ESC 301 ECOLOGY-Part A Ferhan een

What is Ecology?
Ecology is the study of populations, communities, and ecosystems Hierarchy of Ecology
biosphere ecosystem community population individual

Biosphere

Organisms
Made of cells Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic
Ecosystems

Species
Groups of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behavior, and genetic make up
Communities

Populations Communities Ecosystems Biosphere

Populations

Organisms

 Biotic communities: grouping or assemblage of plants, animals, and microbes Species: different kinds of plants, animals, and microbes in the community Populations: number of individuals that make up the interbreeding, reproducing group

EVOLUTION AND ECOLOGY

DNA Gene Mutation Natural Selection Fitness Speciation

How does evolution actually work?

Natural Selection Mutation -natural -mutation caused by X-rays and mutagenic chemicals

Mechanisms of Species Adaptation

Change through natural selection
Selective pressure determines which organisms survive and reproduce and which are eliminated.

Natural Selection
Darwin, 1859: He observed that the Galpagos species differed from each other in beak size and shape. He also noted that the beak varieties were associated with diets based on different foods. He concluded that when the original South American finches reached the islands, they dispersed to different environments where they had to adapt to different conditions. Over many generations, they changed anatomically in ways that allowed them to get enough food and survive to reproduce.

Natural selection works as follows:

Within a species there are always slight differences between individuals. Some individuals may have characteristics which make them better able to survive than others (they are better adapted). These individuals are likely to live longer, breed and produce more offspring. If the characteristic which helped the parent survive is passed on to the offspring there will be more individuals with this character. After several generations individuals with the favorable character will be the most common. Over a long period of time new varieties and species can evolve. If environmental conditions change different characteristics may be favored and selected.

EXAMPLE: RESISTANCE DEVELOPMENT IN INSECTS

NATURAL SELECTION:
EXAMPLE OF MOTH
An example of evolution resulting from natural selection was discovered among "peppered" moths living near English industrial cities. During the 19th century, sooty smoke from coal burning furnaces killed the lichen on trees and darkened the bark. On these trees and other blackened surfaces, the dark colored ones were harder to spot by birds who ate them and, subsequently, they more often lived long enough to reproduce. Over generations, the environment continued to favor darker moths. As a result, they progressively became more common. By 1895, 98% of the moths in the vicinity of English cities like Manchester were mostly black.

NATURAL SELECTION:
EXAMPLE OF MOTH
Dark moths on light colored bark are easy targets for hungry birds, but are hidden on pollution darkened trees.

NATURAL SELECTION - EXAMPLE OF MOTH

Since the 1950's, air pollution controls have significantly reduced the amount of heavy particulate air pollutants reaching the trees, buildings, and other objects in the environment. As a result, lichen has grown back, making trees lighter in color. In addition, once blackened buildings were cleaned making them lighter in color. Now, natural selection favors lighter moth varieties so they have become the most common.

The Limits of Change

Adapt Move (migrate) Die (extinction)

Extinction
Biodiversity = Speciation- Extinction

Adaptations to the Environment

Vulnerability of different organisms to environmental changes

EVOLUTION OF EARTH

The evolution of life is linked to the physical and chemical evolution of the Earth.

primitive bacteria (3.5 billion years ago) evolution of photosynthetic prokaryotes (2.3 billion years ago) release of oxygen into ocean and atmosphere evolution of oxygen-using organisms evolution of more complex organisms including humans.

EVOLUTION OF LIFE

Populations
Populations are groups intermating individuals. Population ecology is the study of interactions within populations (i.e., intraspecific interactions). We can characterize individual populations in terms of
Size (average vs. variation) Density (& impacts on size; density dependence) Patterns of Dispersion Demographics (age structure, sex ratios) Rates of growth (or decline) Limits on population growth

Population Growth
example:
10,000 birds in a population 1500 births and 500 deaths per year 1500/10,000 - 500/10,000 = .10 or 10% expressed by saying there is a 10% increase per bird per year

Growth of Populations
Factors affecting population growth
Biotic Potential Environmental Resistance Density-dependent factors Density-independent factors Survivorship Age Structure

Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance

 Environmental resistance: combination of biotic and abiotic factors that may limit population increase Predators, competitors, disease Adverse weather, limited food/nutrients Factors of environmental resistance are either: density-independent: effect does not vary with population density; e.g., adverse weather density-dependent: effect varies with population density; e.g., infectious disease Critical number: the lowest population level for survival and recovery

How do populations grow?

Idealized models describe two kinds of population growth
1. exponential growth 2. logistic growth

 A J-shaped growth curve, described by the equation G = rN, is typical of exponential growth
G = the population growth rate r = the intrinsic rate of increase, or an organism's maximum capacity to reproduce N = the population size

1500

high intrinsic rate of increase

1000 Population size

r=

0.

06

02 r = 0.

low intrinsic rate of increase

500 r=0

zero population growth

negative intrinsic rate of increase r = -0.05 0 0 5 10 Time (years) 15 20

Logistic growth
The growth is slowed by population-limiting factors

N KN G= = r .N.( ) t K

K = carrying capacity The term (K - N)/K accounts for the leveling off of the curve

Population Growth Curves

Population Growth Curves

Reproductive strategies:

Many offspring with low parental care

J-shaped growth curve

Few offspring with high parental care

S-shaped growth curve

Survivorship
mirrors mortality expressed in survivorship curves
plots surviving individuals at different age groups

three types of survivorship curves

late loss (Type I) constant loss (Type II) early loss (Type III)

Survivorship Curves

Age Structure Diagrams

Post-reproductive Age

Reproductive

Pre-reproductive

% males in the % females in the age group age group

Younger to older

What Does the Age Structure Diagram Indicate?

Growth Patterns Proportional Distribution in Age Categories

Three general types of age structure diagrams:

Expanding Stabilizing Diminishing

The age structure of a population is the proportion of individuals in different age-groups

RAPID GROWTH Kenya Male Female SLOW GROWTH United States Male Female Male ZERO GROWTH/DECREASE Italy Female

Ages 45+

Ages 45+

Ages 1544

Ages 1544

Under 15

Under 15

Percent of population

Percent of population

Percent of population

The concept of niche

Habitat niche Trophic or food niche Multidimensional niche
Habitat - The place where an organism lives. Examples: A lions habitat is a savanna. A monkeys habitat is a rain forest. A cactuss habitat is in the desert. Niche - An organisms way of life; occupation. Example: A lions niche includes where and how it finds shelter and food, when it reproduces, how it relates to other animals

Communities
Grouping or assemblage of plants, animals, and microbes
Factors influencing Species Diversity in an Ecosystem
The Edge Effect Latitude Human Influences

The Edge Effect

Law of Limiting Factors

Compare the tolerance differences for a trout and a catfish using water:
temperature (cold or warm). oxygen concentration (high or low). salinity (high or low).

The Competitive Exclusion Principle

OTHER INTERSPECIFIC RELATIONSHIPS

Symbiosis
Mutualism: + and + = Both species benefit

by the interaction between the two species: yucca plant and Pronuba moth Commensalism: + and 0 = One species benefits from the interaction and the other is unaffected: remora fish and shark Parasitism Predatorprey dynamics Introduced species

PredatorPrey Balance: Wolves and Moose

POPULATIONS AND COMMUNITIES ARE DYNAMIC

Absence of natural enemies allows a herbivore population to exceed carrying capacity, which results in overgrazing of the habitat. The herbivore population subsequently crashes. The size of the herbivore population is maintained so that overgrazing or other overuse does not occur.

PlantHerbivore Dynamics
Reindeer on St. Matthew Island

No regulatory control (predation) on herbivores Went into exponential growth pattern Overgrazed habitat Massive die-off of herbivores

Species Introduction: Rabbits in Australia

Introduced into Australia from England in 1859 No natural enemies rabbit population exploded Overabundant herbivore population devastated natural vegetation Using disease ( a virus) as a control measure killed first 97-99 % of population , but increased the resistance in the long-term.

Where is this information used?

Principles of population ecology may be used to
manage wildlife, fisheries, and forests for sustainable yield reverse the decline of threatened or endangered species reduce pest populations IPM = Integrated Pest Management Integrated pest management (IPM) uses a combination of biological, chemical, and cultural methods to control agricultural pests. IPM relies on knowledge of the population ecology of the pest its associated predators and parasites crop growth dynamics.