Routing Fundamentals

IP Routing Table
The layer 3 uses the IP routing table to send packets from the source to destination. If not match Default Gateway

Routers route packets

A network must consistently represent the paths available between routers In this dynamic environment, the paths represented by some kind of addressing scheme - must be kept current Layer 3 addresses across the entire internetwork also improves the use of bandwidth by preventing unnecessary broadcasts.

Network and host addressing

Router Determine Full Network address = Host And SubnetMask Lookup Destination Host Add. match which out going interface on Router

Router Functions

Routing = building maps and giving directions Switching = moving packets between interfaces Routers are packet switches

Routed Protocol

Routed protocol used between routers to direct user traffic

Network Protocol Protocol Name

Destination Network 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.1 2.1 3.1

Examples: IP, IPX

Routing Protocol
Network Protocol Protocol Name Destination Network 1.0 2.0 3.0 Exit Port to Use 1.1 2.1 3.1

Routing protocol used only between routers to maintain routing tables

Examples: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, etc

Static versus dynamic routes

Static Route
Uses a programmed route that a network administrator enters into the router

Dynamic Route
Uses a route that network routing protocol adjusts automatically for topology or traffic changes

Static Routing

Router (config)#

ip route network [ mask ] { address | interface } [ distance ] [ permanent ]

Defines a path to an IP destination network or subnet

Static Route Example

Network want to route
172.16.2.2 172.16.1.0/24

S1 S2

Cisco A
172.16.2.0 S0

Cisco B
E0 S1

172.16.2.1

ip route 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.1

Where you reach

Static Route Example (cont)

Network want to route
172.16.2.2 172.16.1.0/24

S1 S2

Cisco A
172.16.2.0 S0

Cisco B
E0 S1

172.16.2.1

ip route 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0 S0

Where you reach

Why dynamic routing is necessary

More flexibility Automatically updating path to reach destination network. Direct traffic from the same session over different paths in a network for better performance. This is known as load-sharing.

Dynamic routing operations

Function Maintenance of a routing table Timely distribution of knowledge, in the form of routing updates, to other routers

How-to

How to send updates What knowledge is contained in these updates When to send this knowledge How to locate recipients of the update

Routing Protocol Metrics

Routing metrics are used by routing algorithms to determine the desirability of a given route to a destination network. Different routing protocols implement different routing metrics. Routing metrics represent network characteristics. Metric information is stored in routing tables. Routing metrics include: - Path Length - Reliability - Delay - Bandwidth - Load - Cost

Routing Protocol Metrics (cont)

Path Length
The path length metric is based on either path cost or hop count:

Path cost
- Path cost is an arbitrary value assigned to each network link by the network administrator. The path length is the sum of all costs associated with all the links traversed.

Hop count
- Hop count is a value that counts the number of intermediate systems (such as routers) through which a packet must pass to travel from the source to the destination. The path length is the sum of all hops in the path.

Routing Protocol Metrics (cont)

Reliability
Based on a number of network characteristics. Include:- Bit-Error Rate (the ratio of received bits that contain errors) - How often each network link fails - Once down, how quickly each network link can be repaired

Delay
Based on the length of time required to move a packet from the source to a destination. Conglomeration of several variables: - Bandwidth of network links - Queue lengths at intermediate routers - Network congestion on network links - Physical distance to be travelled from the source to the destination

Bandwidth
Based on the available traffic capacity of each network link. - Routes through links with greater bandwidth do not necessarily provide better routes than routes through slower links.

Routing Protocol Metrics (cont)

Load
Based on the degree to which a network resource (such as a router) is busy. Load is calculated according to factors such as: CPU utilization Packets processed per second.

Cost
Based on the monetary cost of using each network link. For example, a slower company-owned link can be configured as preferable over faster public links that cost money for usage time.

Three classes of routing protocols

shortest path first

Time to convergence
accurate, consistent view of the new topology after network fail or restructure. Convergence occurs when all routers use a consistent perspective of network topology After topology changes, Routers must re-compute routes, which disrupts routing The process and time required for router reconvergence varies with routing protocols

Convergence: The knowledge needs to reflect an

Autonomous Systems: Interior or Exterior Routing Protocols

An autonomous system is a collection of networks under a common administrative domain. IGPs operate within an autonomous system. EGPs connect different autonomous systems.

Administrative Distance: Ranking Routes

Administrative Distance

Distance Vector Routing Protocols

Routers pass periodic copies of routing table to neighbor routers and accumulate distance vectors.

Sources of Information and Discovering Routes

Routers discover the best path to destinations from each neighbor.

Selecting the Best Route with Metrics

Maintaining Routing Information

Updates proceed step-by-step from router to router.

Inconsistent Routing Entries

Each node maintains the distance from itself to each possible destination network.

Inconsistent Routing Entries (Cont.)

Slow convergence produces inconsistent routing.

Inconsistent Routing Entries (Cont.)

Router C concludes that the best path to network 10.4.0.0 is through router B.

Inconsistent Routing Entries (Cont.)

Router A updates its table to reflect the new but erroneous hop count.

Count to Infinity

Hop count for network 10.4.0.0 counts to infinity.

Defining a Maximum

Define a limit on the number of hops to prevent infinite loops.

Routing Loops

Packets for network 10.4.0.0 bounce (loop) between routers B and C.

Split Horizon

It is never useful to send information about a route back in the direction from which the original information came.

Route Poisoning

Routers advertise the distance of routes that have gone down to infinity.

Poison Reverse

Poison reverse overrides split horizon.

Holddown Timers

The router keeps an entry for the networks possible down state, allowing time for other routers to recompute for this topology change.

Triggered Updates

The router sends updates when a change in its routing table occurs.

Distance Vector Operation

Distance Vector Operation (Cont.)

Distance Vector Operation (Cont.)

Distance Vector Operation (Cont.)

Distance Vector Operation (Cont.)

Distance Vector Operation (Cont.)

Link-State Routing Protocols

After initial flood, pass small event-triggered link-state updates to all other routers

Link-State Routing Features

Link-State Network Hierarchy Example

Minimizes routing table entries Localizes impact of a topology change within an area

Link-State Routing Protocol Algorithms

Benefits of Link-State Routing

Fast convergence: changes are reported immediately by the source affected. Robustness against routing loops:
Routers know the topology. Link-state packets are sequenced and acknowledged.

By careful (hierarchical) network design, you can utilize resources optimally.

Caveats of Link-State Routing

Significant demands for resources:
Memory (three tables: adjacency, topology, forwarding) CPU (Dijkstras algorithm can be intensive, especially when a lot of instabilities are present.)

Requires very strict network design (when more areas area routing) Problems with partitioning of areas Configuration generally simple but can be complex when tuning various parameters and when the design is complex Troubleshooting easier than in distance vector routing

Drawbacks to Link-State Routing Protocols

Initial discovery may cause flooding. Memory- and processor-intensive.

Distance-vector versus link-state routing protocols

Distance-Vector
View network technology from neighbors perspective Adds distance vectors from router to router Frequent, periodics updates: Slow convergence Passes copies of routing tables to neighbors router

Link-state
Gets common view of entire network topology Calculates the shortest path to other routers Event-triggered updates: Faster convergence Passes link-state routing updates to other routers

Hybrid routing protocols

Cisco's EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

LAN-to-LAN routing

LAN to WAN Routing

Path selection and switching of multiple protocols and media

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