Reaction As you have learned, glucose can be synthesized from water and carbon dioxide by a process known as photosynthesis.

However, that's not the only way in which glucose can be created. It can also be synthesized from pyruvic acid and acetyl CoA by reversing the reactions that we studied earlier in the oxidation of glucose. Consequently, glucose can be made from such things as fats, carboxylic acids, and also amino acids by first converting them into acetyl CoA or pyruvic acid. (This diagram is also shown in Example 13 in your workbook.) In turn, glucose can be used as a starting material to make fats, carboxylic acids and amino acids, and other chemicals. Glucose can also be converted into a variety of other sugar molecules by doing such things as reorienting the location of hydroxyl groups, such as when it is converted into galactose, or by oxidizing one carbon and reducing another by shifting the locations of the hydrogen atoms, such as when it is converted into fructose. Glucose-6-phosphate in Metabolic Processes Glucose-6-phosphate acts as a branch point for a wide variety of pathways. It can be used: 1) as a glycolytic substrate, 2) as a substrate for other synthetic reactions, 3)as a substrate for glycogen synthesis, 4) as a source of biosynthetic reducingequivalents and intermediates via the hexose monophosphate shunt, or 5) (in liverand kidney only) be converted back to glucose and released into the bloodstream.
Process

The matured coconut water consisting of about 3 per cent sugar content is concentrated to 10 per cent level by fortifying with sugar. The fortified coconut water is then fermented by inoculating the solution with yeast, Sacharomyces cerviseae. After alcoholic fermentation for about 4 to 5 days, the clear liquid is siphoned off and inoculated with mother vinegar containing acetobacter bacteria. The alcoholic ferment obtained is then fed into a vinegar generator where the feed is uniformly sprayed over the surface of the porous packing medium (corn cobs). Here the alcoholic ferment is oxidized to acetic acid. The product is run out from the packing medium by gravity flow into the receiving vat from where it is recycled into the vinegar generator and the process of acetification is repeated until a strength of 4 per cent is attained. This acetified vinegar is then aged before bottling. reation
HC2H3O2(aq) + NaHCO3 (s) --> NaC2H3O2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) This equation is balanced. In other terms: Vinegar and baking soda reacts to form sodium acetate in solution, carbon dioxide gas, and water. The "fizz" that is seen is the production of carbon dioxide gas.

Vinegar is a living ingredient created through the process of fermentation. The final product will contain elements of the original stock, which add a depth of flavor that differentiates a naturally fermented vinegar from a manufactured one. The term "vinegar" actually refers to the two-step process of fermentation from a carbohydrate to an alcohol to an acetic acid. Sugar is converted into alcohol, which is then fermented into vinegar. Not all acetic acids are vinegar, although all vinegars are made from acetic acid. When creating a fruit-based vinegar, wild yeasts are added to convert the sugars into alcohol. Starch-based vinegars add an extra step, wherein the starch is converted into sugar first, a triple fermentation process. "Alegars" are made from sour beer. Strongly flavored beers that have expired and are no longer fit for consumption as a beverage can make wonderfully flavorful and complex alegars. Vinegar stocks are made using a base material that is fermented with yeast to create alcohol. Brewer's yeast is used for cereals, grains, and molasses. Wine yeasts are used for fruit juices and honey. A sugar concentration in the range of 10-18 percent is considered ideal for making vinegar stock. This is because concentrations of alcohol at 9-12 percent are considered optimal for vinegar production. Acetobacter aceti is the bacteria used to create vinegar from alcohol. It is widely found in nature and requires oxygen to function. The bacteria are added to the vinegar stocks to begin the second fermentation process. Vinegar can be made from stock with alcohol concentrations as low as 5 percent, although these conditions can result in over-oxidation, while at higher concentrations, over 15 percent alcohol, acetobacters are inhibited by the amount of alcohol present and can even be killed off by it. If you're using leftover wine, the alcohol levels range from 10 percent to 15 percent. Not to worry, if you don't want to mess about with testing kits and you're working with some leftover wine at the high end of the scale, say a California cabernet clocking in at 15 percent or more, just add a splash of water and let it ferment. It may take longer than something in the optimal range, but it will become vinegar eventually and you will be rewarded for your patience by the flavor of the finished vinegar. .
Fat in the diet is most commonly triglycerides or neutral fat found in both animals and plants. Cholesterol, cholesterol-compounds and phospholipids also are normal fats in foods. Because a large quantity of fat dumped into the blood stream at one time is deleterious to health and might fatally clog the circulatory system, a mechanism for retardation of stomach emptying of fat is present. When a bit of fat enters the duodenum, a chemical message is sent to the brain which then signals the stomach to cease releasing more material into the duodenum until it has taken care of the fat. Fat may stay in the stomach for four hours or longer, producing at the time a sensation of satiety (filled up) but rendering fermentation more likely. Since fermentation products irritate the stomach, and an irritated stomach subsequently evokes a greater sensation of hunger, the practice of eating fats for satiety is selfdefeating. Fats clog the digestion. Much pain and indigestion have their origin with fats eaten. Only a small amount of fat is digested in the stomach by gastric lipase, a fat-splitting enzyme. Essentially, most fat digestion occurs in the small intestine. First, the fat globules must be broken into small sizes so enzymes can act. This emulsification is accomplished under the influence of bile, a secretion of the liver. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and drawn upon as needed. Bile contains a large amount of bile salts, the main function of which is to make fat globules break down. This is similar to the action of some household detergents that remove grease.

The "detergent" function of bile salts is essential to fat digestion, for the lipase (fat-splitting enzymes) can "attack" the fat globules only on their surfaces. The smaller the fat particles, the better digestion. Pancreatic lipase is the most important enzyme in fat digestion. In concert, the epithelial lining of the small intestine also releases a small amount of lipase. Both lipases (pancreatic and intestinal) act to digest fat. Bile salts also form micelles, small sphericle globules. These micelles help remove the end products of fat digestion so further fat digestion can continue. These little micelles transport their cargo to the lining of the small intestine, where they're absorbed. The bile salts then return for more cargo, thus providing a "ferry service." So important are bile salts that, when in adequate supply, about 97 percent of fat is absorbed. If insufficient, only 50 to 60 percent is absorbed. People ask why fat is digested more slowly than either protein or carbohydrate, and sometimes think that this means that there is a problem with digestion of fat; however, the slow digestion is really only natures way of maintaining an even amount of the energy distribution. Fat digestion in infants is somewhat different from fat digestion in adults, especially if the infants are fed human milk. The digestion of fats in the infant begins in the mouth with the function of several digestive enzymes that are special to the infant. The fatty acids are broken down in order to be well digested. A special enzyme coming from the mammary gland enables most of the cholesterol from the human milk to be absorbed by the infant. Cholesterol is a very important nutrient for the infant, especially for its role in brain and other central nervous system development. The typical infant formula is greatly lacking in cholesterol and also lacks the enzyme that aids in the absorption of cholesterol. Glycosphingolipids are lipids with single sugar molecules attached found in cell membranes, especially in the brain. They also protect against gastrointestinal infections, especially in infants and children. Whole milk is an adequate source, especially human milk. Fat digestion of phospholipids and other lipids makes up very minor, but sometimes important, parts of the building blocks for tissues. These special lipids are usually made by the body and diet is not the major source.