level.
The mallard is common all
year, but most ducks are nu-
merous only in winter, when
they migrate to the lakes from
their breeding grounds in the
north. The pochard, tufted
duck, goldeneye, and teal are
all regular winter visitors.
The common tern snatches
small fish from some of the
larger lakes in summer. The
black kite scavenges for dead
and stranded fish along the
shores of several Swiss lakes,
including Lake Geneva. It may
chase herons, forcing them to
give up their catches.
Right: The great crested grebe is
the most common water bird of the
Swiss mountain lakes.
~ LAKE LIFE
Tiny algae use sunlight to
grow in the Swiss mountain
lakes. They are not abundant
because the water has few
nutrients and in winter the
lakes receive little light. But
enough algae live to sustain
zooplankton-tiny animals
such as copepods and rotifers.
The lakes also support larger
invertebrates such as water
fleas and insect larvae. In win-
ter, when ice shields the water
from the wind, debris sinks to
the lake bed and is eaten by
Left: The
grayling feeds
on the lake bot-
tom in winter
but moves to
the surface in
summer. Sen-
sitive to pollu-
tion, it has
disappeared
from lakes that
are close to
industry.
worms living in the sediment.
Invertebrates are the main
food of freshwater fish such as
grayling, Arctic char, twaite
shad, and whitefish. Some fish
nose for prey in the lake bed
all year. Others, like the lake
trout, move to the surface in
summer when insects abound.
Water snails cluster on vege-
tation growing near the lake-
shore. Frogs lay spawn there,
and tadpoles find shelter in
the leaves. Otters sometimes
patrol the shore.