TEXT BOOK of GEOMETRY

r)
TEXT-BOOK
OF
GEOMETET
REVISED EDITION.
BY
G. A.
WENTWORTir,
IN
A.M.,
MATHEMATICS.
AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS
BOSTON,
U.S.A.:
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS.

1893.
\A/j
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the
yean- 1888,
by
G. A.
WENTWORTH,
Washington.
in the Oflflce of the Librarian of Congress, at
All Rights Rbsebvbd.
Typography by
J. 8.
Cushing
&
Co.,
Boston, U.S.A.
Prbsswork by Ginn &
Co..
Boston, U.S.A.
PREFACE.
ny yPOST
tions,
persons do not possess, and do not easily acquire, the power -*-'-- of abstraction requisite for apprehending geometrical concep-
and
for
argument.
etry, it
keeping in mind the successive steps of a continuous Hence, with a very large proportion of beginners in Geomis
depends mainly upon the form in which the subject
pre-
sented whether they pursue the study with indifference, not to say
aversion, or with increasing interest
and
pleasure.
In compiling the present

stantly in view.
treatise, the
author has kept this fact con-
All unnecessary discussions and scholia have been

as
avoided;
and such methods have been adopted
experience and
to
attentive observation, combined with repeated
trials,
have shown
be
most readily comprehended.
No
attempt has been made to render
more
tion,
intelligible the simple notions of position,
magnitude, and direc;
but it is believed which every child derives from observation that these notions have been limited and defined with mathematical
precision.
few symbols, which stand
for
words and not

utility in
for operations,
style
have
been used, but these are of so great

spicuity to
giving
and per-
the demonstrations that no
apology seems necessary for
their introduction.
Great pains have been taken

figures are
large
and
distinct,
to make the page attractive. The and are placed in the middle of the
page, so that they fall directly under the eye in immediate connection with the corresponding text.
full lines, the lines
The given
lines of the figures are
employed
as aids in the demonstrations are short-
dotted,
and the
resulting lines are long-dotted.
>883
IV
PREFACE.
In each proposition a concise statement of what
is
given
is
printed
in one kind of type, of
what
is
required in another, and the demonfor
stration
in
still
another.
The reason
each step
is
indicated in
email type between that step and the one following, thus preventing
the necessity of interrupting the prpcess of the
to a previous section.
The number
of the section, however, on
argument by referring which
the reason depends
is
placed at the side of the page.
The constituent
parts of the propositions are carefully marked.

assertion in
the
Moreover, each distinct

direction in
demonstrations
construction of the figures,
and each particular begins a new line; and
the
is
in no case
it
necessary
to
turn the page in reading a demonstration.
This arrangement presents obvious advantages.

at once
The pupil perceives
what
is
given and what
is
required, readily refers to the figure
at every step, becomes perfectly familiar with the language of

etry, acquires facility in simple
to
Geomlearns
and accurate expression, rapidly

for
reason,
and
lays a foundation
completely
establishing
the
science.
Original exercises have been given, not so difficult as to discourage

tlie
beginner, but well adapted to afford an effectual test of the degree
in
which he
is
mastering the subjects of his reading.

in
Some
of these
in order
exercises
have been placed
the early part of the
work
that the student aaay discover, at the outset, that to commit to
mem-
ory a number of theorems and to reproduce them

is
in
an examination
a useless and pernicious labor
but to learn their uses and appliis
cations,
and
to acquire
a readiness in exemplifying their utility
to
derive the
BO
full benefit of
that mathematical training which looks not

as to the discipline of the
much
to the attainment of information
mental
faculties.
G. A.
WENTWORTH.
Phillips Exeter Academy,

1878.
PREFACE.
TO THE TEACHER.
When
guage
the pupil
is
reading each
his
Book
for the first time,
it
will be lan-
well to let
;
him write
proofs on the blackboard
in his
own
care being taken that his language be
the simplest possible,
that the arrangement of
work be
vertical (without side work),
and
that the figures be accurately constructed.
This method will furnish a valuable exercise as a language lesson,

will
cultivate
the
habit of neat and orderly arrangement of work,
and
will allow a brief interval for deliberating
on each
step.
After a
Book has been read
in this
way, the pupil should review

figures free-hand.
the Book, and should be required to
draw the
He
should state and prove the propositions orally, using a pointer to

indicate
on the figure every line and angle named.

Book,
;
He
should be
;
encouraged, in reviewing each
to
do the original exercises
to
state the converse of propositions

if
to determine
false,
from the statement,
possible,
whether the converse be true or

it
;
and
if
the converse
be true to demonstrate
to questions
and
also to give well-considered
answers
which may be asked him on many propositions.

is
The Teacher
strongly advised to
illustrate,
geometrically and
arithmetically, the principles of limits.
stant base
6,
and a variable
altitude x,
Thus a rectangle with a conwill afibrd an obvious illusand a
tration of the axiomatic truth that the product of a constant
variable
is
also a variable
is
and that the
limit of the product of a
constant and a variable

of the variable. If x
by the limit and approaches the altitude a as a limit, the area of the rectangle increases and approaches the area of the rectangle ab as a limit; if, however, x decreases and approaches
increases
zero as zero for
the product of the constant
limit, the
area of the rectangle decreases and approaches

arithmetical
illustration of this truth
a limit.
An
may
be
given by multiplying a constant into the approximate values of any

repetend.
0.3333,
If, for
example,
we
take the constant 60 and the repetend
etc.,
the approximate values of the repetend will be
j%
-j^,
VI
PREFACE.
tW^V'
6^Cm
Tuw5^
18, 19.8, 19.98, 19.9998, etc.,
^^^ these values multiplied by 60 give the which evidently approaches 20 as a
series
limit;
etc.) is
but the product of 60 into ^ (the limit of the repetend 0.333,

also 20.
Again,
if
we multiply 60
into the different values of the decreasing
series ^^, -g^, j-^s, juiusy etc.,
which approaches zero as a
limit,
we
shall get the decreasing series 2, ^, ^^,
^^,
led
etc.;
and
this series evi-
dently approaches zero as a limit.
In
this
way
the pupil
may
limits.
easily be
to
a complete compre-
hension of the subject of
The Teacher
tions.
is
likewise advised to give frequent written examinadifficult,
These should not be too
and
sufficient time
should be
allowed for accurately constructing the
figures, for choosing the best
language, and for determining the best arrangement. The time necessary for the reading of examination-books will be
diminished by more than one-half,

in this
if
the use of the symbols employed
book be allowed.
G. A. W.
Phillips Exeter Academy,

1879.
PREFACE.
VU
NOTE TO REVISED EDITION.

The first edition of this Geometry was issued about nine years ago. The book was received with such general favor that it has been necessary to print very large editions every year since, so that the plates
are practically
plates, the
worn
out.
Taking advantage of the necessity

;
for
new
few
author has re-written the whole work

characteristics
but has retained
all the distinguishing
of the former edition.
changes in the order of the subject-matter have been made, some of

the demonstrations
have been given in a more concise and simple
form than before, and the treatment of Limits and of Loci has been
made
as easy of
comprehension as possible.
exercises
More than seven hundred

edition.
struction,
have been introduced into

loci,
this
These exercises consist of theorems,
problems of con-
and problems of computation,
carefully graded
and
specially
adapted
to beginners.
provides exercises for
No_geometry can now receive favor unless it independent investigation, which must be of such
he becomes acquainted
a kind as to interest the student as soon as
with the methods and the
spirit of geometrical reasoning.
The author
has observed with the greatest satisfaction the rapid growth of the
demand
for original
exercises,
and he
invites particular attention to
the systematic
and progressive
series of exercises in this edition.
The part on Solid Geometry has been
treated with
much
greater
freedom than before, and the formal statement of the reasons for the
separate steps has been in general omitted, for the purpose of giving a
more elegant form

A- brief treatise
to the demonstrations,
and
is
issued in
on Conic Sections (Book IX) has been prepared, pamphlet form, at a very low price. It will also be
bound with
the
Geometry
if
that arrangement
is
found to be gen-
erally desired.
Vlll
PREFACE.
this opportunity to
The author takes
express his grateful appre-
ciation of the generous reception given to the
Geometry heretofore by
the great body of teachers throughout the country, and he confidently

anticipates the
same generous judgment of
his efforts to bring the
work
sci-
up
to the
standard required by the great advance of late in the
ence and method of teaching.
The author
gestions
;
is
indebted to
special
many
correspondents for valuable sug-
and a
careful reading of proofs, to Messrs. C.
acknowledgment is due, for criticisms and H. Judson, of Greenville, S.G.

; ;
Samuel Hart, of Hartford, Conn.
J.
M. Taylor,
;
of Hamilton, N.Y.
W. Le Conte
Mo.
;
Stevens, of Brooklyn, N.Y.
E. R. Offutt, of St. Louis,

;
J.
L. Patterson, of Lawrenceville, *N.J.

;
G. A. Hill, of
CamCam-
bridge, Mass.
T.
M. Blakslee, Des Moines,
la.
G.
Col.
W. Sawin,
of
bridge, Mass.
and Ira M. De Long, of Boulder,
Corrections or suggestions will be thankfully received.
G. A.
WENTWORTH
Phillips Exetee Academy,

1888.
CONTENTS.
GEOMETRY.
PAOX
Definitioits
1
Straight Lines
5
7
Plane Angles
Magnitude of Angles
Angular Units
10
11
Method of Superposition
Symmetry
Mathematical Terms
Postulates
.
13 14
15
Axioms
Symbols
16
16
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
The Straight
.
,
Line.
17
22
.
The Straight Line

Parallel Lines
Trianglf^
Perpendicular and Oblique Lines
33
Quadrilaterals
Polygons in General
Exercises
......... ........
40
66
66
72
CONTENTS.
11.
BOOK
The
Circle.
,
.
Definitions
PAOB 75
77
Aecs and Chords
Tangents
.^
89 92
Measueement
Theory of Limits
.94
98.
Measure of Angles
Problems of Construction
Exercises
106
126
BOOK
III.
Proportional Lines and Similar Polygons.

^
. .
Theory of Proportion
Proportional Lines
Similar Triangles Similar Polygons
131
138
145
153 156
Numerical Properties of Figures

Problems op Construction
Problems of Computation
Exercises
'.
.
.
167
.
.173
*".
176
BOOK
IV.
Areas of Polygons.
Areas of Polygons
...'.....
.
181
Comparison of Polygons
188
192
204
*
Problems of Computation
Exercises
....
205
BOOK
V.
Regular Polygons and
Circles.
Requlae Polygons and Circles

Maxima and Minima

Exercises
Miscellaneous Exercises
CONTENTS.
XI
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Lines and Planes in Space.

PAGE 243
Definitions
Peependicular Lines and Planes
246
253
Parallel Lines and Planes
Dihedral Angles
260
.
. .
Measure of Dihedral Angles
Planes Perpendicular to Each Other
Angle of a Straight Line and a Plane
.... ....
. . ,
.
262
265
270
271
Perpendicular Between Two Straight Lines
Polyhedral Angles
Symmetrical Polyhedral Angles
272
273
BOOK
VII.
Polyhedrons, Cylinders, and Cones.

279
.' .
.
Prisms and Parallelopipeds
Pyramids
Similar Polyhedrons
294 308
Regular Polyhedrons
312 317
319
General Theorems of Polyhedrons

Cylinders
Cones
325
334
Numerical Exercises
BOOK
VIII.
The Sphere.
.
Plane Sections and Tangent Planes
339
Figures on the Surface of a Sphere

of Spherical Surfaces, Measuremeis^^t Volume of a\Sphere
.
350
366
375 380
383
Numerical Ex^cises
MiSCELLANECUr iÊRCISES
\
GEOMETRY.
DEFINITIONS.
1.
If a block of
1, it
wood
will
or stone be cut in the

six flat faces.
is
e repre
sented in Fig.
have
Each
face
of
if
the
block
called
a surface; and
these faces are

that,
smooth by polishing, so
made ^ when
a straight-edge is applied to any one of them, the straight edge in every

part will touch the surface, the faces are called plane surfaces^ or planes.
2.
Fig.
The edge
in
which any two
of these surfaces
meet
is
called a lin.
3.
The corner
at
which any three of these
lines
meet
is
called a point.
4.
For computing
:
its
volume, the block
is
measured
in three
principal directions
From left to right, From front to back, From bottom to top,

block,
A A A
to
B.
to C. to
D.
These three measurements are called the dimensions of the
and are named
length, breadth (or width), thickness
(height or depth).
GEOMETRY.
has three dimensions, length, breadth, and
A
6.
solid, therefore,
thickness. It is surface of a solid is no part of the solid. therethe boundary or limit of the solid. surface, simply So that, fore, has only tioo dimensions, length and breadth.
The
if
cide
any number of flat surfaces be put together, they and form one surface.
6.
will coin-
line is
no part of a surface.
It is simply a
boundary
has only one dimenSo that, if any number of straight lines be put sion, length. together, they will coincide and form one line.
or limit of the surface.
line, therefore,
7.
point
is
no part of a So that,
if
the line.
point, therefore,
position simply.
It is simply the limit of line. has no dimension, but denotes any number of points be put
together, they will coincide
and form a
single point.
STp&ce filled
language, is a limited portion of but in Geometry we have nothing to do with the matter of which a body is composed we study
8.
solid,
in
common
;
with matter
simply
its
shape and
size; that
is,
ited portion of space which may body, or marked out in some other way.
regard a solid as a limbe occupied by a physical
we
Hence,
A geometrical solid is a limited portion of space.

9.
It
must be
points, lines, surfaces,
distinctly understood at the outset that the and solids of Geometry are purely ideal,
though they can be represented to the eye in only a material way. Lines, for example, drawn on paper or on the blackboard, will have some width and some thickness, and will so
far fail of being true lines
;
yet,
when they
are used to help
the
mind
in reasoning, it is
fect lines,
assumed that they represent perwithout breadth and without thickness.
DEFINITIONS.
10.
point
is
represented to the eye
named by a
letters,
letter, as
(Fig. 2)
a line
by a fine dot, and is named by two
as
placed one at each end, BF\ a surface is represented and named by the lines which
bound bound
11.
it,
as
BCDF\
by
the
a solid
is
represented
it.
faces
which
Fig.
2.
By
vanishes
we may
supposing a solid to diminish gradually until it consider the vanishing point, a 'pomt in space,
line,
independent of a
12.
having position but no
extent,
line.
This line
moves continuously in space, its path is a be supposed to \M of unlimited extent, and may be considered independent of the idea of a surface.
If a point
13.
may
surface
may
moving
in space,
and as of unlimited
be conceived as generated by a line extent. surface can
then be considered independent of the idea of a solid.

14.
solid
may
be conceived as generated by a surface in

let
motion.
Thus, in the diagram,

rigbt surface nght to the position
ABCD
and
move
the upto the
b
/
JS
EFOH.
^J
V
The
^f
g[/_
Fig.
3.
points A, B, C, the lines AE,

'
will generate
BF, CO, and DH,

The
lines
respectively.
AB, BC,
CD, and
faces
AD will
generate the sur-
ABCD will generate the solid

15. Geometry and magnitude.
is
AF, BQ, CH, and AH, respectively. AG.
The
surface
the science which treats of position, form,
16.
Points, lines, surfaces,
and
solids,
with tneir relations,
constitute the subject-matter of Geometry.
4
17.
GEOMETEY.
A
A
straight line, or right line,

a
is
a line which has the
same direction throughout its whole extent, as the line AB.

18.
curved line
is
a line
no part of which
as the line
19.
is straight,
CD.
A hroTcen line is a series

the line
of different successive straight

lines, as
EF.
line is a line
20.
mixed
composed of straight and curved
lines, as the line
OH,
is
A
line,
straight line
often called simply a line,
and a curved
a curve.
A plane surface, or a plane, is a surface in which, if two points be taken, the straight line joining these points any
21.
will lie
22.
wholly in the surface.

curved surface
is
a surface no part of which
is
plane.
23.
points.
Figure or form depends upon the relative position of Thus, the figure or form of a line (straight or curved)
;
depends upon the relative position of the points in that line the figure or form of a surface depends upon the relative position of the points in that surface.
24.
With
reference to
form
or shape, lines, surfaces, and

surfaces,
solids are collQdi figures. With reference to extent,
lines,
and
solids
are
called magnitudes.
25. K plane figure same plane.
is
a figure
all
points of which are in the
26.
tilinear
Plane figures formed by straight lines are called recfigures; those formed by curved lines are called
;
curvilinear figures and those formed lines are called mixtilinear figures.
by straight and curved
DEFINITIONS.
27.
Figures which have the same shape are called sinular Figures which have the same size are called equivafigures. lent figures. Figures which have the same shape and size
are called equal or congruent figures.
28.
Geometry
is
divided in two parts, Plane Geometry and
Plane Geometry treats of figures all points Solid Geometry. Solid Geometry treats of of which are in the same plane.
figures all points of
which are not
in the
same plane.
Straight Lines.
29.
Through a point an
be drawn.
indefinite
number
of straight lines
may
30.
These
lines will
have difierent d'rections.
line are
If the direction of a straight line known, the position of the line

is
and a point in the

is
known
in other
words, a straight line its points are known.
determined
if its
direction
and one of
Hence,
the
All straight
lines
which pass through the same point in
same
31.
direction coincide,
and form
one,
but one
line.
Between two points

;
and only
one, straight line can

is
be drawn
in other words, a straight line
determined
if
two
of its points are
known.
whole
Hence,
coincidi
Two
straight lines
which have two points common

exterd,
throughout their
32.
andjorm'hut one
line,
Two
;
straight lines can intersect (cut each other) in only

for if they
one point
coincide
33.
had two points common, they would
and not
intersect.
Of all lines joining two points the shortest is the straight and the length of the straight line is called the distance between the two points.
line,
GEOMETRY,
34. straight line determined by as prolonged indefinitely both ways.
two points is considered Such a line is called an
indefinite straight line.

35.
is
considered.
Often only the part of the line between two fixed points This part is then called a segment of the line.
For brevity, we say "the line of a line limited by the points
AB**
to designate a
segment
and B.
36. Sometimes, also, a line is considered as proceeding from a fixed point and extending in only one direction. This fixed point is then called the origin of the line.
37. If any point (7 be taken in a given straight two parts CA and CB are ^ said to havr opposite direc^ from the point C. tions Fig. 5.
38.
line
ABy
the
is ing opposite directions, namely, from A towards B, which towards A, which and from expressed by saying "line AB";
Every straight
line, as
AB, may
be considered as hav-
is
expressed by saying "line

39.
BA."
line is
If the
magnitude of a given
changed,
it
becomes
longer or shorter.
Thus and
add OB to AO, (Fig. 5), by prolonging AO to B we AB = AQ+ CB. By diminishing AB to C, we subtract CB from AB, and AC= AB - CB.
it is
If a given line increases so that maejnitude several times in h succession, the line is multi.
prolonged by
its
own
^
^
^^
'
plied,
is
and the resulting line called a multiple of the given
^^'
'
line.
Thus
AE=-iAB. Aho, ABî AC, AB. = i AD, sindAB=kAE.

Hence,
AB^BC=CD^DE,
then^C=2^^,
AD = 2>AB,
(Fig.
6),
if
and
DEFINITIONS.
Lines of given length
^^^~-^^^
may
be
added and subtracted; they
may
also be multiplied
and
divided by a number.
Plane Angles.
40. The opening between two straight lines which meet is The two lines are called the sides, and called a plane angle. the point of meeting, the vertex, of the angle.
41.
If there
is
but one angle at a

designated by a cap-
given vertex,
ital letter
it is
placed at the vertex,
and
;
is
Fig.
as,
7.
read by simply naming the letter

angle
(Fig. 7).
But when two or more angles have the same vertex, each angle is designated by three letters, as shown in Fig. 8, and is read by naming the
three letters, the one at the vertex between the others. Thus, the angle means the angle formed by the
sides
DAC AD and AC.
It is often convenient to designate
an angle by placing a small italic letter between the sides and near the
vertex, as in Fig. 9.
42.
Two
angles are equal
if
they
FiQ.
9.
can be made to coincide.

43.
If the line
angle
is and CAD, parts, called the bisector of the angle DAC. In general, a line that divides a geometrical magnitude into two equal parts is called
DAC into
it.
AD (Fig.
two equal
8)
is
drawn
so as to divide the
DAD
AD
a bisector of
8
44.
GEOMETRY,
Two
angles are called ad-
jacent when they have the same vertex and a common side between them as, the angles BOD
;
and
AOD (Fig.
When
10).
45.
one
straight
line
Fig. 10.
stands upon another straight line and makes the adjacent angles
equal, each of these called a right angle.
angles
is
Thus, the
equal angles
DCA
and
DCB
C
(Fig. 11) are each a right angle.

46.
When
the sides of an an-
Fig. 11.
gle extend in opposite directions, so as to be in the same straight line, the angle is called a Thus, the angle formed at C(Fig. 11) with straight angle. its sides CA and extending in opposite directions from C,
CB
is
a straight angle.
Hence a
right angle
may
be defined as
half a straight angle.

47.
A perpendicular to
makes a right angle with

is
it.
a straight line is a straight line that Thus, if the angle (Fig. 11^
a right angle,
DO
is
perpendicular to
AB^ and
DCA AB
is
per-
pendicular to
48.
DO,
(as 0, Fig. 11) where a perpendicular me;t3 called the/oo^ of the perpendicular.
The point
is
another line
49.
gle
is
Every angle less than a right ancalled an acute angle; as, angle A.
60. Every angle greater than a right angle and less than a straight angle is called an obtuse angle;
as,
angle C(Fig. 13).
DEFINITIONS.
51.
Every angle greater than a straight angle and less than two straight angles is called a reflex angle; as, angle
(Fig. 14).
Fig.
\.j.
Fig. 14.
52.
Acute, obtuse, and reflex angles, in distinction from

angles, are called oblique angles and internot perpendicular to each other are
;
right and straight
secting lines that are

called oblique
53.
When two
angles have the same vertex, and the sides
of the one are prolongations of the sides of the other, they are
called vertical angles. Thus, a and b (Fig. 15) are vertical angles.
54.
Two
angles
are
called
^
^lo,
15
comple'inentary when their sum is equal to a right angle and each

;
is
called the complement
of the other; as, angles

55.
DOB and DOC (Fig. 10).

when
their
Two
angles are called supplementary

;
sum
is
equal to a straight angle of the other; as, angles
and each is called the supplement DOB and DO A (Fig. 10).
Magnitude of Angles.
56.
The
size of
of its sides,
an angle depends upon the extent of opening and not upon their length. Suppose the straight
10
line
GEOMETRY.
move in the plane of the paper from coincidence as a pivot, to the position 00; about the point with OA, then the line 00 describes or generates
to
OQ
the angle
A 00.
rotation
The amount of
from the position
of the line
OA
to the position
OCis
the acute angle
AOO.
If the rotating line moves from the to the position 0, perpenposition dicular to OA, it generates the right
OA
Fig. 16.
angle
AOB
if it
moves
to the position
if it moves to the generates the obtuse angle posiit generates the straight angle AOA' if it moves to the position OB', it generates the reflex angle AOB\ indicated
CD,
it
AOD
tion OA',
by the dotted line and if it continues its rotation to the position OA, whence it started, it generates two straight angles. Hence the whole angular magnitude about a point in a plane is equal to two straight angles, or four right angles; and
;
the angular magnitude about a point on one side of a straight line drawn through that point is equal to one straight angle,
or two right angles. Angles are magnitudes that can be added and subtracted
they
may
also be multiplied
and divided by a number.

Units.
17) to
Angular
57.
If
we suppose
OC
(Fig.
from a position coincident with OA until it makes a complete revolution and comes again into
turn about
coincidence with
the
OA,
it
will describe
angular tnagnitude about the point 0, while its end point C will describe a curve called a circumference.
whole
DEFINITIONS.
68. By adopting a suitable unit of angles express the magnitudes of angles in numbers.
11
we
are able to
from coinciIf we suppose 00 (Fig. 17) to turn about dence with OA until it makes one three hundred and sixtieth of a revolution, it generates an angle at 0, which is taken
as the unit for
degree.
measuring angles.
This unit
is
called
minutes,
The degree is subdivided into sixty equal parts called and the minute into sixty equal parts, called seconds. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are denoted by symbols.
is
Thus, 5 degrees 13 minutes 12 seconds
written, 5 13' \2'\
has made one-fourth right angle is generated when of a revolution and is an angle of 90*; a straight angle is has made one-half of a revolution and generated when
00
00
is
an angle of 180
IS
generated when
00
and the whole angular magnitude about has made a complete revolution, and
is
contains 360.
The natural angular unit
one complete revolution.
But
the adoption of this unit would require us to express the values of all angles by fractions. The advantage of using the as the unit consists in its convenient size, and in the fact degree
that 360
is
divisible
by
so
many
different integral
numbers.
Method of
59.
IS
Superposition.
The test of the equality of two geometrical magnitudes that they coincide throughout their whole extent. Thus, two straight lines are equal, if they can be so placed
that the points at their extremities coincide. Two angles are if they can be so that they coincide. equal, placed
be
In applying this test of equality, we assume that a line may moved from one place to another without altering its length;
that an angle
may
be taken up, turned over, and put down,

its sides.
without altering the difference in direction of
12
GEOMETRY.
Fig. 18.
This method enables us to compare magnitudes of the same
and DEF. Let Suppose we have two angles, be placed on the side BA, so that the vertex shall fall on falls on BQ, the angle then, if the side
kind.
ABC
the side
ED
EF
DEF equals the angle ABQ\ if the side EF falls between ^Cand BA in the direction BG, the angle DEF\% less than ABQ\ but if the side î^ falls in the direction BH, the angle
DEF\s,
greater than
ABQ.
This method enables us to add magnitudes of the same kind. BC Thus, if we have two straight lines and CD, by placing the point
AB
G
on B, and keeping CD in the same direction with AB, we shall
^ ^
2)
^
Fig. 19.
have one continuous straight the lines and CD,
line
AD
AB
equal to the
sum
of
C
/F
J3:.
B
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
E on B and the side ED in the direction of BC, the angle DEF will take the position CBH, and the angles DEF"
the vertex
Again
if
we have
the angles
ABC
and
DEF,
and place
and ^^(7 will together equal the angle ABU. If the vertex is placed on B, and the side ^Z) on BA, the angle D-E/i^will take the position ABF, and the angle FBC will be the difference between the angles ABC and DEF.
DEFINITIONS.
13
Symmetry.
points are said to be syrnmetiical with respect to a third point, called the centre of sym^ metry, if this third point bisects the P'
60.
Two
straight line
which joins them. Thus,
Fig. 22.
P and P' are symmetrical with respect to

bisects the straight line
as a centre,
if
PP\
61. Two points are said to be symmetrical with respect to a straight line, called the axis of symmetry, if
straight line bisects at right angles the straight line which joins and P' are symmetthem. Thus,
this
rical
if
with respect to
bisects
XX*
as
an
axis,
P'
Fig. 23.
XX*
62.
PP*
at right angles.
Two figures are
said to be
sym-
metrical with respect to a centre or an axis if every point of one has a
corresponding symmetrical point in the other. Thus, if every point in the figure A*B^C* has a symmetrical
'
point in
ABC,
with respect to
as
a centre, the figure A*B*C* is symmetrical to with respect to
ABO
as a centre.
63.
If every point in
the figure
as
A'B'C has ABO, with

axis,
a symmetrical point in
respect to the figure A*B'0*
XX*
is
an
as
symmetri-
cal to
ABO with
respect to
XX^
an
axis.
14
64.
GEOMETRY.
figure
is
symmetrical with reif
spect
to a point,
the point
bisects
X^\o/ \
c
\.
/'"\
every straight line drawn through it and terminated by the boundary of the
figure.
65. plane figure is symmetrical with respect to a straight line, if the line divides it into two parts, which are sym-
V^
^7
^
\x) ^
\/
~~-^,
Fia. 26.
b_^^
^ ,a/'\^^ \J
-B^^^
metrical with respect to this straight

line.
Fig. 27.
Mathematical Terms.
66.
proof or demonstration
falsity
is
a course of reasoning by
is
which the truth or

established.
67. 68.
of
any statement
logically
Jtheorem
is
a statement to be proved.
^
.
that which
theorem consists of two parts: the hypothesis, or is assumed and the conclusion, or that which is
;
asserted to follow from the hypothesis.

69.
An
axiom
is
a statement the truth of which
is
admitted
without proof.
70.
construction
is
a graphical representation of a geo-
metrical figure,
71.
A problem is a question to be solved.

The The
The
;
72.
solution of a problem consists of four parts
(1) analysis, or course of thought by which the construction of the required figure is discovered
;
(2)
construction of the figure with the aid of ruler
and
compasses
(3)
tions:
The proof
that the figure satisfies all the given condi-
DEFINITIONS.
(4)
15
which often
exist,
The
discussion of the limitations,

is
within which the solution

73.
74.
possible.
A postulate is a construction admitted to be possible. A proposition is a general term for either a theorem
or a problem.
75.
corollary
is
a truth easily deduced from the propo-
sition to
76.
which
it is
attached.
A scholium
The
is
a remark upon some particular feature
of a proposition.
77.
its
converse of a theorem
is
formed by interchanging
hypothesis and conclusion.

If
If
Thus,
(Direct.)
A
O
is
equal to B,
equal to D,
is is
equal to D. equal to B.
is
(Converse.)
78.
The
negative of
If
If
79.
opposite of a proposition is formed by stating the its Thus, hypothesis and its conclusion.
A A
is
is
equal to B, C is equal to D. (Direct.) not equal to B, C is not equal to D. (Opposite.)
of a truth is not necessarily true. Thus, a quadruped is a true proposition, but the converse, Every quadruped is a horse, is not true.
The converse
is
Every horse
80. i/"
direct proposition
and
its
converse are true, the op-
posite proposition is true; and if a direct proposition opposite are true, the converse proposition is true.
and
its
81.
Let
1.
be granted That a straight line can be drawn from any one point to
it
Postulates.
any other point. 2. That a straight
line
can be produced to any distance, or
can be terminated at any point. d} That a circumference may be described about any point as a centre with a radius of given length.
16
GEOMETRY.
Axioms.
82.
1. Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other.
2.
3.
If equals are
added
to equals the
sums are equal.

remainders are
If equals are taken from
equals the
equal. 4. If equals are
added to unequals the sums are unequal, and the greater sum is obtained from the greater magnitude. 5. If equals are taken from unequals the remainders are unequal, and the greater remainder is obtained from the
greater magnitude.
6.
Things which are double the same thing, or equal things,
are equal to each other. 7. Things which are halves of the

things, are equal to each other.
8. 9.
same
thing, or of equal
The whole The whole
is
is
greater than any of
its parts.
equal to
all its
parts taken together.
83.
Symbols and Abbreviations.
X
-J-
increased by,
O
'
circle.
circles.
diminished by.
multiplied by. divided by.
Def.
definition.
Ax
HyP

axiom.
hypothesis.
corollary.
= is (or are)
equal
to;
Cor
=o
is
(or are) equivalent to.

(or are) greater than, (or are) less than.
Adj
Iden.
. . .
adjacent.
identical.
> <
.*.
is
is
Cons.
. .
construction.
therefore.
Sup
supplementary.
angle.
angles.
perpendicular. JS perpendiculars.
'
A X
II
Sup.-adj. supplementary-adjacent. Ext.-int. exterior-interior.

Alt.-int.
alternate-interior.
exercise.
right.
Ex
rt
st
parallel.
lU parallels.
straight.
.
.
O parallelogram.
IE?
A A
triangle.
triangles.
q.e.d.
quod erat demonstrandum, which was to he proved

quod erat faciendum, was to he done.
v)hich
q.e.f.
parallelograms.
PLANE GEOMETRY
BOOK
I.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

Proposition
84.
I.
Theorem.
All straight angles are equal,
-B
D
Let Z BOA and
To prove
Proof.
Z.
E ~
FED
be any two straight angles.
ZBCA-=Z FED,
Apply the
fall
ZBCA to the Z FED, so that the vertex

CB
on the side
C shall
{because
on the vertex E, and the side
EF.
Then
CA
will coincide with
ED^
BCA and FED
are straight lines

is
and have two points common).
Therefore the
85. 86.
Z BCA
equal to the
Z FED,
and
59
Cor. Cor.
1.
All nght angles are equal.
2.
The angular
units, degree, minute,
second,
have constant values.

87. 88. 89.
Cor.
Cor. Cor.
3.
The complements of equal angles are equal.
4.
5.
The supplements of equal angles are
equal.
perpendicular,
At a given point in a given and only one, can he erected.
straight line one
18
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition
II.
Theorem.
^
}
90. If two adjacent angles have their exterior sides in a straight line, these angles are supplements of
each other.
Let the exterior sides OA and OB of the adjacent
AAOD and BOD

To prove
Proof.
be in the straight line AB,
A AOD and BOD supplementary.
AOB
.-.
is
a straight line.
Hyp.
theZ JLOîsast. Z.
st.
46
Ax. 9
But
.*,
the
the
AAOD-{- BOD = the
Z AOB.
A AOD and BOD are
supplementary.
55
aE.D.
91. Scholium. Adjacent angles that are supplements of each other are called supplementary-adjacent angles.
92.
Cor. Since the angular magnitude about a point
is
neither increased nor diminished by the radiate from the point, it follows that,
number
of lines
which
to
The sum of all the angles about a point in a plane two straight angles, or four right angles.
is
equal
The sum of all the angles about a point on the same side of a ^raight line passing through the point, is equal to a straight angle, or two right angles.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
19
Peoposition hi.
:
Theorem.
93. CoNVEBSELY If two adjacent angles are supple^ ments of eaeh other, their exterior sides lie in the âme straight line.
AC
To prove
Proof.
Let the adjacent A OCA + OCB = a straight angle.
A C and CB in
OF to
the
same
straight line.

Suppose
be in the same line with AC.

a straight angle.
81
Then
But
.-.
Z OCA + Z OCF is
90
Z OCA + Z OCB is a straight angle. Z OCA + Z OCF= Z OCA + Z OCB.

of these equals the
Hyp.
Ax.
1
Take away from each
common
OCA.
Ax. 3
Then
Z OCF= Z
.*.
OCB.
CB
and
(?i^ coincide.
.'.
-4Cand
CB
are in the same straight line.

II.
q,e.
d.
94.
Scholium. Since Propositions

;
and
III. are true,
their opposites are true
namely,
80
a
If the exterior sides of two adjacent angles are not in straight line, these angles are not supplcTnents of each other. If two adjacent angles are not supplements of each
their exterior sides are not in the
other^
same
straight line.
20
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition IV.
95.
Theorem.
If one straight line intersects another straight

angles are equal.
,_
line, the vertical
Let
line
OP cut AB at
C.
To prove
Proof.
Z OCB = Z ACP.
/.0CA^Z.0CB=^2ri,A,
{being sup.-adj. A).
90
Z.
OCA + Z
ACP=2
rr.
Zs,
90
(being sup.-adj. A).
.\Z OOA
+ Z OCB = Z OCA
Z ACP.
common
Ax.
Take away from each
of these equals the
Z OCA.
Ax. 3
Then
In like manner we
Z OCB = Z ACP.
may
prove
ZACO = ZPCB.
96.
aE.D.
Cor.
of two straight lines

right angles.
If one of the four angles formed hy the intersection is a right angle, the otht^ three angles are
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
21
Proposition V.
97.
Theorem.
From a
point without
one,
straight line one perto this line.
pendicular, and only
can he drawn
Let P be the point and AB tê line. To prove that one perpendicular, and only one, can
from
he
drawn
P to AB.
as about Turn the part of the plane above it falls upon the part below AB, and denote by
Proof.
AB
AB
an axis until
P'
the position that
P takes.
Turn the revolved plane about AB to its original and draw the straight line PP\ cutting AB at C. Take any other point
Since
position,
Din AB,
and draw
PD and P'B.
st.
PCP^ is a straight line, {Between two points only one straight
PDP
line
is not a straight line. can he drawn.)
.'.
PCP'is a
St. Z.,
Turn the
figure
Z, and Z PBP' is not a PCD about AB until P falls upon
P*,
Then
CP will
coincide with CP*,
and
DP with
a
rt.
DP.
59
.\^:PCB = ZP'CB,SindZPBC=ZP'BC.
.-.
the
.-.
Z POB, the half of st. Z POP*, is half of Z PBP, is not a rt. Z. PC is to ^^, and PB is not J.
and
Z PBC,
to
AB.
47
.*.
one X, and only one, can be drawn from
P to
AB.
22
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Parallel Lines.
98.
Def.
Parallel lines are lines which
lie in
the same
plane and do not meet however far they are prolonged in both
directions.
99.
Parallel lines are said to
lie in
the same direction
when
they are on the same side of the straight line joining their origins, and in opposite directions when they are on opposite sides
of the straight line joining their origins.
Proposition VI.
100. Two straight lines in the same plane perpendieular to the sume straight line are parallel.
-B
Let
AB and CD
li
be perpendicular to AC,
To prove
Proof,
AB and CD parallel. AB
and CI) are not parallel, they will meet if sufficiently prolonged, and we shall have two perpendicular lines from their point of meeting to the same straight line
;
but this
is
impossible.
97
[From a given point without a straight line, one perpendicular, and only one, can be drawn to the straight line.)
.'.
AB and
CI) are parallel.
q. e.
the supposition that and CD are not parallel leads to the conclusion that two perpendiculars can be drawn from a given
Remark. Here
AB
point to a straight line. The conclusion and tion in false; but if it is false that
is
false, therefore the supposi-
AB
CD
that they are parallel. method.
This method of proof
are not parallel, it is true is called the indirect
101.
Ax. Through a given
point, one straight line,
and
only
one, car he
drawn
parallel
to
a given straight
line.
PARALLEL LINES.
Proposition VII.
102. If a straight two parallel lines, it
line'
23
Theorem.
is
perpendicular to one of perpendicular to the other.

is
M-
N
UK be
Let AB and EF he two parallel lines, and let perpendicular to AB. To prove IIKXUF.
Proof.
Suppose J/iV' drawn through CI.
to
HK.
100
Then
But
.^
JfiVisllto^^,
{two lines in the same plane
X
II
to
a given
line
are parallel).
EF'ia
to
AB.
J/iY,
^
Hyp.
to
î^ coincides with
101
{through the same point only one line can he drawn A. to
a given
line).
.\EF\^
that
is,
UK
If
HK,
is
J. to
EF.
e. o.
103.
and
CD
EFy
two straight lines are cut by a third line called a transversal^ the
AB
eight angles formed are as follows

:
named
called
The angles
interior; b,
a, c?,/,
g are
c, e,
h are called ex-
toior angles.
The angles d and /, or a and g, are called alt-int. angles. The angles b and A, or c and e, are called ali.-ext. angles. The angles/ and 6, c and y, a and e, or d and A, are called
ext.-int.
angles.
24
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition VIII.
104.
Theorem.
are cut hy a third angles are equal.
-parallel straight lines line, the alternate-interior straight
If two
E-
O.
^
GH
GH.
^-ZB=Z
C.
Let EF and
the line BG.
To prove
Proof.
be two parallel straight lines cut by
Through
to
0, the middle point
of
BO, suppose
the other),
A3
102
drawn J. Then
AD
(a straight line
is
likewise
to
FF,
to
one of two
lis
is JL to
that
is,
01) and
figure
BA
are both d. to
AD.
Apply
on OA.
CGI)
to figure
BOA,
so that
CD shall
fall
Then
(since Z.
0(7 will
fall
on OB,
being vertical
COD = Z BOA,
^)
and
the point
{since
O will fall upon J5, 00= OB hy construction).

BA,
equal to
^
.
Then
the JL
OD
will coincide with the J_

line only one
97
{from a point without a straight

/.
X to
that line can he drawn).

is
it.
Z OOD coincides with Z DBA,

TTT V
,
and
59
aE.D.
Ex.
It is
1.
one-fourth of
2.
Ex.
18
Find the value of an angle if it is double its complement; if its complement. Find the value of an angle if itSs double its supplement if it
;
\^
one-third of
its
supplement.
PARALLEL LIKES.
26
Proposition IX.
105.
Theorem.
straight lines are cut
Conversely
When two
by a third straight
line, if the alternate interior
arv
gles are equal, the two straight lines are parallel.
Let EF cut the straight lines AB and CD in the points and A', and let the ZAHK = AHKD,
To prove
Proof.
AB
\\
to
CD.
Suppose ifiV drawn through
II
to CZ>;
101
then
Z.MHK^/.HKD,
(being alt.-int
104
Hyp.
,
ofW
lines).
But
.-.
Z AHK= Z. HKB: Z MHK^ Z AHK,

JOT and AB coincide. MN\B to CD,
II
Ax.
.'.
the lines
But
.*.
Cons.
AB, which
coincides with
MIT.
is
II
to
CD.
Ex.
3.
How many
?
clock at 2 o'clock
degrees in the angle formed by the hands of a 3 o'clock ? 4 o'clock ? 6 o'clock ?
26
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
Theorem.
I.
Proposition X.
106. // two parallel lines are cut hy a third straight ^ne, the exterior-interior angles are equal.
Let
AB and CD
straight line EF^ in the points

To prove
Proof.
H and K, = A HKD. Z ERB Z EHB = Z ASK,

{being vertical A).
be two parallel lines cut by the
95
But
/.
Z AIIK= Z HKB,
(being alt.-int.
104
AofW
lines).
Z EHB = Z HKB. Z EHA = Z HKC.
Ax.
In like
manner we naay prove

Q. E. D.
107.
and
also
Cor. The alternate-exterior angles and DKF, are equal.
EHB
and CKF,
AHE
Ex. 4. If an angle is bisected, and if a line is drawn through the vertex perpendicular to the bisector, this line forms equal angles with the sides of the given angle.
Ex. 5, If the bisectors of two adjacent angles are perpendicular to each other, the adjacent angles are supplementary.
PAEALLEL LINES.
27
Proposition
:
XL
Theorem.
108. Conversely When two straight lines are eut hy a third straight line, if the exterior-interior angles are equal, these two straight lines are parallel.
Let EF cut the straight lines A B and CD in the points and K, and let the Z EIIB = Z HKD.
To prove
^^
II
to
CD.
28
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XII.
109.
Theorem.
If two parallel lines are cut hy a third straight line, the sum of the two interior angles on the same side of the transversal is equal to two right angles.
straight line
Let AB and CD be two parallel lines cut by the EF in the points H and K,
To prove
Proof.
Z BHK-\- Z HKD = 2
rt A.
Z EHB + Z BIIK= 2 rt.

{pdng
swp.-adj. A).
A,
90
But
/L
EHB ^Z. HKD,

ext.-int.
/
first
106
(being
of
II
lines).
Substitute
Z HKD for Z EHB in
the
equality
then
Z BHK-\- Z HKD = 2 rt. A.
Ex, 8. If the angle AE.E is an angle of 135, find the number of at the points ând K. degrees in each of the other angles formed Ex.
9.
Find the angle between the bisectors of adjacent comj)lemen-
tary angles.
PARALLEL
LINES.
29
Proposition XIII.
110.
Theorem.
Conversely
WJien two straight lines are cut
by a third straight line, if tJie two interior angles on the same side of the transversal are together equal to
two right angles, then the two straight lines are

parallel.
F
Let EF cut the straight lines Ali and CD in the points II and K, and let the Z BHK + Z UKD equal two right
angles.
To prove
Proof.
AB
to
CD.
II
Suppose
MN drawn through H
AqfWson
the
to
CD.
Then
Z NIIK+ Z HKD = 2 rt.

same
A,
109
{being two interior
side of the transversal).

rt.
But
BHK+Z HKD = 2
A.
Hyp.
Ax.
1
.'.ANHK-\-AIIKD = ABHK-ÂHKD.
Take away from each
then
.'.
of these equals the
common Z HKD
Z NHK^ Z BHK
the lines
Ax. 3
AB and
II
J/TV coincide.
But
.*.
3/iVis
to
CD.
Cons.
is
II
AB, which
coincides with
MN,
to
CD.
Q.E.
D,
30
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XIV.
Theorem.
111. Two straight lines which are parallel to straight line are parallel to ea^h other,
a third
H
i
PARALLEL
LINES.
31
Proposition
112.
XV.
Theorem.
i-
Two angles whose sides are parallel each to are either equal or supplementary. each,
^-^
Let AB be parallel
To prove
to EF,
and BC
to
MN.
to
Z ABC equal to Z EIIN, and suppl&inentary to Z EHM and to Z NHF.

Proof.
Z MHF,
and
Prolong
(if
necessary)
5(ând i^^ until they
inter-
sect at
D.
81 (2)
Then
and
AB = AEBC,
/.BHN=Z.EBC.
{being ext.-int.
106
AofW
lines),
Ax. 1 ,\ZB = ZBB'N; ZB = Z MHF (the vert. Z of DHN). and Now Z BITJSris the supplement of Z EE'M And Z NHF. Z B, which is equal to Z BRN, is the supplement of Z EJIM and of Z JVITF.
.-.
a E. D.
sides angles are equal when both pairs of parallel extend in the same direction, or in opposite directions, from their vertices the angles are supplementary when two of the parallel sides extend
Remark. The
in the
same
direction,
and the other two
in opposite directions,
from theii
vertices.
32
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XVI.
113.
Theorem.
Two
to each,
angles whose sides are perpendicular each are either equal or supplementary.
Let AB be perpendicular
To prove
Z.
to FD,
and AG
to GI.
to
BAC equal
Jtîs
{ijwo lines
to Z.
DFO, and
to
supplementary
Z.DFL
Proof.
Suppose
^^ drawn
11
AB^ and
AH 1.
to
AO.
Then
toi^D,
to the
and^^to
76^,
100 112
same
line are parallel).
.\ZBFG = ZKAr,
{two angles are equal whose sides are
II
and extend
in the same direction
from
their vertices).
The
.*.
Z BAIT is a right angle by construction. Z BAHis the complement of Z KAH. The Z CAH'is a right angle by construction. Z BAH'm the complement of Z BAC. .'.ZBAC^^ZKAH,
.*.
87
Ax.
1
{complements of equal angles are equal).
/.
Z DFI,
the
,\ZDFG-^ZBAC. supplement of Z BFG, is also

oiZBAC.
the supplement
Q.E.D.
Remark. The
are supplementary
angles are equal if both are acute or both obtuse if one is acute and the other obtuse.
they
PERPENDICULAR AND OBLIQUE LINES.
33
Perpendicular and Oblique Lines.

,Afk<
Proposition
114.
XVIL
is
Theorem.
The perpendicular
to
the shortest line that can

line.
he
drawn from a point
a straight
Let AB be the given straight line, P the given point, PC the perpendicular, and PD any other line drawn
from
to
AB.
To prove
PC < PD.
Proof.
Produce
On
AB
as an axis, fold over
PC to P\ making CP'= P0\ and draw BP\ CPD until it comes into the
CP will
take the direction of
each being a
rt.
plane of
CP'D.
The
{dnce
line
0P\
Z PCD = Z.P^CD,
Z).
The point
P will fall upon the point P\

PC= PC by
cons.).
{since
,
'.line
Pi) - line P'D,
^\PI>-\-P'I> = 2PI),
But
PC 4- CP' - 2 PC PC + CP' <PD-\- DP\

and
(a straight line
.-.
is
Cons.
the shortest distance between
two points).
2PC< 2PD.
or
PC<
PD.
Q.E.a
34
115.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
stood to
Scholium. The distance of a point from a line is undermean the length of the perpendicular from the point
to the line.
Proposition XVIII.
116.
Theorem.
point in a cutting off equal disperpendicular tances from the foot of the perpendicular, are equal.
oblique lines
to
Two
drawn from a
line,
a given
Let FC "be the perpendicular, and CA and CO two oblique lines cutting off equal distances from F.
To prove
Proof.
CA =
CFO.
CO.
Fold over CFA, on
CF &s
an
axis, until it
comes into
the plane of
FA
{since
will take the direction of

each being a
rt.
Z CFA = Z CFO,
Point
FO, Z by hyp.).
will fall
upon point 0,
by hyp.).
{since
FA = FO
/. line
CA = line
CO,
q. e. d.
(their extremities being the
same points).
Cor. Two oblique lines drawn from a point in a perpendicular to a given line, cutting off equal distances from the foot of the perpendicular, make equal angles with the given line.
117.
and
also with the perpendicular.
35
Proposition XIX.
Theorem.
118. The sum of two lines drawn from a point to the extrejnities of a straight line is greater than the sum of two other lines similarly drawn, hut included
by them,
C
Let CA and CB be two lines drawn from the point C the extremities of the straight line AB. Let OA and OB be two lines similarly drawn, but included by CA and CB.
to
To prove
Proof.
CA +
Produce
CB> OA + OB.
meet the
line
AO to
CB
at
^.
Then
AC+CU>
0A-\- OF,
two points)^
(a straight line is the shortest distance between
and
BE-{-OE> BO.
Add
these inequalities, and
we have
OE-j- OB.
CA +
CE-\-
BE-\-OE>OA-\-
Substitute for CE-\-
BE
its
equal CB,
of the inequality.
and take away
OE from each side
We
have
CA + CB>OA-\- OB.
Ax. 5
q. e. d.
36
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XX.
119.
Theorem.
Of two oblique lines drawn from the same in a perpendicular, cutting off unequal dispoint tances from the foot of the perpendicular, the more remote is the greater.
lines to AB,
Let OC be perpendicular to AB, OG and OE two oblique and CE greater than CG.
To prove
Proof.
OE >
Take
00.
OF equal
to
CG, and draw OF.
Then
{two oblique lines
OF=-OG,
drawn from a point in a , cutting from the foot of the , are equal).
off
116
equal distances
Prolong
00 to
Draw
D, making
CD =
OC.
ED and FD.
middle point,
Since
^^
is
_L to
OD
at its
But
{the
FO = FD, and EO = ED, OE-\-ED> 0F-{- FD,
116
118
of two oblique lines drawn from a point to the extremities of a straight line is greater than the sum of two other lines similarly drawn, but included by them).
sum
20E> 20F, or OE > OF But 0F= OG. Hence OE > OG.

.'.
q. e. d.
120. Cor.
Only two equal

straight line
straight lines
can be drawn from

.
a point
; lines, the greater cuts off the greater distance from the foot of the perpendicular
to
and
of two unequal
37
Proposition
XXL
Theorem.
121. Two equal oblique lines, drawn from the same point in a perpendicular, cut off equal distances from the foot of the perpendicular.
Let CF he the perpendicular, and CE and CK be two equal oblique lines drawn from the point C to AB.
To prove
Proof,
FE=FK.
CFA
on C/'as an axis, until
it
Fold over
comes into
the plane of
CFB.
line
The
{since
FE will take the direction

each being a
fall
rt. Z.
FK,
Z CFE = Z CFK,
hy hyp.).
Then the point
E must
upon the point K,
&ndFE=FK.
Otherwise one of these oblique lines must be more remote from the perpendicular, and therefore greater than the other which is contrary to the hypothesis that they are equal. 119
;
Q. E. D.
Ex. Ex.
11.
Show
Show
that
the bisectors
of two supplementary adjacent
angles are perpendicular to each other.

12.
that the bisectors of two vertical
angles form one
straight line.
Ex, 13. Find the complement of an angle containing 26 Find the supplement of the same angle.
52'' 37''''.
38
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XXII.
Theorem.
122. Every point in the perpendicular, erected at the middle of a given straight line, is equidistant from the extremities of the line, and every point not in the perpendicular is unequally distant from the extremities of the line.
p
perpendicular erected at the middle oi the straight line AB, any point in PR, and C any point without PR. Draw OA and OB, CA and CB.
a,
Let PR be
To prone
Proof.
OA
and
OB equal, CA
.-.
and
CB
PA = FB. OA = 0B,
unequal.
Hyp.
116
dis-
{two oblique lines
Since
or
is
drawn from the same point in a , cutting off equal tances from the foot of the , are equal). without the perpendicular, one of the lines,
CA
CB,
will cut the perpendicular.
Let
CA
cut the _L at
I),
and draw
DB.
Then
{two oblique lines
BB = DA,
drawn from the same point in a _L, cutting off equal distances from the foot of the , are equal).
But
{a straight line
is
CB<CI)+I)B,
the shortest distance between two points).
Substitute in this inequality
Z>A
for
BB, and we
have
CB<CB-\-BA.
That
is,
CB<CA,
Q.E.a

123.
line,
39
Since two points determine the position of a straight

of a line deterline.
two jnainf^prjmjî^fnmt frnm^Mi^â^

the perpendicular at the
mine
middle of that
Point.
The Locus of a
124.
required to find a point which shall fulfil a Single geometric condition, the point will have an unlimited number of positions, but will be confined to a particular line,
If
it
is
or group of lines.
Thus, if it is required to find a point equidistant from the extremities of a given straight line, it is obvious from the last proposition that any point in the perpendicular to the given line at its middle point does fulfil the condition, and that no
other point does
;
that
is,
the required point

is
is
confined to this
Again, perpendicular. given distance from a fixed straight line of indefinite length, it is evident that the point must lie in one of two straight lines, so drawn as to be everywhere at the given distance from the
fixed line, one on one side of the fixed line,
if it
required to find a point at a
and the other on
the other side.
The locus of a point under a given condition is the line, or group of lines, which contains all the points that fulfil the given condition, and no other points.
125.
line is the locus of a point
Scholium. In order to prove completely that a certain under a given condition, it is neces-
sary to prove that eveiy point iyi the line satisfies the given condition; and secondly, that every point which satisfies the
given condition lies in the line (the converse proposition), or that every point not in the line does not satisfy the given condition (the opposite proposition). 126.
ities
Cor.
The
of a straight line
locus of a point equidistant from the extremis the perpendicular bisector of that line.
122, 123
40
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Triangles.
\y
127.
triangle
is
a portion of a plane bounded by three
straight lines; as,
ABC.
lines are called the
The bounding
called
its
sides of the triangle,
and
their
sum
is
perimeter ; the angles formed the sides are called the angles of the by triangle, and the vertices of these anof the triangle. gles, the vertices
128.
is
An
exterior angle of a triangle
an angle formed between a side and the prolongation of another side as,
;
ACD.
The
interior
angle
ACB
;
is
the adjacent to the exterior angle and B, are other two interior angles,
called
opposite-
interior angles.
Scalene.
Isosceles.
Equilateral.
ij/ 129,
a called, with no two of its sides are equal; an isosscalene triangle when an equilateral celes triangle, when two of its sides are equal
triangle
is
reference
to its sides,
triangle,
when
its
three sides are equal.
Right.
Obtus.e.
Acute.
Equiangular.
130. called, with reference to its angles, a right triangle when one of its angles is a right angle an obtuse triangle,
is
;
TRIANGLES.
41
of its angles is an obtuse angle an acute three of its angles are ac ite angles; an triangle, equiangular triangle, when its three angles are equal.
triangle^
;
when one when all
In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse, and the other two sides the legs, of the called
131.
triangle.
132. The side on which a triangle is supposed to stand is In the isosceles triangle, the called the base of the triangle. in sides are called the legs, and the other side, the base equal
;
other triangles, any one of the sides

133.
may
be taken as the base.
The angle opposite the base of a triangle is called the vertical angle, and its vertex the vertex of the triangle.
134. The altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the base, or to the base produced as, AD.
;
135.
The three perpendiculars from the
vertices of a tri-
angle to the opposite sides (produced if necessary) are called the altitudes; the three bisectors of the angles are called the
bisecto7's;
and the three
lines
from the vertices to the middle

the medians of the
points
of the
opposite sides are called
triangle.
136. If two triangles have the angles of the one equal respectively to the angles of the other, the equal angles are called homologous angles, and the sides opposite the equal angles are
called homologous sides.

lines, and angles, {similarly situated in or similar figures, are called homologous. equal
In general, .points,
137.
Theorem
than the third

side.
The sum of two sides of a triangle is greater side, and their difference is less thafi the third
.
In the
is
A AJBC (Fig.
1),
AB-{-BO>AC,
for
;
a straight line
the shortest distance between two" points

sides,
and by taking
away ^Cfrom both
AB>AC-BO,oi AO-C<AB.
42
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XXIII.
138.
Theorem.
is
The
to
suji'o
of the three angles of a triangle
equal
two right angles*
A
Let ABC be a
To prove
Proof.
c
triangle.
-{-
"f
Z B Z BOA + Z A^2 rt. A. to A, and prolong AC to Suppose C^ drawn

II
F.
Then
ZE0F^ZECB-\-ZBCA = 2^\>.A,
A
92
{the 8U7n of all the
about a point on the same side of a straight line = 2 rt A).
But
ZA = Z EOF,
{being ext.-int.
106
AofW
lines).
Siud
ZB = ZBCE,
A
of
II
104
{being alt.-int.
lines).
Substitute for
Z EOF and Z BCE the

sum
equal
AA
and B.
Q. E. D.
Then
139.
ZA+ZB + ZBCA = 2vtA.

Cor.
1.
If
the
of two angles of a triangle

is
is
subthe
tracted
from
Cor.
two right angles, the remainder
equal
to
third angle.
140.
2. If two triangles have two angles of the one two angles of the other, the third angles are equal.
3.
equal
141.
to
Cor.
If two right triangles have an acute angle of
the one equal to
an acute angle of
the other, the other acute

,
anglA are
equal.
TRIANGLES.
142.
or
43
Cor.
4.
In a
triangle thaê can he hvi one right angle,
one obtuse angle.

143.
Cor.
b.
In a
are right triangle the two acute angles
complements of each other.

144.
Cor.
6.
In an equiangular tHangle, each angle
is one-
third of two right angles, or two-thirds of one right angle.
Peoposition
145.
XXIV.
Theorem.
to the
sum
The exterior angle of a triangle is equal of the two opposite interior angles.
Let BCII be an exterior angle at the triangle ABC.

To prove
Proof.
Z BCII-= ZA-\-^B. Z BCII+ A ACB = 2 rt A

{being sup.-adj. A).
Z A + Z B + Z ACB = 2rt. A,
{the
138
sum
vf the three
of a
A = 2 rt.
A).
,\ Z BCH-i-Z ACB = Z A + Z B + Z ACB.
Ax. 1
;
Take away from each

then
146.
of these equals the
common
Z A CB
ZBCH=.îA-{-ZB.
Cor.
Ax. 3
aE.D.
is
The
exterior angle of
a triangle
greater than
either of the opposite interior angles.
44
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition
XXV.
Theorem.
147. Two triangles are equal if a side and two adjacent anglers of the one are equal respectively to a side and two adjacent angles of the other.
In the triangles /.B = Z.E.

To 'prove
Proof.
ABC and
DEF, let
AB = DE,
Z.A = LD,
Apply
A ABC = A DEF. the A ABC to the A DEF so that AB shall

coincide with
DE. A C will
(7
DF,
{for
ZA = ZD,
fall
hy hyp)
the extremity
of
^Cwill
upon
DF or DF produced.
EF,
or
;
^Cwill
the extremity 'C of
{for
ZB = ZE,by hyp.)
BC will fall upon EF

common
î^ produced.
.'.the point C, falling
must
fall
upon the point

/.the two
upon both the lines Di^ and EF, to the two lines, namely, F.
q. e. d.
A coincide, and are equal.
148. Cor. 1. Two riyht triangles are equalif the hypotenuse and an acute angle of the one are equal respectively to the hypotenuse and an acute angle of the other.
149. Cor. 2. Two right triangles are equal if a side and an acute angle of the one are equal respectively to a side and homologous acute angle of the other.
TRIANGLES.
45
Proposition
XXVI.
Theorem.
150. Two triangles are equal if two sides and the included angle of tJie one are equal respectively to two sides and the included angle of the other.
D
In the triangles
/.A
E
let
ABC and DEF,
AB =
DE,
AC =
DF,
= ZD.
To prove
Proof.
AABCÂBEF. Apply the A ABC to the A BEF so that AB shall

BF.
^Cwill
coincide with
Then
BF,
{forZA = ZD,byhyp.)',
the point
C will
fall
upon the point F,
(JorAC=DF,hyhyp.).''
.\CB = FF,
the {their extremities being
same points).
.'.the
two

Q.E.D.
ar.e
151.
Cor.
to
Two
each.
their legs right triangles are equal if
equal, each
46
PLANE GEOMETRY.
Proposition XXVII.
BOOK
I.
Theorem.
If two triangles have two sides of the one equal ^ respectively to two sides of the other, hut the included angle of tl%e first greater than the included angle of the second, then the third side of the first will he greater than the third side of the second.
162.
B
>.
In the triangles ABC and ABE, let but ZABG greater than /.ABE.
To prove
Proof.
AB = AB, BG=BE;
Place the
A so that AB of the one shall coincide with

to bisect 4.
A^ >
AE.
AB of the other.
Suppose 5i^ drawn so as
In the
EBQ.
Draw EF,
A EBF
2.iidi
CBF
EB = BC, BF=BF,
Z.EBF=Z.CBF.
.-.
Hyp.
Iden.
Cons.
to
the A EBF and CBF are equal,
150
{having two sides and the included Z of one equal respectively and the included Z of the other).
two sides
/.
EF= EC,
AE,
{being homologous sides of equal ^).
Now
{the
AF+ FE>
of two sides of a
.-.
137
sum
A is
greater than the third side).
AFi-FO> AE;
or,
AC> AE.
^6,ot
TRIANGLES.
47
Proposition XXVIII.
153.
Theorem.
Conversely. If two sides of a triangle are equal respectively to two sides of another, hut the third side of the first triangle is greater than the third side of the second, then the angle opposite the third side of the first triangle is greater than the angle opposite the third side of the second.
In the triangles ABC and DEF, let but let BG be greater than EF, Z A greater than A D. To prove
Proof.
AB = DE, AC = DF,
Now Z A h
equal to
/. Z),
or less than
i), or
greater than
Z
is
D.
But
Z^
not equal to
Z>,
for then
A ABC
would be
equal to
A DEF,
and
aides
150
(having two sides
the included
of the one respectively equal to two
and
the included
of the other),
and
^C would
Z
be equal to
UK
BC would
F.
Q.t.0,
And
than
ZA
is
not less than
D,
for
then
be
less
FF.
.'.
152
ZA
is
greater than
48
PLANE GEOMETEY.
BOOK
I.
Peoposition
154.
XXIX.
Theorem.
In an
isosceles triangle the angles opposite the
equal sides are equal.
B
Let
T)
ABO
be an isosceles triangle, having the sides

equal.
AB and AC
To prove
Proof.
Z B=Z
0.
Suppose
AD drawn so as to bisect the Z BA C. In the A ADB and ADC, AB = Aa Hyp. Iden. AD = AD, Cons. Z BAD = Z CAD. .\ A ADB = A ADO, 150
and the included Z and the included Z
of the one are equal of the other).
Q.E.D.
{two
are equal if two sides
respectively to two sides
.\ZB = Za
155.
Cor.
An
equilateral triangle
is
equiangular,
and each
angle contains 60.

Ex.
Ex.
14.
The
bisects the base,
and
bisector of the vertical angle of is perpendicular to the base.
an
isosceles triangle
15.
passes through the vertex
The perpendicular bisector of the base of an isosceles and bisects the angle at the vertex.
triangle
rRTANOLES.
49
Proposition
156.
XXX. Theorem.
If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides opposite the equal angles are equal, and the triangle
is isosceles.
In the triane:le ABC, let the

To prove
Proof.
ZB = ZC.
AB = AC.
Suppose
AD drawn _L to BC.
Iden.
In the
rt.
A ADB and ADC, AD = AD,
ZB = ZC
.-. rt.
Hyp.
to
A ADB = rt. A ADC,

a
149
and
(having a side
and an acute. Z of the one equal respectively an homologous acute Z of the other).
side
.\ABr=AC,
{being homologous sides of equal A),
Q. E. D.
157.
Cor.
An
equiangular triangle
is
also equilateral.
Ex.
16.
is
triangle
The perpendicular from the vertex to the base of an an axis of symmetry.
isosdfeles
60
PLANE GEOMETRY..
BOOK
I.
Proposition
158.
XXXI.
Theorem.
gles opposite are unequal,
If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the anand the greater angle is
opposite the greater side.
In the triangle
To prove
Proof.
Z.
ACB
let
AB
be greater than AG, B.
A CB greater than Z
Take
AE equal to AC.
Draw EC.
154
ZAEC=^ZACE,
(being
opposite equal sides).
But
{an exterior
Z AEC is
Z
of a
greater than
B,
146
A is greater
than either opposite interior Z).
and
Z ACB is
Substitute for
greater than
Z ACE. Z AEC,
Ax. 8
Z ACE its
equal
then
Z ACB is
Much
greater than
Z AEC.
aE.D.
more, then, is the
Z ACB greater than Z B.
Ex.
17,
angle, be bisected
and ACB, at the base of an isosceles triIf the angles by the straight lines BD, CD, show that BBCwiW
ABC
be an isosceles triangle.
TEIANGLES.
61
Proposition XXXII.
159.
Theorem.
If two angles of a triangle are the sides opposite are unequal, and the unequal, greater side is opposite the greater angle.
Conversely
:
In the triangle AGB, let angle

angle B. To prove
Proof.
ACB
be greater than
AB > AC.
is
Now AB
\Q
equal to
AC,
or less than
AC,
or greater
than AC,
But
AB
AB
not equal to
{being
AC,
for
then the
ZC
would be
equal to the /. B,
154
opposite equal sides).
And
less
{if
is
not less than

J5,.
AC,
the
for
then the
ZC
would be
than the
158 A
is
two sides of a
A are unequal,
.-.
greater
opposite are unequal, opposite the greater $ide).
and
the
AB
is
greater than
AC.
a E. D.
Ex. 18. ^5Cand ABD are two triangles on the same base AB, and on the same side of it, the vertex of each triangle being without the
other.
If
AC equal AD,
show that BO cannot equal
BD.
Ex. 19. The sum of the lines which join a point within a trian^]ft to the tliroe vertices is less than the perimeter, but greater than half the perimeter.
62
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Peoposition XXXIII.
Theorem.
160. Two triangles are equal if the three sides of the one are equal respectively to the three sides of the other.
In the triangles ABC and A'B'C, let AB = A'B\ ACÂ'C, BG=B'C'.

To prove
Proof.
A ABC= A A'B'OL A
A'C
Place A^B'C in tlie position AB'C, having its in coincidence with its equal AC, and its side greatest and draw BB'. vertex at B', opposite ;
AB = AB\ Z ABB' = Z AB'B,

Since
{in
Hyp.
154
an
isosceles
A the A opposite
Since
the equal sides are equal).

'
CB = CB\
Hyp.
ZCBB' = ZCB'B,
Hence,
.-.A
{two
154
Ax. 2
to
Z ABC= Z AB'Q,
ABQ= A AB'C^'A A'B'C'
150
two
are equal if two sides and included Z of one are equal sides and included Z of the other). ^ -^
Q.E.D.
TRIANGLES.
53
Proposition
XXXIV. Theorem.
161. Two right triangles are equal if a side and the hypotenuse of the one are equal respectively to a side and the hypotenuse of the other.
C
In the right triangles
B'
ABC and
A'BfC, let ABÂ'B',
and AC = A! C.
To prove
Proof.
AABC=AA'B'0\
Apply the
coincide with A'B',
A ABC to the A A'B'C, so that AB shall A falling upon A', B upon B\ and C and
C" upon the same side of A*B*.
Then
BC will take the direction of B*C\

{for
ABC= Z A^B'C,
each being a
rt.
Z).
Since
AC=AÔ\
the point
O will
fall
upon C,
121
(two equal oblique lines
from a point
in a
cut off equal distances from
the foot of the ).
,*.
the two

ae.0.
54
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition
162.
XXXV.
Theorem.
Every point in the
distant
from
bisector of an angle is equithe sides of the angle.
Let AD be the bisector of the angle BAC, and let be any point in AD.
To prove that
Proof.
is
equidistant from
Draw Oi^ and

rt.
AB and AC. OG L to AB and -4 C respectively.

Men. Hyp.
In the
A AOF'dn^ AOG
AO=AO, ZBAO = Z:ÂO.
.'.AAOF=AAOG,
{two
rt.
148 are equal if the hypoteniLse and an acute Z of the one are equal respectively to the hypotenuse and an acute Z of the other).
...
0F= OG,
{homologous sides of equal ^).

.*.
iA^quidistant from
AB and AO,
?
What
Ex.
Ex. Ex.
length
is
the lociis of a point
20.
21. 22.
?
At a given
distance from a fixed point
^ 57.
Equidistant from two fixed points?
119.
At a given
distance from a fixed straight line of indefinite
Ex.
Ex.
23.
Equidistant from two given parallel lines
24.
Equidistant from the extremities of a given line?
TRIANGLES.
65
Proposition
163.
XXXVI.
Theorem.
Every point within an angle, and equidistant

its sides, is
from
in the bisector of the angle.
Let be equidistant from the sides of the angle BAC, and let AO join the vertex A and the point 0.
To prove that
Proof.
AO is the hisddor of Z BAC,
Suppose
OF
and
00
drawn
to
AB
and AC^
respectively.
In the
rt.
A Ôiând AOQ
0F= OG, AO = AO.
.-.A
Hyp.
Iden.
AOFÂAOG,
ojiAc
07ic
161
arc equal
to the
(two
rt.
^ are equalif the lii/potenuse and a side

hypotenuse
and a
side of the otJ^r)/
,\ZFAO = ZGAO,
(homologous
.-.
oj equal A).
^0
is
the bisector of
Z BAC.
Q. E. D.
164.
Cor.
The locus of a point within

its sides, is
cmi angle,
and
equi-
distant from
the bisector of the angle.
66
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
1.
Quadrilaterals.
166. quadrilateral is a portion of a plane bounded by four straight lines. The bounding lines are the sides, the angles formed by these
sides are the angles,
and the
vertices of these angles are the
v^^jceSjOf the quadrilateral.

166.
A A
trapeziuTn
is
a quadrilateral which has no two sides
parallel.
167.
trapezoid
is
a quadrilateral which has two sides, and
only two
168.
sides, parallel.
is
Â parallelogram
a quadrilateral which has
its
oppo-
site sides parallel.
Trapezium.
Trapezoid
Parailelograr
169.
A A
A A
rectangle
is
a parallelogram which has
its
angles
right angles.
170.
rhomhoid
is
a parallelogram which has
its
angles
oblique angles.
171. 172.
square
is
a rectangle which has

is
its
sides equal.
its
rhombus
a rhomboid which has
sides equal.
Square.
Rectangle.
Rhombus.
Rhomboid.
173.
The
side
opposite side, are called
upon which a parallelogram stands, and the its lower and upper bases.
QUADRILATERALS.
67
174. The parallel sides of a trapezoid are called its bases, the other two sides its legs, and the line joining the middle points of the legs is called the median.
trapezoid legs are equal.
175.
is
called an isosceles trapezoid
when
its
176. The altitude of a parallelogram or trapezoid perpendicular distance between its bases.
is
the
The diagonal of a quadrilateral is a straight line joining two opposite vertices.

177.
Proposition
178.
XXXVII.
Theorem.
The diagonal of a parallelogram divides the figure into two equal triangles,
c
A
To prove
E
its diagonaJ,
Let ABCE be a parallelogram and AC
A ABC= A AEC,
AC=AC,
Iden.
.
InthQAABOmdiAEC,
and
ZACB = ^CAU, ZCAB = ZACE,

{being alt.-int.
104
AofW
lines.)
.\AABC=AAEC,
{having a side
147
and
Q. E. D.
and two
adj.
of the one equal respectively to a side two adj. of the other.)
58
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition
179.
XXXVIII.
Theorem.
and
In a parallelogram the opposite sides are equalt the opposite angles are equal.
Let the figure ABCE be a parallelogram.

To prove
also,
BQ= AE, and ^^ - EC, Z i? = ^ ^, and Z BAE -= Z BCE,

Draw AC.
Proof.
AABC=:AAEC,
{the diagonal of
178
a CJ divides the figure into two equal A).
/.
BC= AE, and AB = CE,

112
(being homologous sides of equal A).
Also,
Z B = Z E,iindZBAE=Z BCE,
||
(having their sides
and extending in
their vertices).
opposite directions from

Q. E. D.
180.
Cor. I 'arallellines comprehended between parallellines
are equal.
181.
A
2.
Cor.
Two
parallel lines
are
everywhere
if
For
Js
AB
and
DC
equally distant. are parallel,

in
B
Js are equal,
C
by
dropped from any points of these points from DC.
AB to DC, measure the distances

180;
But these
hence, all points in
AB are equidistant from
DC.
QUADRILATERALS.
69
Proposition
182.
XXXIX.
Theorem.
If two sides of a quadrilateral are equal and
parallel, then the other two sides are equal

allel,
and
par-
and
the figure
is
a parallelogram.
side
Let the figure ABCE be a quadrilateral, having the AE equal and parallel to BG,
To prove
Proof.
A B equal and
II
to
EO,
Draw AC,
In the
A ABC ^n^ AEO BQ^ AE,

ACÂC,
/.BCA = ACAE,
(being alt.-int
Hyp.
Iden.
104
AofW
lines).
.'.AABC=AACE,
'{having two sides
150
and
the included Z. of the one equal respectively to two sides and the included of the other).
,\AB = EC,
(being homologous sides of equal ^).
Also,
ABAC=ZACE,
(being homologous
of equal Bt^
.'.ABhWioEC,^
(when two straight
lines are cut
105
line, if the alt.-int.
by a third straight
are equal, the lines are parallel).

.'.
the figure
ABCE is a O,
168
e. o.
(the opposite sides being parallel),
60
PLANE GEOMETBY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XL.
Theorem.
183. If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, the figure is a parallelogram.
A
Let the figure ABCE be a quadrilateral having BG =
AE and AB =
Proof.
EC.
To prove figure
ABCE a EJ.
Draw AQ,
In the
A ABCQ.nd. AEO BC= AE,

AB^CE,
Hyp. Hyp.
Iden.
AC^ AQ.
:MABQ^tÂEQ,
{having three sides of the one equal respectively
to three sides
160
of the other).
.'.ZACB==/1CAE,
and
ZBAC=ZACE,
{being homologous
.'.
A
to
to
of equal A).
and
{when two straight
line, if the alt.-mt.
.'.
BOk AB is
A
AE,
EC,
II
105
lines lying
in the same plane are cut by a third straight are equal, the lines are parallel).
the figure
its
ABCE
is
O,
168
{having
opposite sides parallel).
QUADRILATEEALS.
61
Proposition XLI.
184.
Theorem.
bisect
The diagonals of a parallelogram
each
other.
n
Let the figure ABCE be a parallelogram, and let the diagonals AG and BE cut each other at 0.
To prove In the
A0= OC, and B0= OK A AOE and BOO

AE=BC,
{being opposite sides of
179
a
CJ).
Z.OAE=AOCB,
and
104
Z.OEA=/.OBC,
{being
alt. -int.
of
W lines).
.\AAOE=ABOC,
{having a side
147
a
side
and two
adj.
of the one equal respectively to two adj. of the other).
and
.\AO=OC,SindBO=OE,
{being homologous sides of equal ^).
is
Ex. 25. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the figure a parallelogram.
Ex.
Ex.
26.
The diagonals of a rectangle are

is
equal.
-^
to
27.
If the diagonals of a parallelogram are
equal, the figure

'
a rectangle.
Ex. 28. The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular and bisect the angles of the rhombus. Ex.
29.
each other,
The diagonals of a square are perpendicular
to each other,
"ind bisect the angles of the square.
62
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition
XLIL
Theorem.
185. Two parallelof^rams, having two sides and tJie included angle of the one equal respectively to two sides and the zncluded angle of the other, are equal,
b'
c'
In the parallelograms
A'B',
ADCD and AD = A'D', and ZA=ZA'.
A'BâD', let
AB =
To prove that the HI are equal.
ABOD to Apply and coincide with A^DK

Then
{for
O A'B'C'D',
Z.A=-AA',hy
so that
AD will
fall
on
AB will fall on
AB = A^B\
hy
II
A^B\
hyp),
and the point

(for
B will fall on B'^

hyp.).
Now,
BC
and B'C^ are both

.'.
to
A'B' and
are
drawn
through point B'.

the lines i?(7and
(7 falls
and
In like manner, through the point B'.

.'.
B'C coincide, B'C or B'C produced. i)(7and B'C are to A'B' and
on
II
101
are
drawn
BO and B'C
on both
coincide.
101
.*.
the point
.-.
(7 falls
on B'C, or
B'C produced.
to both, namely,
(7 falls
B'C
and B'C.
.*.
Cmust
fall
on the point
common
C.
Q. E.
.'.
the two
/I7 coincide,
and are equal.
186.
Cor. Two rectangles having equal bases
and
altitudeh
are equal.
QUADRILATERALS.
63
Proposition XLIII.
187.
Theorem.
on,
// three or more parallels intercept equal parts any transversal, they intercept equal parts on
every transversal.
Let the parallels AH, BK, CM, DP Intercept equal parts HK, KM, MP on the transversal HP.
To prove that they intercept equal parts
transversal
Proof.
(I
AB, BC, CD
and
on the
AD.
From A, B, and
Then
C suppose AE, BF,

CG =
CQ
drawn
to
HP,
AE= UK, BF= KM,
3fP,
180
{parallels comprehended between parallels are equal).
:.AE^BF=CO.
Also
Ax.
^ BAE=Z CBF^ A DCO,

{being ext.-int.
io6
o/ll lines);
and
ZAEB--=ZBFC=ZCGD,
ti
112
vertices).
{having thevr sides

.'.
and
directed the
same way jrom the
A ABE= A BCF= A
and two
adj.
CDG,
a
side
[each having
side
adj.
respectively equal to of tht othen).
147 and two
.\AB=.BO=CD,
(homclogous ndes of equal A),
Q- ^- '
64
188.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
Cor.
1.
BOOK
AB.
.
I.
The
to
line parallel to the base of
a tonangle and
bisecting one
side, bisects the other side also.

II
For, let
BE Le
II
BC and
II
bisect
Draw through
this line is
a line
to
parallels
to BE, by 111. by hypothesis intercept equal -^ parts on the transversal AB, and therefore, by 187, they intercept equal parts on the transversal AC that is, the line Z^-S/ bisects AC.
\
BC. Then The three
2. The line which joins the middle points of two a triangle is parallel to the third side, and is equal to half the third side. For, a line drawn through B, the middle to BC, passes through E, the middle point of AB, point of coincides ^^ by 1S8. Therefore, the line joining Z) and to BC. with this parallel and is drawn Also, since
189.
Cor.
sides of
II
II
E EF
II
AB bisects AC, bisects BC, by 188 that BF=- EC = ^BC. But BBEF a O by construction, and therefore
to
it
;
is,
is
BE^^BF^^BC.
190. Cor. 3.
The
ezoid
and
bisects
line which is parallel one leg of the trap-
to
the bases of
a trap-
ezoid bisects the other leg also.

if
For
i''\
parallels intercept equal parts on
any transversal, they intercept equal parts on every transversal by 187.

191.
Cor.
is
4.
The median of a
to
trapezoid
parallel
For,
the bases,
and is equal
of the bases.
join
draw the diagonal BB.
to half the In the
sum
A ABB
BB.
AB and i^Z. In the A BBC Then EG to BC join Fto G, the middle point of BC and =^BC. AB and EG, being to BC, are to each other.
Then, by
189,
E, the middle point of
AB,
to F, the
middle point of
is
II
EFi^
II
to
II
II
But only one

fore
line can be
EG
is
the prolongation of
drawn through i^ll to AB. EF. Hence EEG is
ThereII
to
AB
and BC, and =^(AB
+ BC).
EXERCISES.
65
Exercises.
30. The bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet in a point which equidistant from the sides of the triangle. and intersect at 0. Hint. Let the bisectors
is
AD
BE
Then
being in
AD
is
equidistant from
in
AC and
AC
?)
AB.
(Why ?) And being is and AB. Hence

and therefore
31.
is
BE
is
equidistant from
BC
equidistant from
and BC,
in a
in the bisector CF.
(Why
The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet of the point which is equidistant from the vertices
triangle.
Hint. Let the JL bisectors

at 0.
EE^ and DD^

i&
intersect
D/
>
Then
being in
EE^
equidistant from
and C. (Why ?X And being in DD^ is equidistant is from A and B. Hence equidistant from B and is in the J. bisector FF^. (Why ?)
32.
C,
and therefore
The perpendiculars from the
vertices of a triangle to the opposite

,
sides
meet in a point. Hint. Let the
be
All,
BP, and CK:
'"
Through A, B, C suppose B'C, A'C, A'B' Then to BC, drawn AC^ AB, respectively. is to B^C (Why?) Now ABCB' and ACBC^ are ZI7 (why?), and 'AB^=BC, and AC^
II
bXIT X.
AH
= BC. (Why ?) That is, A is the middle point of B^C^. In the same way, B and C are the middle points of A^C^ and A^B^, respectively. Therefore, AH, BP, and C/fare the bisectors of the sides of the A A^BÔ^. Hence they meet in a point. (Why ?)
33. The medians of a triangle meet in a point which is two-thirds of the distance from each vertex to the middle of the opposite side.
Hint. Let the two medians AD and CE meet in 0. Take i^the middle point of OA, and G of OC Join to AC OF, FE, ED, and DG. In A AOC, GF is and equal to AC. (Why ?) DE is to AC and equal to ÂC (Why?) Hence DGFE is a O. (Why?) ^ Hence AF^ FO ^ OD, and CO =-00= OE. (Why ?) Hence, any median cutS oflF on any other median two-thirds of the
11
11
.}
dis-
Therefore the tance from the vertex to the middle of the opposite side. median from will cut off AG, two-thirds of AD; that is, will pass
through 0.
66
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Polygons in General.
192,
A polygon
is
a plane figure bounded by straight lines.
The bounding
lines are the sides of the polygon,
and
their
sum
is
The
the perimeter of the polygon. angles which the adjacent sides
make with each
other
are the angles of the polygon, tices of the polygon.
and
their vertices are the ver-
The number of sides number of its angles.

193.
of a polygon
is
evidently equal to the
of
A diagonal of a polygon is a line joining the vertices two angles not adjacent as ^C, Fig. 1.
;
Fig.
3.
194.
An
An
equilateral polygon
is
a polygon which has all
its
sides equal.
195.
equiangular polygon
is
a polygon which has
all its
angles equal.
196. convex polygon is a polygon of which no side, when produced, will enter the surface bounded by the perimeter.
197.
Each angle
and
is less
of sucltfi, polygon than a straight angle.

is
is
called a salient angle,
198i
sides,
concave polygon
3.
when produced,
Fig.
will enter the surface
a polygon of which two or more bounded by the
perimeter.
199.
The angle
FDE
is
called a re-entrant angle,
and
is
greater than a straight angle. If the term polygon is used, a convex polygon
is
meant.
POLYGONS.
200i
67
Two
diagonals into the

each,
to each other,
polygaas are equal when they ean be divided by same number of triangles, equal each to
;
and similarly placed for the polygons can be applied and th corresponding triangles will evidently
coincide.
201. Two polygons are muiually equiangula/r^ if the angles of the one are equal to the angles of the other, each to each, when takn in the same order. Figs. 1 and 2.
202. The eqaal angles in mutually equiangular polygons are called homologous angles and the sides which lie bekveen equal angles are called homologous sides.
;
203.
Two
polygons are mutually equilateral,
if
the sides of
the one are equal to the sides of the others each to each, wli^n taken in the same order. Figs. 1 and 2.
Two
And,
polygons
may
;
be mu<nially equiangular without being

as, Figs.
mutually equilateral
4 and
5.
except in the case of triancês, two polygons
may
;
be
as,
mutuaUy equilateral without being mutually equiangular

Figs. 6 and 7. If two polygons are mutually equilateral
and 6[mangular,
they eure equal, for th-ey so as to coincide.
may
be applied the one to the other
204. A polygon of three sides is called a trigon or triangle; one of four sides, a tetragon or quadrilateral ; one of five sides,
9.
one of six sides, a hexagon; one of seven one of ten one of eight sides, an oetagon heptagon ; one of twelve sides, a dodecagon. decagmi;
pentagon
sides, a
sides, a
68
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition XLIV.
205.
Theorem.
The
to
sum
two right angles, taken as equal two as the figure has sides.
of the interior angles of a polygon is many times less
Let the figure ABODE F be a polygon having n

TefTove
Proof.
sides-
Â-\-ZB + ZC,
the vertex
etG.
= (n~ 2) 2
rt.
A.
From
and
AK
df the
draw the diagonals AC,
AD,
The sum
polygon.
of the
A == the
of each
sum
A,
of the
of the
Now
there ardC(22_ 2)
and the sum of the

.-.
A=2
is,
rt.
A
of the
188
the
sum
of the
of the
rt.
A,
that
the
sum
A of
^
^_
the polygon
206.
- {n ~ 2) 2
A.
a quadrilateral equals equals 4 right angles; and if the angles are all equal, each angle is a right angle. In general, each angle of an equiangular polygon of n sides is
Cor.
two right angles taken (4
The sum of
2) times,
the angles of
i.e.,
equal
to
2 (n "^
2)
right angles.
POLYGONS.
69
Proposition
207.
XLV.
Theorem.
The exterior angles of a polygon, made by producing each of Us sides in succession, are together
equal to four right angles.
Let the figure ABODE be a polygon, having its sides produced in succession. To prove the sum of the exi. /4 = 4 ri. A.
Proof.
Denote the
ext.
int.
<?,
A of the polygon by A,
c?,
B^
(7,
Dy E,
and the
^ by
a, 5,
e.
ZA + Za = 2rtA,
and
90
Zi-Zb = 2
rt.
A,
{being mp.-adj. A).
In like manner each pair of adj.

.'.
A=2
rt.
A.
the
sum
of the interior
and exterior
-^
= 2rt. A
taken
as
or,
many
times as the figure has sides,
rt.
A.
taken as
rt.
But the
interior
figure has sides less two,'

or,
'
.'.
= (n 2) 2 2n zi 4 the exterior A =
rt.
A^2rt.A
many
times as the
A,
rt.
A.
4:
rt.
A.
70
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
Proposition
208.
XL VI.
Theorem.
quadrilateral which has two adjacent sides the other two sides equal, is symmetrical equal, with respect to the diagonal joining the vertices of the angles formed hy the equal sides, and the diagonals intersect at right angles.
and
Let ABCD be a quadrilateral, having AB = AD, and CB = CD, and having the diagonals AC and BD. To prove that the diagonal A C is an axis of symmetry, and is J^to the diagonal BD.
Proof.
Inihe
and
A ABC &nd ADC AB = AD, &nd BC= DC, AC=Aa

.'.AABCÂ ADC,
Z BCA - Z DCA,
^s,
Hyp.
Iden.
160
{having three sides of the one equal to three sides of the other).
:.A
Hence,
if
BAC=ZDAC,
{homologous
and
of equal A).
ABC
is
turned on
AC
an
axis,
AB will
to
fall
upon AD, CB
on CD, and
axis of
OB on
OD.
G5,
Hence ^6' is an
symmetry,
and is_L
^BD.^
Q. E. O.
POLYGONS.
71
Proposition
XL VII.
Theorem.
209. If a figure is symmetrical with respect to two axes perpendicular to each other, it is syrmnetrical with respect to their intersection as a centre.
72
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
an
I.
Exercises.
34.
The median from the vertex
to the base of
isosceles triangle
i
is
perpendicular to the base, and bisects the vertical angle.
- 35,
State
and prove the converse.
'
'36. The bisector of an exterior angle of an isosceles triangle, formed by producing one of the legs through the vertex, is parallel to the base.
"37. State
^ 38. The altitudes upon the legs of an isosceles triangle are equal.
^
39.
40.
State

to the legs of
The medians drawn

State
an
isosceles triangle are equal.
^41.
(See Ex. 33.)
M2. The
43.
bisectors of the base angles of
an
isosceles triangle are equal.
State the converse
and the opposite theorems.

of
44.
an
isosceles triangle
The perpendiculars dropped from the middle point of the base upon the legs are equal.
an
'^
45.
~
State
46.
If one of the legs of
isosceles triangle is
produced through the
vertex by its own length, the line joining the end of the leg produced to the nearer end of the base is perpendicular to the base.
47.
Show
that the
sum
of the interior angles of a
hexagon
is
equal to
eight right angles.

^
48.
Show
that each angle of an equiangular pentagon
is
f of a right
angle.
''^
49.
How many sides has an equiangular polygon, four of whose ingles

?
are together equal to seven right angles

50.
is
How many
sum
sides has a polygon, the
sum
of whose interior angles
equal to the
of
its
exterior angles
"^61.
is
How many
its
sum
of whose interior angles
double that of
exterior angles
'^52.
is
How many
sum^pf whose exterior anglee
double that of
its
interior angles
EXERCISES.
73
^.
^bAi.
BAC
IS
a triangle having the angle
B double the angle A.
If
BD
bisect the angle B,
and meet
^Cin
D, show that
BD
is
equal to AD.
If from
the legs are drawn,

is
any point in the base of an isosceles triangle parallels to show that a parallelogram is formed whose perimeter
to the
constant,
and equal
sum
of the legs of the triangle.
V 65. The lines joining the middle pointe of the sides of a triangle divide the triangle into four equal triangles.
"*^56.
The
lines joining the
miadle points of the side of a square, taken
in order, enclose a square.
"^67. The lines joining the middle points of the sides of a rectangle (not a square), taken in order, enclose a rhombus.
"" 58. The lines joining the middle points of the sides of a rhombus, taken in order, enclose a rectangle.
"^^d.
The
lines joining the
trapezoid, taken in order, enclose a
middle points of the sides of an rhombus or a square.
isosceles
60.
The
lines joining the
middle points of the sides of any quadri-
lateral,
taken in order, enclose a parallelogram.
61.
The median of a trapezoid passes through the middle points

'
of
the two diagonals.

'^
18
62. The line joining the middle points of the^diagonals of a trapezoid equal to half the difference oi the bases.
63.
In an isosceles trapezoid each base makes
%
/
\
P
\
\
equal angles with the legs.
Hint. Draw
"^
CE DB.
II
/
-^
64.
In an isosceles trapezoid the opposite angles
are supplementary.
- 65. If the angles at the base of a trapezoid are equal, the other
angles are equal,
^
'
and the trapezoid
is
isosceles.
.66.
The diagonals of an
isosceles trapezoid are equal.
^ 67. If the diagonals of a trapezoid are equal, the

trapezoid
is
c
/
isosceles.
\v/^'
Hint. Draw CE and Show that A JL to CD. and BCE are equal, that ^ COD and AOB are iposceles, and that i^ ^0(7 and ^07) are equal.
DF
ADF
jX e
!/^\J \
]\\
f b
74
^6*.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
ABCD
is
:
i?C respectively
"
a pai-allekgram, and the middle points of and show that îi and Di^ will trisect the diagonal AC.
AD
69.
If from the diagonal
BD of
a square
to
ABCD,
BE
is
to
BC, and
that
^
DE
is
drawn perpendicular equal to EF, and also to i^C.

is
EF
cut off equal

at F,
BD
to
meet
DO
show
70.
The
bisector f the vertical angle J. of a triangle
ABC, and
the
AB
bisectors of the exterior angles at the base formed by producing the sides and AC, nieet ki a point which is equidistant frm the base and the
sides produced.
^71.
If the
two angles
at the base of a triangle are bisctd,
aod
through the point of meeting of the bisectors a line is drawn parallel to the base, the length of this parallel between the sides is equal to the sum of the segments of the sides between the parallel and the base.
72.
the hypotenuse
If one of the acute angles of a right triangle is double the shortest side.
is
double the
otiier,
"^73. The sum of the perpendiculars dropped froai any point in the o base of an isosceles triangle to the legs is constant, and equal to the altitude upon one of the legs.
Hint. Let
altit-ude
PD
and
PE
be the two
Jfi,
BE
the
the
APBO
upon AC. Draw PO and PBD equal.
to
BF, and prove
^S'Vd
zS^^îiS^/?
any point within an and equal to the
and apply Ex.
73,
"^ 74.
The sum
of the perpendiculars dropped from

is
equilateral triangle to the three sides

altitude.
constant,
Hint.
"^
Draw through
is
?
the poin* a line
II
to the base,
75.
What
the lcus of all points equidistant from a pair of inter-
secting lines
76.
In the triangle
CAB
perpendicular from Cto angles A and B.

-
AB an
the bisector of the angle C makes with the aagle equal to half the difference of the
77.
If one angle of an isosceles triangle
is
equal to 60, the triangle
is
equilateral.
i.t<^^
BOOK
II.
THE
CLRCJLE.
Definitions.
210.
circle is a portion of
line called a drcumferemce,
aU
a plane bounded by a cui'ved points of which are e[ually dis-
tant from a point within called the centre.

211.
A radms is a straight line drawn

;
from the centre to the
circumference
and a diameter
the centre, having its By the definition of a
a straight line drawn through extremities in the circumference.

is
circle, all its radii

is
are eqnal.
All
its
diameters are equal, since the diameter

212.
equal to
two
radii.
secant
is
a straight line which intersects the circum;
ference in two points
as,
AD,
Fig.
1.
213. tangent is a straight line which touches the circumference but does not intersect it; as,
BC, Fig. 1. The point in which the tangent touches the circumference is called the point of contact, or point of
tangency.
Two circwmfei'etices are tangent ^^^- ^' each other when they are both tanto a straight line a-t the same gent point; and are tangent mternaUy or externally, according as one circumference lies
214.
to
wholly withm or without the other.
76
215.
PLANE GEOMETRY.- BOOK
IL
An
An arc of a circle is any portion of the circumference. arc equal to one-half the circumference is called a semi'
circumference.
216.
chord
is
a straight line having

arcs
its
extremities in the
circumference.
Every chord subtends two

ference
;
whose sum
If a chord
it is
is
the circum-
thus, the chord
AB (Fig. 3) subtends the smaller arc

and
its
AB
and the larger arc

of,
BCDEA.
arc are
spoken
the less arc
is
meant unless
otherwise stated.
A segment of a circle an arc and its chord. by

217.
is
a portion of a circle bounded
218.
A segment equal to one-half the circle is called a seTuicircle. A sector of a circle is a portion of the circle bounded
by two radii and the arc which they intercept.
A sector equal to one-fourth of the circle is called a quadrant. 219. A straight line is inscribed in a circle if it is a chord.
220. An angle is inscribed in a circle circumference and its sides are chords.
if its
vertex
is
in the
221. An angle is inscribed in a, segment if its vertex is on the arc of the segment and its sides pass through the extremities of the arc.
222.
polygon
circle.
is
inscribed in
circle if
its
sides
are
chords of the
223.
circle is inscribed in
a polygon
if
the circumference
touches the sides of the polygon but does not intersect them.
ARCS AND CHORDS.

224.
77
circle if all the
polygon
is
circwmscnhed about a
sides of the
225.
polygon are tangents to the circle. circle is circumscnhed about a polygon
if
the circum-
ference passes through all the vertices of the polygon. for 226. Two circles are equal if they have equal radii will coincide if one is applied to the other they conversely,
;
;
two equal
circles
Two
circles
have equal radii. are concentric if they have the same centre.
Proposition
227.
I.
Theorem.
live
diameter of a
circle is greater
than any
other chord;
ference.
and
bisects the circle
and
the circum-
P
Let AB be the diameter of the circle AyfBP, and
AE any other chord. To prove AB'> AE, and that

circumference.
Proof.
I.
AB bisects the
circle
and
the
From
(7,
the centre of the O,
draw CE.
CE^CB,
'
{being radii of the same
circle).
But
{the
sum
AC-{-CE> AE, of two sides of a A is "^ the
137
third side).
Then
II.
falls
Fold over the segment
Ax. 9 AC+CB> AE, or AB > AE. A MB on AB as an axis until

59.
it
upon
AFB,
therefore the arc
A MB
in
The points
will
and
coincide
are
B will remain fixed; with the arc AFB

;
because
centre C.
all
points
each
equally distant from
the
210
Hence the two
figures coincide throughout
and are equal.
59
D.
aE.
78
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition
II.
Theorem.
228. straight line cannot intersect the cirGumference of a circle in more thccn two points.
Let HK be any line

To prove that
points.
Proof.
cutting: the circumtierence
AMP,
two
UK can
intersect the circumference in only
If possible, let
UK intersect
the circumference in
three points
K, P, and K.
O, draw OH, OP, and
equal,
From
Th<en
0, the centre of the
OK
OS, OP, and OJTare

{being radii of the
same
circle).
Hence, we have three equal straight
lines
OH, OP, and

But
OK
this
drawn from the same point

is
to a given straight line.
impossible,
120
lines can he dk-awn from a point to a straight {only two equal straight
line).
Therefore,
points.
HK can intersect the circumference
in only
two
Q. e.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
79
Proposition
229.
III.
Theorem.
In the same circle, or equal circles, equal anat the centre intercept equal arcs; conversely, gles equal arcs subtend equal angles at the centre.
p
In the equal circles
To prove
Proof.
P'
ABP and
A'B'P' let
/.O^Ô,
arc
R8 = arc H'/S'.
shall coincide with
Apply
so that
O ABP to O A'B*P,
Z O'.
B will fall upon

(/or
B*,
and
S upon S\
226
0E=
O^R^, and
08=
0^8^, being radii of equal ).
Then the
arc JR8 will coincide with the arc R'S',
since all points in the arcs are equidistant from the centre.
.-.
210
arc i^.S'ârc B'8'.

R'S^.
Conversely
Let arc IiS= arc
To prove
Proof.
ZO = ZO'.
O ^^Pto O A'B'F\ so that arc BS shall fall R falling upon R\ 8 upon 8\ and upon 0'.
with R'0\ and
Apply
B'jS',
upon arc
Then
RO
will coincide
.".
80
with S'O'.
q. e. d.
A O and
0' coincide
and are equal.
80
PLANE GEOiMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition IV. Theorem.

230. In the same circle, or equal circles, if two chords are equal, the arcs which they subtend are equal; conversely, if two arcs are equal, the chords which subtend them are equal.
p
In the equal circles chord R'S'.
To prove
Proof.
P'
ABP and
A'B'P', let
chord RS =
arc
US arc
OB, OS,
H'S'.
O'lc',
Draw
the radii
and
O'S'.
In the
A OBS and
O'B'S'
BS=B'S',
the radii
Hyp.
O'B' and O'S'.
OB and 0S= the
radii
226
.\ABOS=AB'0'S',
{three sides of the one being equal to three sides of the other).
160
.'.ZO^-^ZO',
,'.&vcBS=SiTcB'S',
{in equal , eqvxil
229
equ^
arcs).
at the centre intercept
Q.E.O.
Conversely
'
Let arc RS = arc

chord
R'S'.
To prove
Proof."
BS= chord B'S'.
ZO = ZO',
{equal arcs in equal
229
subtend equal
at the centre),
and
OB and 0S= O'B'

sidc-s
and
O'S', respectively.
226
.'.AOBS=AO'B'S',
{having two
equal each
to
150
each
and
the included
equal).
.-.
chord
BS= chord B'S'.
q.e.d.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
81
Proposition V.
Theorem.
231. In the same circle, or equal circles, if tivo arcs are unequal, and each is less than a semi-circumference, the greater arc is subtended hy the greater chord; conversely, the greater chord subtends the
greater arc.
In the circle whose centre is greater than the arc AMF.

To prove
Proof.
0,
let the arc
AMB
be
chord
AB greater than chord AF.

the radii
Draw
OA, OF, and OB.

fall
Since
Fib between
and B, 0-Fwill
between
OA
and
OB, and
Z ^0^ be greater than Z AOF.

but
Hence, in the
the radii
OA and OB = the radii OA and Z ^0^ is greater than Z AOF.
A AOB and AOF,
OF,
:.AB>AF,
{the
152
having two sides equal each
to each,
but the included
A unequal).
\\
'
?
Let AB be greater than AF. To prove arc AB greater than arc AF. In the A AOB and AOF,
Conversely:
,v
^
'
OA
But
(i/t
and
0B= OA
is
AB
and Oi^ respectively.
is
greater than
.-.
AF.
greater than
to each,
;, "'
Z ^0^
.-.
Hyp.
Z AOF,
AF.
153
having two sides equal each
but the third sides unequal).
OB
falls
without OF.
q. e. d.
.'.
arc
AB
is
greater than arc
82
PLAJTE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition VI.
232.
Theorem.
bisects
the chard
The radius perpendicular to a cJwrd and the arc subtended by it. E
Let AB be the chord, and let the radius OS be perpendicular to AB at M. To prove BM, and are ASâro BS.
AM
OA
Proof.
Draw
rt.
and
OB
from 0, the centre of the

the
eirl0.
In the
A 0AM find OBM

the radius
OA
radiiiis
OB,
,
and
0M= OM.
to the
Iden.
.'.AOAM=AOBM,
{having the hypotenue and a side of one equal
side of the other).
.'.
161
hypotermse and a
AM= BM,
B08.
BS,
Q. E. o.
SiTid
.'.
Z AOS = Z
arc
AS= arc
{eq%tal
at the centre intercept equal arcs on the eireumfer&nce).

1.
233.
Cor.
Tke perpendicular
erected at the
middle of a
chord passes through the centre of the cireU. For the centre is equidistant from the extremities of a chord, and is therefore in
the perpendicular erected at the middle of the chord.
234.
122
Cor.
2.
The perpendicular erected

of the chord.
the
at the
middle of a
chord
235.
bisects the arcs
Cor.
3.
is
The locus of
middle p&mts of a system of
parallel chords
the diameter perpendicular to them.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
83
Proposition VII.
Theorem.
236. In the same circle, or equal circles, equal chords are equally distant from tJie centre ; and CONVERSELY.
Let
AB and CF
be equal chords of the circle ABFC.
To prove
Proof.
AB and CF eqwidisUini from the centre 0. Draw 0P to AB, OHA. to CF, and join OA and OC. OP and OH bisect AB and CF, 232
(a radius A. to
a chord
bisects it).
Hence,
in the
rt.
A OFA
and
OHC
Ax.
OC.
7
the
AF-=CH, radius OA = the radius

.'.
A OFA = A OHC,
of the one equal of the other).
to
161
{having a side
and hypotenuse
.-.
side ertid hypotenuse
OF=OH.
'Are
.*.
AB and CF
:
equidistant from 0.
Conversely
L^t OP = OH.
rt.
To prove
Proof.
In the
AB = CF. A OFA and OHC

hyp.).
the radius
OA = the radius OC, and 0P=- OH(hj A OPA and OHC sue equal. .\AP=CH. /,A^CF.
.-.
161
Ax.
6.
it 6.0.
84
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition VIII.
Theorem.
237. In the same circle, or equal circles, if two chords are unequal, they are unequally distant from the centre, and, the greater is at the less distance.
In the circle whose centre is 0, let the chords AB and CD be unequal, and AB the greater; and let OE and OF be perpendicular to AB and CD respectively.
To prove
Proof.
OE <
OF.
Suppose
same
AG drawn
equal to CD, and
Oil 1.
to
AG.
Then 0//=- OF,

(in the
236
O two
equal chords are equidistant from the centre).
Join
FH.
AG,
bisects
OF and
Since,
OZT bisect
(a radius
AB and
to
respectively,
it).
232
a chord
AF\
or its equal by hypothesis, Ais greater than the half of AB, is greater than AH, the half of AG.
.'.
CF
A G,
158
the
AHF
is
greater than the
Z
Z
AFII,
{tJie
greater of two sides of a
has the greater
opposite to it).
Therefore, the
less
than the
Z OTIF, Z OFR, the

two
the complement of the AHF, AFII. complement of the
is
.\OF<OH,
{the greater of
159
to it).
of a
has the greater side opposite
/.
OF <
OF, the equal
of
OF.
Q.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
85
Proposition IX.
238.
:
Theorem.
Conversely In the same circle, or equal cirif two chords are unequally distant from the centre, they are unequal, and the chord at the less distance is the Greater.
cles,
In the circle whose centre is 0, let AB and CD be unequally distant from 0,- and let OE perpendicular to AB be less than OF perpendicular to CD.
To prove
Proof.
AB > AO drawn
CD.
Suppose
equal to CD, and
OH 1. to
A G.
236
{in the
sameO
Then OF, two equal chords are equidistant from the centre).
Hence,
011=
OE <
OH.
Join
EH
is
In
the A OEHthe Z OHE
less
than the
Z.
Z OEH,
158
{the greater of two sides of a
has the greater
opposite to
it).
Therefore, the greater than the
Z AHE, the complement of the Z OHE, Z A EH, the complement of the Z OEH.
is
.\AE>AH,
{the greater of two
159
to it).
of a
has the greater side opposite
But
AE=iAB,
hence
and
AH=iAG.
of
,\AB>
AG]
AB>
CD, the equal
AG.
86
PLANE GEOMETRY. BOOK
II.
Proposition X.
239.
Theorem.
its
straight line perpendicular to extremity is a tangent to the circle.
a radius at
Let
MB
be perpendicular to the radius OA at
A.
To prove
Proof.
MB tangent
is
to the circle.
From
(a jL
draw any other
line to
MB,
as
OCJI.
OH^>OA,
the shortest line from
114
to
a point
a straight
line).
.'.
the point BTis without the circle.

line
Hence, every point, except A, of the

circle,
MB
is
without the
and therefore
Cor.
1.
MB
is
a tangent to the circle at A.

to
213
D.
aE.
240.
tangent
circle is
perpendicular
if
to
the
the point of contact. to the circle at A, every point of

to
radius
drawn
For,
MB
is,
is
MB,
except A,
that
is
tangent without
the
is
circle.
-Hence,
OA
is
the shortest line from
to
3fB, and
is
therefore perpendicular to
MB ( 114)
MB
per-
pendicular to OA. 241. Cor. 2. perpendicular to a tangent at the point of For a radius is contact parses through the centre of the circle.
perpendicular to a tangent at the point of contact, and therefore, by 89, a perpendicular erected at the point of contact
coincides with this radius
242.
circle
and passes through the

let
centre.
Cor.
3.
perpendicular
to
fall
from
the centre of
upon a tangent
the circle pa<^ses through the point of
contact.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
87
Proposition
243.
XL
Theorem.
Parallels
intercept equal arcs on
circuit t-
ference.
Fig.
2.
Let AB and CD be the two parallels. Case I. When All is a tan(jent, and CD a
2^1'ove
secant.
Fig.
1.
Suppose AB touches the circle at F. arc CF= arc DF. To Proof. Suppose FF' drawn to ^^. a diameter of the circle. This J_ to AB at i^ It also to CD.
is is
1241
101
.-.arc
(a radius
CF=s.vcDF,
chord and
its
232
subtended arc).
to
a chord
bisects the
Also, arc
.-.
FCF' =
CF'
arc
FDF\
{FDF'
arc
(FCF'
~FC)^ arc
arc
to
that
is,
= arc. DF.
- FD),
Fig. 2.
227
82
Case Then and
II.
When
AB and CD are secants.

II
Suppose î'^ drawn
CD and
arc
.'.by subtraction,
~ arc B3f arc CM = arc DM arc AC = arc BD
tangent to the circle at J/.

Case
I.
AM
Case
III.
Wheî
AB and CD are tangents.

E,
Fig. 3.
li
Suppose
AB
tangent at
arc arc
CD
at F,
and
GH
*
to
AB.
Case
I.
Then
and
.'.
GE = arc FR GF = arc HF
bv
addition,
arc
EGF= arc EHF
o. e.
88
PLANE GEOMETRY.
Proposition XII.
BOOK
II.
Theorem.
Through three points not in a straight line, one circumference, and only one, can he drawn.
244.
Let A, B, G be three points not in a straight line. To prove that a circumference can he drawn through A, B,
and
(7,
and
only one.
Join v4i5 and
Proof.
^C.
middle points of _4-S and ^Cstippose Js erected. Since BC\^ not the prolongation of AB, these Js will intertiie
At
sect in
some point 0,
The point 0, being in tlje _L to î? at its muklle point, is and B\ and being in the to 2X its equidistant from
BC
middle point,
is
equidistant from
B and
C,
122
d
{every point in the perpendicular bisector of a straight line is equidista from the extremities of the straight line).
Therefore
is
cumference described from
equidistant from' A, B, and C; and a ciras a centre, and with a radiu.
OA,
straight lines can intei-the centre of the only circumference that can pass through the three given points. e. d.
Rect in only
Only one circumference can be For the centre of these points. the three points must be in through As two hence at their intersection.
one point,
Tluo
is
will pass through the three given points. made to
pass through a circumference passing both perpendiculars, and
;i.
circumferences can intersect in only two if 'two circumferences hnve three points common, For, points. they coincide and form one circumference.
245.
Cor.
TAmENTg.
Proposition XT IT.
246.
89
Theorem.
The tangents
to
circle
drawn
fronv
an
exte-
rior -point are equal, and make equal angles with, the line joining the point to ths centre.
n^
^.
c Let AB and AC be tangents from A to the whose centre is 0, and AG the line joining A to
To prove
Proof.
is
circle
0.
AB = A C,
and
ZBAO^Z
and OC.
CAO.
240
Draw
OB
AB to
(a tangent to
OB, and
AC
to
00,
circle is A. to the
radius drawn
to the jioint
oj contact).
In the
rt.
A 0^^ and OAC

OB--OC,
{radii of the
same
circle),
OAÔA. .\/\OAB = AOAC,

[having a side
Iden.
nOl
and hypotenuse
and
liypotenuse of the one equal to a side of the other).
.\AB^- AC,
"
and
247.
/.BAO^Z. CAO.
Def. The
line joining the
q. e. d.
centres of two circles
is
called the line of centres.

248.
Def.
common tangent
when
it
to
two
circles
is
called a
common
tres,
exterior tangcf)it
does not cut the line of cen-
and a common
interior tangent
when
it
cuts the line of
centres.
90
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition XIV.
249.
Theorem.
^
If two circumferences intersect each other the

their
line of centres is perpendicular to chord at its middle point.
common
Let G and C he the centres of two circumferences which intersect at A and B. Let AB be their common chord, and CO' join their centres.
To prove
Proof.
CC J-
to
AB
at
its
viiddle point.
of the chord
passes
(a
drawn through the middle through the centres C and C",
AB
233
.*.
erected at the middle of a chord passes through the centre of the O).
the line
CC, having two

it.
points in
common with
this _L,
must coincide with

.'.
CC
is
J_ to
^^ at its middle point.

if
q. e. d.
Ex.
centres
(i.)
78.
:
Describe the relative position of two circles
the line of
is is is
greater than the
sum
of the radii
;
(ii.)
(iii.)
equal to the
less
sum
of the radii
than the sum but greater than the difference of the radii
;
(iv.) is
equal to the difference of the radii
(v.) is less
than the difference of the
radii.
Illustrate each case
by a
figure.
TANGENTS.
9l
Proposition XV.
Theorem.
250. If two circumferences are tangent to each otioer, the line of centres passes through the point of contact.
Let the two circumferances, whose centres are C and C, touch each other at O, in the straight line AB, and let CC be the straight line Joining; their centres.
To prove
Proof.
is iyi
the straight line
CC
_L to AB, drawn through the point 0, passes the centres (7 and C, 241 through a tangent at the point of contact passes through the centre {a to
of the
.'.
circle).
the line
CC\ having two

it.
points in
common with
CC.
this J,
must coincide with

.*.
is
in the straight line
q.e.d.
Ex.
chord
is
79.
The linft joining the centre of a circle to the middle of perpendicular to the chord.
&
Ex.
80.
The tangents drawn through the extremities of a diameter
are parallel.
\Ex. 81. The perimeter of an inscribed equilateral triangle lo half the perimeter of the circumscribed equilateral triangle.
is
equal
Ex.
82.
is
The sum of two opposite
sides of a circumscribed quadi'i-
lateral
equal to the
sum
of the other
two
sides.
92
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Measurement.
251.
To
times
it
7)ieasure a quawtity oi' any kind is to find how many contains another known quantity of the same kind.
is
Thus, to measure a line

tains another
to find
how many
times
it
con-
known
line, called the linear unit.
The number which expresses how many times a quantity contains the unit, joined with the name of the unit, is called the numerical measure of that quantity as, 5 yards, etc.
;
of a quantity is always relative to the another quantity of the savie Icind. No quantity This relative magniis great or small except by comparison. tude is called their ratio, and is expressed by the indicated
252.
The magnitude
of
magnitude
quotient of their numerical measures
when the same
unit of
measure
is
applied to both.
The
253.
ratio of
to 5
is
written
-,
or a
6.
-r
Two
unit
terms of a
common
is
quantities that can be expressed in integers in unit are said to be commensurable. The
called a
common
is
common
measure, and each quantity
common^measure. ^^ of a of 2\ feet and 3|- feet is foot, which is contained 15 times in 2^ feet, and 22 times in of a Hence, 2-^ feet and 3-| feet are multiples of 3|- feet. foot, 2|- feet being obtained by taking \ of a foot 15 times, and
Thus, a
called a Tnultiple of this
common measure
-J-
-J-
3 1 by taking
254.
-J-
of a foot 22 times.
When
two quantities are incommensurable i\mt

bot/i
is,
have no common unit in terms of which
quantities can be in integers, it is impossible to find a fraction that expressed will indicate the exact value of the ratio of the given quanti-
It is possible, however, by taking the unit sufficiently small, to find a fraction that shall differ from the true value
ties.
of the ratio
by
as little as
we
please.
RATIO.
Thus, suppose a uiid b to denote two
lines,
U3
such that
I.
r^^-
Now Vil-- 1.41iJL35G. a value greater than 1.414^13^ but less than 1.414|214^ If, then, a viillioTith iârt of h be taken as the unit, the value
,
of the ratio
fore differs
lies
between
HoMil
^'"^
IHtftv'
'^"<^
there-
By
from either of these fractions by less than y^-Q^J^riTT^carrying the decimal farther, a fraction may be found
that will differ from the true value of the ratio by less than a billionth, a trillionth, or any other assif/ned value whatever.
Expressed generally, when a and b are incommensurable,
and
if
is
divided into any integral
one of these parts is contained less than -f- 1 times, then
in
number {n) of equal parts, a more than in times, but
>!2.but<!!iI;
n
^
that
is,
the value of %
b
error,
lies
between
-'-''
and
The
a b
therefore, in
1 -.
71
is less
than
But by increasim/ n
'
....
and
to
~ n
~
taking either of these values for

indefinitely,
less
1 - can be n
made
to
decrease indefinitely,
to zero.
become
it
than any
assigned value, however small, though

absolutely equal
cannot be
made
Hence, the ratio of two incommensurable quantities cannot

be expressed exactly by figures, but
proximaiely'vfi^h.ixi
it
may
be expressed
precision.
aj^-
any assigned measure of
255.
The
ratio of
an incominensurable ratio
its
two incommensurable quantities is called nnd is a fixed value toward which ;
successive approximate values constantly tend.
94
256.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Theorem. Two incommensurable

the unit of
ratios are
equal
ij,
when
measure
is indefinitely
diminished, their ap-
proxim,ate values constantly remain equal.
Let a:b and

values
lie
a'
6'
be two incommensurable ratios whose true
between the approximate values

is
and
^t_, n
Then
h
when
the unit of measure

differ so
indefinitely diminished.
they cannot
much
(if
as
Now
and
a'
:
the difference b\
is
sifi^xed value.
any) between the fixed values a Let d denote this difference.
Then
But
esis
if
d<l.
n
has any value, however small,
can be indefinitely
n diminished, can be made
-,
which by hypothless
than
d.
Therefore
there
fore
is
d cannot have any value; that is, c?=0, and no difference between the ratios a b and a^ :b' there:
a\h^=a^ :b\
The Theory of
257,
Limits.
a quantity is regarded as having 2, fixed value the same discussion, it is called a constant; but throughout when it is regarded, under the conditions imposed upon it, as
When
having
different successive values, it is called a variable.

it
When
be
at a series of definite intervals, can
can be shown that the value of a variable, measured by continuing the series
made to differ from a given constant by less than any assigned quantity, however small, but cannot- be made absolutely equal to the constant, that constant is called the limit
of the variable,
nitely to its limit.
and the variable

is
is
said to approach indeficalled a superior
If the variable
increasing, its limit

limit.
is
limit
if
decreasing, an inferior
THEORY OF
Suppose a point
second
it
LIMITS.
95
to
move from
~~~~
toward B, under the con^

^
ditions that the first ^

shall
^
'
j^,
'
move
one-half the distance from
to
, that
is,
to
M;
the next
;
second, one-half the remaining distance, that is, to M' the next second, one-half the remaining distance, that is, to 3f"
;
and so on " Then it

near
to
indefinitely.
is
evident that the
B as we please,
Moving point may approach as but will nevot' arrive at B. For, how-
it may bef to at any instant, the next seco id it oven one-half the interyal still remaining it must, therefore, approach nearer to B,' since half the interval still remaining is some distance, but will not reach B, since half
ever near
will pass
still remaining is not the whol distance. Hence, the distance from A to the moving point is an increasing variable, which indefinitely approaches the constant
the interval
AB as its limit; and the distance from the moving point to B a decreasing variable, which indefinitely approaches the
is
constant zero as
its limit.
If the length of
denoted by
limit,
x,
be two inches, and the variable be and the difference between the variable and its
AB
hj
v:
after one second,
after
two seconds,
after three seconds,

after four seconds,
and
so
on indefinitely.
the sum of the series 1 i i i, etc., is less than but by taking a great number of terms, the sum can be made to difier from 2 by as little as we please. Hence 2 is
;
Now
+ + +
when
is
the limit of the
sum
of the series,
;
the
number
of the
increased indefinitely and ference between this vainable sum and

is
terms
the limit of the dif-
2.
96
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
,
II.
Consider the repetend 0.33333
which may be written
However great the number of terms of this series we take, sum of these terms will be less than -^ but the more terms we take the nearer does the sum approach Hence the sum of the series, as the number of terms is increased.
the
;
-J-.
approaches indefinitely the constant

258.
-J
as a limit. ^
In the right triangle

the
A CB,
the
if
the vertex
indefinitely
base
C,
diminishes,
;
and
approaches
angle zero indefi-
A approaches
a
if the vertex moves nitely the base indefinitely, the angle
away from
increases
;
and approaches a right angle indefinitely but cannot become zero or a right angle,
so long as
ACB
is
a triangle
for if
be-
^'
line
comes
zero, the triangle
B becomes a right angle, the triangle becomes lines AC &nd AB perpendicular to BC. Hence B must lie between 0 and 90** as limits.
259.
becomes the straight
BC, and
if
parallel the value of
two
and
BJ,
Again, suppose a square A BCD inscribed in a circle, B, H, ^the middle points of the arcs subtended by
the sides of the square. If ihe straight lines AB, BB,
we draw
BF,
etc.,
we
shall
have an inscribed polygon of

the
double
square.
number
of sides
of the
The length
polygon,
lines,
is
of the perimeter of this
represented
by the dotted
that
of
greater than
the
square, since two sides replace each side of the square and form with it a triangle, and two sides of a triangle are together greater than the third side but less
;
than the length of the cironmference, for
it
'r-:
made up
of
THEORY OF
straight lines, each one of
LIMITS.
is less
^7
than the part of the
which
circumference between
its
extremities.
By continually repeating the process of doubling the number of sides of each resulting inscribed figure, the length of the perimeter will increase with the increase of the number
but it cannot become equal to the length of the circumference, for the perimeter will continue to be made up of straight lines, each one of which is less than the part of the
of sides
;
circumference between
its
extremities.
is
The length
of the circumference
therefore the limit of the
length of the perimeter as the number of sides of the inscribed figure is indefinitely increased.
260.
and each
Theorem. // two variables are constantly equal apjiroaches a limit, their limits are equal
.
N
G
Let
AM and AN
be two variables which are con-
stantly equal and which approach indefinitely and AC respectively as limits.

To prove
Proof.
AB
AD = AC. Then the variable Alimony assume values between AD and

and take
while the variable
this
is
AB = AC. If possible, suppose AB > AC,
AB,
But
AH must
always be
less
than
AD.
contrary to the hypothesis that the variables should

'
.-.
continue equal.
^^.cannot
In the same
.'.
way
it
> AC may be proved that ^C cannot heÂB.

be
AB and AC are
two values neither of which
is
greater
than the other
Hence
A/-:
AC
,,
98
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
11.
Measure of Angles.
Proposition XVI.
261.
Theorem.
circles,
In the same
circle, or
equal
two angles
at the centre have the

arcs.
same
ratio as their intercepted
Case
I.
When
the arcs are commensurahle.
EDF
rp
In the circles whose centres are C and D, let ACS and be the angles, AB and EF the intercepted arcs.
Lo ^ prove
Z ACB = arc AB -t--~ Z EDF arc EF
Proof.
EF four times. arc AB _ 7 Then (1) 4' arc EF At the several points of division on AB and EF ^xds^ radii.
and
in
w be a common measure oi AB and EF. Suppose m to be contained in AB seven times,

Let
These radii will divide
Z A CB
into
seven
EDF into four parts,

(in the
parts,
and 229
equal each to each

equal arcs subtend
same O, or equal
(D,
at the centre).
ZACB _7 A EDF 4
Z ACB Z EDF
arc
arc
(2)
From
(1)
and (2)
AB EF
Ax,
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
Case
II.
99
When
p
the arcs are incommensurable,

P'
ACB and A'C'B' AB and A!Bf.

rp To prove
In the equal circles ABP and A'B'P* let the angles intercept the incommensurable arcs
Z.
ACB
arc
AB
T^C^^^ ^^^^^'
AB
into any number of equal parts, and Divide one of these parts as a unit of measure to A^B^ as many apply times as it will be contained in A^B\
Proof.
Since
AB and A^B^ are incommensurable, a certain number

B,
leav-
of these parts will extend from -4' to some point, as ing a remainder DB^ less than one of these parts.
Draw
Since
C'i).
AB and
D are commensurable, Z AQB arc AB

A}
arc
A A'C'B
A'B
Case
I.
If the unit of measure is indefinitely diminished, these ratios continue equal, and approach indefinitely the limiting ratios
ZACB
Z
Therefore
and
arc
AB
260
A'O'B'
arc A'B'' arc arc
ZACB
Z
A'C'B'
AB
A'B'
theii [If two vai'iables are constantly equal, and each approaches a limit, limits are equal.)
Q. E. o.
100
262.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
a point,
The circumference, like the angular magnitude about is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. The
;
arc-degree is subdivided into 60 equal parts, called minutes and the minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds.
degrees, minutes,
Since an angle at the centre has the same number of angleand seconds as the intercepted are has of arcdegrees, minutes, and seconds, we say A71 angle at the centre
:
is
measured hy its intercepted arc ; meaning. An angle at the centre is such a part of the whole angular magnitude about
the centre as
its
intercepted arc
is
of the whole circumference.
Proposition XVII.
263.
Theorem.
An inscribed angle is measured hy onechalf the arc intercepted between its sides, of
B
Case
I.
When
one side of the angle
is
'ujliameter.
-
In the circle PAB (Fig. 1), let the centre C be in 0226 of the sides of the inscribed angle B.
To prove
Proof.
A B is
measured by ârc PA. Draw CA. Radius CA =^ radius OB.
.'.ZB = ZA,
(being opposite equal sides of the
But
{the exterior
Zofa A
ZBOA=ZB + ZA,
equal
to the
154
CAB).
145
is
sum
But
{the
.\ZFCA = 2ZB. Z FCA is measured by FA,

measured by
.'.
of the two opposite interior A).
262
at the centre is
the intercepted arc).
ZB
is
measured by ^ FA.
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
Case
II.
101
When
the centre is within the angle.
In the circle BAE (Fig. within, the angle EBA.

To prove
Proof.
Z.
2), let
the centre C fall

arc
Z EBA
is
measured hy
the diameter
-J-
EA.
Case Case
I.
1.
Draw
BCP.
-J-
PBA
is
is is is
.*.
PBE Z PBA ~ /. PBE

Z.
arc PA, measured by measured by \ arc PE, measured by J (arc PA
arc PI']),
or
Z EBA
When
measured by \ arc
EA.
Case
III.
the centre is without the anyle.
In the circle BFP (Fig. 3 J, let the centre C full without the angle ABF. measured by \ arc AF. To prove Z
ABT
.
'j,s
Proof.
Draw
the'
diameter
BCP.
Case Case
I.
by \ arc PA. .-.Z PBF-Z.PBA ismeasured by | (arc arc AF. or Z ^-Siîs' measured J)y
-J-
Z PBF is'measu-red Z PBA is measured
by | arc PF,
I.
PF- Arc
PA),
aE.
d.
Fig.
1.
Fig.
2.
Fio.
3.
264.
Cor.
1.
An
An
angle. 265.
For
Cor.
is
it is
a semicircle is a right angle inscribed measured by one-half a semi-circumference.

angle inscribed in a segment greater than a
angle.
2.
semicircle
an acute
For
it is
measured by an arc
less
than half a semi-circumference; as, Z CAB. Fig. 2. 266. Cor. 3. An angle inscribed in a segment less than a
semicircle is
an
obtuse angle.
For
it is
;
measured by an arc
as, greater than half a semi-circumference 267. Cor. 4. All angles inscribed in the
Z CBB.
Fig. 2.
equal.
For they are measured by half
same segment are the same arc. Fig. 3.
102
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition XVIII.
Theorem.
268. An angle formed hy two chords intersecting Unthln the circumference, is measured by one-half
fh (' su;i7b
of the intercepted arcs.
Let the angle AOC be kormed by the chords AB and CD.

To prove
Proof.
Z.
A 00 is
measured hy ^ {A 0-\- BD).
Draw AD.
ZOOA = ZD + ZA,
{the exterior
Z.
145
J.(7,
oj a b.
is
equal
to the
sum

|-
But
and
Z D is measured Z A is measured
{an inscribed
by
arc
263
by ^ arc JBD,
the intercepted arc).
is
measured by ^
,\Z OOA
is
measured by i (^(7+ D).

Q. E,D.
Ex.
83.
The opposite angles of an inscribed quadrilateral are supIf
plements of each other.

84.
through a point within a
circle
%Ex. e drawn,
two perpendicular chords

is
the
sum
of the opposite arcs which they intercept
equal to
a semi-circumference.
Ex. 85. The line joining the centre of the square described upon the hypotenuse of a rt. A, to the vertex of the rt. Z, bisects the right angle. Hint. Describe a circle upon the hypotenuse as diameter.
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
lu:]
Proposition XIX.
269.
Theorem.
is
angle forined hy a tangent ajbd a chord measured by one-half the intercepted arc.
An
Let MAH he the angle formed by the tangent and chord All.
To prove
Proof.
'
Mo
31A His measured hy \ arc
A EH.
Draw
the diameter
ACF.
210
is JL to it). cot^taet
AMAFiHAvt.Z,
{the radius drawn
to
a tangent at the
'point of
Z.
MAF being
rt.
Z,
is
measured by \ the semi-cireuui-
ference
AEF. Z But
/J^liîs measured by J arc //F,

Z. is
263
{an inscribed
.-.
measured hy
I the intercepted arc).
Z MAF-/. HAFis measured

or
by
^{AFF- HF)\^
A EH
MAH
i^
measured by ^
Ex. 8G. If two circles touch each other and two secants are drawn through the point of contact, the chords joining their extremities are Hint. Draw the common tangent. ytarallel.
104
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition XX.
270.
Theorem.
An angle formed hy two secants, two tangents, a tangent and a secant, intersecting without the circumference, is measured hy one-half the difference
or of the intercepted arcs.
Fi(
Fig.
3.
Case
I.
Angle forvied by two

(Fig. 1)
seccmts.
Let the angle cants OA and OB.

To prove
Proof.
Z.
is
be formed by the two
se-
measured hy \
{A^ EC).
Draw CB.
ZACB^
(the exterior
Z
sum
+ ZB,
sides,
145
of a
A is
equal
to the
By
"^But
and
taking away
Z B
from both
ZO^ZACB-ZB.
Z A CB
Z
(an inscribed
is
measared by i
AB,
263
i? is
measured by ^
CBJ,
Z
is
is
measured by
} the intercepted arc).
measured by
\{AB
CE).
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
ÂSE
11.
105
Angle formed by two
tangents.
Let the angle gents OA and OB.

To prove
Proof.
(Fig. 2) be
formed by the two
tan-
is
^
measured hy \ (A
MB A SB).
% 145
Draw AB.
Z ABC= ZO + Z OAB,
{the exterior
of a /S,i8 equal to the
sum
By
But
and
taking
away
Z OAB from both
sides,
ZO^ZABC-ZOAB.
Z ABC is measured by \ AMB, Z OAB measured by A8B,

is
-J-
269
Ian /.formeA hy a tangent and a chord is measured hy

.'.
I the
intercepted arc).
ZO
is
measured by ^
{AMB ASB).
secant.
Case
III.
Angle formed by a tangent and a

(Fig. 3) be
Let the angle
formed by the tangent
OB and the secant

To prove
Proof.
OA.
-J-
is
measured by
(ADS CUS).
145
Draw
ZofaAis equal to
the
CS.
ZACS=ZO + ZCSO,
(the exterior
sum
By
taking away
Z CSO from
both
sides,
ZO = ZACSr-ZCSO.
But
and
Z ACS is
measured by ^
an
inscribed /),
-J
ADS;
CES,
chord).
263
{being
Z CSO is
(being
.-.
measured by
269
an
is
/L
formed by a tangent and a
measured by
^{ADS CES).
Q.E.O.
106
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Problems of Construction.
Proposition XXI.
Problem.
line, to erect
271. At a given point in a straight perpendicular to that line,
..
>
PROBLEMS.
107
Proposition XXII.
272.
'
Problem.
line, to let
fall
From a point without a straight a perpendicular upon that line.
,.:
A'
Let A 13 be a given straight without the line.

To
let fall
line,
and C n given point
1. to the line
AB from iê 'point AB in

two
C.
Oonstmction.
great, describe
From
(7
as a centre, with a radius sufficiently

points,
an arc cutting
a.^
ând
K.
From
ând
centres,
with equal radii greater than
\HK,
describe two arcs intersecting at 0.
Draw CO,
and produce
it
to
meet
AB at M.
ând
CM'm
Proof. Since
the
required.
Cand
a
are
K, they determine
to
HK 2X
two points equidistant from its middle point.
123
F.
a E.
Note.
Given lines of the figures are
full lines,
resulting lines are
long-dotted,
and auxiliary
lines are short-dotted.
108
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition XXIII.
273.
Problem.
To
bisect
a given
straight line.
N[,r<
D\
#
Let AB be the given straight
To
bisect the line
line.
AB.
Construction.
From
and
as centres, with equal radii
greater than J
AB,
describe arcs intersecting at
C and
E.
Join CE.
Then the
line
CE bisectg^^^.
are two points equidistant from A and B. Proof. C and Hence they determine a J_ to the middle point of AB. 123
Q. E. F.
Ex. 87. To find in a given Hne a point tant from two given points.
X which shall be equidis-
To find a point given points and at a given

Ex.
88.
X which
X which X
which
shall be equidistant from two distance from a third given point.
Ex. 89. To find a point two given points. Ex. 90. To find a point
given points.
shall be at given distances
from
shall be equidistant
from three
PROBLEMS.
109
Proposition
274.
XXIV.
arc.
Probt.em.
To
bisect
a îven
Let A CB be the given

To
bisect the
arc.
arc
ACB.
Draw
the chord
OoEBtraction.
AB,
U,
From
\
and
as centres, with equal radii greater than
A B,
describe arcs intersecting at
D and
Draw
BK
Proof.
Since
DE bisects the arc ACB. D and E are two points equidistamt from A
and B, they determine a -L erected at the middle of chord
AB.
123
And
the centre of the
erected at the middle of a chord passes through 234 O, and bisects the arc of the chord.
Q.E.F.
Ex.
91.
To construct a
circle
having a given radius and passing

centre in a given line and
through two given points.
Ex,
92.
To
construct a circle having
its
passing through two given points.
110
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition
275.
XXV.
angle.
Problem.
To
bisect
a given
E^
Let AEB he the given
To
bisect
angle.
Z AEB.
From âs
a centre, with any radius, as
iii
Oonstmction.
describe an arc cutting the sides of the Z.
E A and B.
EA,
From
and
one-half the distance from

secting at Q.
as centres, with equal radii greater than to -5, describe two arcs inter-
Jom EC, AC, and

Proof.
BC
^C bisects the Z^.

In the
and
A AEC BEG AE= BE, and ^C= BO, EC=Ea

2.nd.
.-.
Cons.
Iden.
A AEC= A BEC,
to each).
160
{having three sides equal each
.'.AAECÂBEQ.
Q. E.
F.
Ex.
Ex. 93. To divide a right angle into three equal parts. 94. To construct an equilateral triangle, having given one
95.
side.
Ex.
To
find a point
X which shall be equidistant from two given
points and also equidistant from two given intersecting lines.
PROBLEMS.
Ill
Proposition
276.
XXVI.
Problem.
line, to
At a given point in a given straight construct an angle equal to a îven angle.
Let C be the given point in the given line CM, and A the given angle.
To construct an
Oonstmctior
.
Z. at
C equal to
the
A.
From
as a centre, with
any
radius, as
AE,
describe an arc cutting the sides of the Z.
2,i
E and F.
AE,
From
(7
as a centre, with a radius equal to
describe an arc cutting
CJf at H.
From
-S" as
a centre, with a radius equal to the distance
EF,
describe an arc intersecting the arc
HG at m.
Cons.
Draw Cm, and

Proof.
HCm
is
the required angle.
The chords îând

.-.
Hm are equal.
arc
EF= arc Hm,

A
at the centre).
230
(in
equal
equal chords subtend equxil arcs).
.-.ZC^ZA,
{in equal
229
equal arcs subtend equal
a e. F.
BC,
cut-
Ex. 96. In a triangle
ABQ
draw
DE parallel
and E,
to the base
ting
the sides of the triangle in

If an interior point C, the angle
so that
DU
py
shall
equal ,gy^
DBEa
Ex.
tices
97.
and
BOQ
is
of a triangle ABC'is, joined to the verof the greater than the angle
BAC
triani]!;le.
112
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition
277. Two angles of the third an^le.
XXVII.
Problem.
to find
a triangle hein^ given,
H
Let A and B be the two given angles of a
To find the third
Construction.
Z. of the
triangle*.
A.
line,
Take any straight
as
EF, and
at any
point, as
H,
construct Z. a equal to
A,
276
and
Zb
equal to
Z B.
Then
Proof.
Z c is
Since the
the
Z required.
sum
of the three
^ of a A = 2
and
c,
rt.
^,
138
and the sum of the three
A a,
5,
=2
rt. /4;
92
and
since
two
A of
the
are equal to the
A a and 5,
c.
the third
of the
will be equal to the
Ax.
Q. E.
3.
F.
In a triangle ABC, given angles A and B, equal respectively Find the value of angle G. to 37 13^ 32^^ and 41 17^ 56^''. Ex.
98.
PROBLEMS.
il3
Proposition XXVIII. Problem.
Through a given point, to draw a straight parallel to a given straight line.

278.
line
n-
-fi-
Let AB he the given
line,
and G the given
point.
To draw through the point

Construction.
Ca
line parallel to the line
AB.
Draw DCE, making
the
Z EDB.
At
Then
Proof.
the point
C construct Z
FCHi^
II
ECF^ Z EDB.
to
27G
the line
AB.
Cons.
jLECF==AEDB.
.-.
HF'\%
11
to^^,
108
{when two straight

line,
lying in the same plane, are (nit by a third straight are equal, the lines are parallel). if the ext.-int.
lines,
aE.
Ex.
F.
99.
To
find a point
X equidistant X
from two given points and
also equidistant
from two given parallel
lines.
lines
Ex, 100. To find a point equidistant from two given intersecting and also equidistant from two given parallels.
114
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition
279.
partr..
XXIX. Peoblem.
To divide a given straight line into equal
Let AB be the given straight

To divide
line.
AB into equal parts.

From
Construction.
draw the
line
AO.
it
Take any Gonvenient

times as the line
length,
and apply
to
-40
as
AB
many
is
to be divided into parts.
iFrom the last point thus found on
AO,
as C,
draw CB.
II
to
Through the several points CB, and these lines divide
of division on
^0
is
draw
lines
Proof.
[if three
AB into equal parts. Since ACi& divided into equal parts, AB also,
lis
187
or more
intercept equal parts on
any
transversal, they intercept
equal parts on every transversal).
Ex. 101. To divide a

methods.
line
into four equal parts
by two
different
Ex. 102. To
find a point
X in one side of a given triangle and equimake
distant from the other
two
sides.
Ex. 103. Through a given point to draw a line which shall equal angles with the two sides of a given angle.
PROBLEMS,
<AV
ôS^
115
Proposition
280.
XXX.
Problem.
Two
sides
and
the included angle of a trian-
gle being given, to construct the triangle.
n
b
A-^
ic_
Let the two sides of the triangle be included angle A.

-To construct
tively,
and
c,
and the
cCnd the included
having two sides equal /.^Z. A.
to
and
c respec-
Oonstruetion.
Take
AB equal to the side

AB,
c.
At A,
îven G
Z.
the extremity of
construct an angle equal to the
A.
Oxi
276
AD take
A ACB
^(7 equal
to h.
Draw CB.
Then
is
the
required.
Q. E F
Ex.
104.
To construct an angle
find a point
of 45.
shall be equidistant from
Ex. 105. To
X which
two
given intersecting lines and at a given distance from a given point.
Ex. 106. To draw through two sides of a triangle a line to the third side so that the part intercepted between the sides shall have a
||
given length.
116
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Peoposition
281.
XXXI.
Problem.
triangle being
side
and two angles of a
given, to construct the triangle,
/
Let
c
^"<^
be the given side,
A and B
the given angles.
To construct the triangle.

Oonstmction.
Take
EC equal to
the
c.
At
At
the point the point
E construct the ZC^^ equal to

C construct
/.
A.
276
Z ECK equal
to
B.
Let the sides EJS" smd. (7^ intersect at 0.
Then
Remaek.
A COE
by
^ 277,
is
the
required.
Q.E.F.
is
If one of the given angles
find the third angle
and
opposite to the given side, proceed as above.
The problem is impossible when the two given are together equal to or greater than two right angles. angles
Discussion.
is
Ex. 107. To construct an angle of 150. Ex. 108. A straight railway passes two miles from a town. To four miles from the town and one mile from the railway.
place
find
by
construction
how many
places answer this description.
Ex. 109. If in a circle two equal chords intersect, the segments of one chord are equal to the segments of the other, each to each. in is any chord and Ex. 110. tangent to a circle at A, CDE a
AB
line cutting the circumference in
AC D and E
and
parallel to
AB\ show
that the triangles
ACD
and
EAB are
mutually equiangular.
RROBLEMS.
117
Proposition XXXII.
282.
Problem.
to
The three
sides of
a triangle heing given,
construct the triangle.
4^
i.B
?i,
Let the three sides be m,

To construct the
'
and o.
tiiangle.
Oonstruction.
Draw
AB equal to
o.
From
arc;
as a centre, with a radius equal to w, describe an
and from
^ as a centre,
with a radius equal to w, describe

C.
an arc intersecting the former arc at
Draw CA and CB.

Then
Discussion.
to or greater
ACAB
\^
the
required.
is
The problem is impossible when one side than the sum of the other two.
equal
Ex, 111. The base, the altitude, and an angle at the base, of a triangle being given, to construct the triangle. Ex. 112. Show that the bisectors of the angles contained by the opposite sides
"^^
(produced) of an inscribed quadrilateral intersect at right angles. Ex. 113. Given two perpendiculars, AB and CD, intersecting in 0, and a straight line intersecting these perpendiculars in and F\ to construct a square, one of whose angles shall coincide with one of the right angles at O, and the vertex of the opposite angle of the square shall lie in EF.
(Two
solutions.)
118
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition XXXlll.
Problem.
283. Two sides of a triangle and the angle opposite one of thein^ being gii^n, to eonstruet the triangle.
C"
Case
I.
IJ the side opposite
to
the given angle is less than
the other given side.
Let
be greater than
Constniet
a,
and A the given
angle.
To construct the triangle.

Oonstruction.
On
From
Z DAE = to the given AD take AB =

b.
/.
A.
27C
i? as a centre, with a radius equal to a,
describe an arc intersecting the side
AE at
Caiid
Then both the

fulfil
A ^^C and ABC

hence we
This
is
,-''
yB
^'^
the conditions, and
have
two
constructions.
called the
ambiguous
case.
y^^
is
Discussion.
to the
If the side
pgnMl.
.^
X BB[,
the arc described fron:
will tquch AE, and there will be but one construction, the right tri-
angle ABU. If the given side a

JL from
By'
is
less
than the
/"'
B, the arc described from
will not intersect or touch
AE,
arxt
-^
\a
i-
hence the problem
is irnpopsil)le.
THE CIRCLE.
;
119
If the ZAis right or obtuee, the problem is impossible for the side opposite a right or obtuse angle is the greatest side. 159
Case
II.
If a
is
equal
to b.
A IB acute, and a~h, the arc described from and with a radius equal to a, will at the points A and ^. cut the line ji / the There is therefore but one solution h/
If the /.
B as
a centre,
AE
isosceles
ABC.
If the
is
^/--
J-^
Discussion.
Z^
is
right or obtuse,
the problem
impossible; for equal sides of a
liave efjual
opposite them, and a
cannot have two right
A or two
obtuse A.
Case
the line
III.
If a
is
greater than
is
b.
If the given
Z^
acute, the arc described from

(7
ED on opposite sides of A, at
Z A.
A
is
and
6''.
The
^. a...
B will cut A ABC

_.-'
A^J5C"does
the acute
solution
;
answers the required conditions, but the not, for it does not contain
xa
There
is
then only one
namely, the
A ABC.
^y;'j^
^^'~
^^^
--''
If the Z.
right, the arc described
Irom
sides of
on opposite A, and we have two equal right which fulfil the required conditions.
cuts
the line
ED
/|s
"/
\h\
,t;-.,.^.--'^
If the
Z^
is
obtuse, the arc described
from
cuts the line
ED
on opposite
\q
a/ \a
''
sides of
A, at the points
C and C.
The
A ABC
but the
^ '" does not, for it does A. There is then only one solunot contain the obtuse ABC. tion namely, the
answers the required conditions.
A ABC
Q. E. F
120
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition
284.
XXXIV. Pkoblem.
paral-
Two
sides
and an included angle of a
lelogram being given,

../
to construct the parallelogram.
/\ c^
\
H/
-1^ "
/' /
Let m and
angle.
be the two sides, and C the included
To
construct
a parallelogram.
Construction.
Draw
AB equal to
ZA
o.
At
construct the
equal to
to
C,
276
and take îiT equal
m.
o,
From
ITsiS
a,
centre, with a radius equal to
describe an arc.
From
^ as a centre, with a radius equal to m,

Draw BIT &ndi EB.
describe an arc, intersecting the former arc at U.
The quadrilateral
Proof.
ABFII'm
the
required.
AB = HE,
AH=^ BE.
.-.
Cons.
Cons.
the figure
its
ABEHis a O,
183
{having
opposite sides equal).
E.
F.
PROBLEMS.
121
Proposition
285.
XXXV.
circle
Problem.
To circumscribe a
about a given
tri-
angle.
Let ABC be the given

To circumscribe a
Ooiistruction.
triangle.
circle
about
ABC.
BC.
Js.
Bisect
AB and
273
271
At
Since
the points of bisection erect
BO
is
not the prolongation of

0.
AB,
these Js will in-
tersect at
some point
From
0, with a radius equal to
OB,
describe a circle.
O ^^C
Proof.
is
the
required.
The point
and
also
is
is
equidistant from
and B,
0,
equidistant from
B and
122
{every point in the JL erected at the middle of a straight line is equidistant from the extremities of that line).
:.
the point
is
equidistant from A, B, and O,

as a centre,
and a
O described
from
with a radius equal

0.
to
OB,
will pass
through the vertices A, B, and
aE.F.
to describe a
286.
Scholium. The same construction serves
circumference which shall pass through the three points not in the same straight 'line also to find the centre of a given
;
circle or of a
given arc.
122
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Proposition
287.
XXXVI.
point, to
Problem.
Through a given
draw a tangent
--.H,'-'
to
<J>iven circle.
:-AE
Case
I.
^V Ilch the (jiveu putnt
is
on ike
circle.
Let C be the given point on the

To draw a tangent
Oonstruction.
to
circle.
the circle at C.
From
the centre
draw the radius OC.
Through Cdraw AMI. to OC. Then the tangent required.
271
AMh
Proof.
straight line _L to a radius at
its
extremity
is
tan-
gent to the circle.
239
Case II. When the given point is tvifhout the circle. Let O be the centre of the given circle, E the given point without the circle. To draw a Utngent to the given circle from the point E.
Oonstruction.
Join
OE.
a diameter, describe a circumference intersecting the given circumference at the points Jf and H.
On
OE as
Draw OJf and EM.

Then
Proof.
EM
is
is
the tangent required. a right angle, a semicircle).
Z OME is
.'.
264
239
{being inscribed in
EM
tangent to the circle &t
M.
In like manner, we
may
prove
HE tangent to the given O.
PKOBLEMS.
123
Proposition
XXXVII.
Problem.
To inscribe a circle in a given triangle.
Let ABC be the given

To inscribe a
Oonstruction.
circle in the
triangle.
A ABC. Bisect A A and
C.
275
From E,
the intersection of these bisectors,

to the line
draw EIIl.
AC.
272
From E, with
The
Proof.
radius
EH,
describe the
O KMH.
A,
is
O
is
I<:HM'\% the required.

in the bisector of the
Since
it is
tant from the sides

of the
AB and AC\
an
and
since
equidis-
in the bisector
(7,
it is
equidistant from the sides
^Cand BC,
162
{every point in the bisector of

..
is
equidistant from the sides of the Z).
described from
E ac
EH.
will touch the sides of the
and be inscribed
in
it..
Q. E.
F.
289.
Scholium. The
intersec-
tions of the bisectors of exterior
angles of a triangle, formed by producing the sides of the triangle, are the centres of three circles, each of which will touch
two other
circles.
one side of the triangle, and the sides produced. These
three circles are called escribed
124
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
Peoposition
XXXVIII.
Problem.
290. Upon a given straight line, to describe a segment of a circle which shall contain a given angle.
A.
i^v.
2*'
]/
~W7
J'b
Let AB be the given
line,
and
the given angle.
To describe a segment upon

Oonstraction.
AB which shall contain Z. M.

276
ConstructZ^^êqual toZ if.

Bisect the line
From
AB by the _L FO. the point B draw BO to EB.

FO
273
271
From
tre,
O, the point of intersection of
and BO, as a cen-
with a radius equal to OB, describe a circumference.
The segment
Proof.
AKB
is
is
the segment required.
The point
a
{every point in
A. erected at the
122 equidistant from J. and ^, middle of a straight line is equidistant
from
.'.
the extremities of that line).
the circumference will pass through A.
But
.-.
BF to OB. BF tangent to the O,

is is
its
Cons.
to the
239
(a straight line A. to a radius at

.-.
extremity
2
is
tangent
O).
ABF
an
in
is
measured by
segment
arc
AB,
is
269
{being
Z formed
the
by a tangent and a chord).
An Z \AB.
inscribed
AKB
measured by
263
.*.
segment
AKB contains Z 31.
Ax.
Q.E.F.
PROBLEMS.
125
Proposition
291.
XXXIX.
Problem.
To find the ratio of two commensurdble straight
lines,
A
C'
^
^ H ^-^B
//^.
K
1
1-Hd
-V
Let AB and CD be two straight To find the ratio of AB and CD.

Apply
lines.
CD to
^-5
as
many
times as possible.
Suppose twice, with a remainder
EB.
FD..
Then apply Then apply
EB to CD as many
times as possible.
Suppose three times, with a remainder
FD to EB&s many times as possible.

to
Suppose once, with a remainder S'B.
Then apply JIB
FD as many
times as possible.
Suppose once, with a remainder ICD.
Then apply
The measure
KD to JIB as many times as possible.

is
Suppose I^^D
then be as follows
contained just twice in
UB.
as a unit, will
of each line, referred to

:
JCD
IIB = 2F:D;
FD-= JIB-\-^D= ZKD EB=- FD-^HB^ bKD CD =ÊB-\-FD=18KD
AB =^2CD
.
-{-EB=4.1
,
KD
"CD
AB_ ^\KD
18
KD'
.-.the ratio
~= CD
18
ftE.F
126
PLANE GEOXIETEY.
BOOK
II.
Theorems.
114. The shortest line and the longest line which can be drawn from a given point to a given circumference pass through the centre.
115.
The
shortest chord that can be

circle
is
within a given
116.
to
drawn through a given point the diameter which passes through the point.
or in equal
circles,
if
In the same
circle,
two arcs are each

less
greater than a semi-circumference, the greater arc subtends the
chord, and conversely.

117.
If
in the arc
ABC an inscribed equilateral BQ then PA - FB + PC.

is
triangle,
and Pis any point
Hint.
118.
On PA
take Pilf equal to PB, and join
BM.
circle
In v;hat kinds of parallelograms can a Prove your answer.

119.
be inscribed?
The radius of the
circle inscribed in
an equilateral triangle
is
equal to one- third of the altitude of the triangle.

120.
121.
A circle A circle
can be circumscribed about a rectangle,
can be circumscribed about an isosceles trapezoid.
122. The tangents drawn through the vertices of an inscribed rectangle enclose a rhombus.
123.
The diameter
of the circle inscribed in a

legs
rt.
A is
equal to the
difference
124.
between the sum of the

a point
and the hypotenuse.

circle,
From
without a
a diameter
AOB
is
drawn,
equal
and
also a secant
ACD,
so that the part
AG
without the
circle is
to the radius.
Prove that the
DAB equals one-third the Z DOB.
125.
All chords of a circle which touch an interior concentric circle
and are bisected at the points of contact. two circles intersect, ^[nd a secant is drawn through each point of intersection, the chords which join the extremities of the secants are parallel. Hint. By drawing the common chord, two inscribed
are equal,
126. If
quadrilaterals are obtained.

127.
If
is
each side from the centre of the

circle.
circle is
inscribed in a circle, the distance of equal to half the radius of the
128.
diameter of each
Through one of the points of intersection of two circles a circle is drawn. Prove that the straight line joining
the ends of the diameters passes through the other point of intersection,
EXERCISES.
129.
127
point at F.
all
D in
A circle touches two sides of an angle BACsit B, C; through any the arc BC a tangent is drawn, meeting AB at 'and AO
(i.)
Prove
positions of
D m BC;J^ that
is constant for that the perimeter of the triangle is also constant. the angle
AEF
EOF
Loci.
Find the locus of a point at three inches from a given point. 131. Find the locus of a point at a given distance from a given
130.
circumference.
132.
Prove that the locus of the vertex of a right

is
triangle,
given hypotenuse as base,
the circumference described
having a upon the given
hypotenuse as diameter.
133. Prove that the locus of the vertex of a triangle, having a given base and a given angle at the vertex, is the arc which forms with the base a segment capable of containing the given angle.
104.
Find the locus of the middle points of
all
chords of a given
chords that can be
length that can be

135.
drawn
in
a given
circle.
all
Irawn through a given point

136.
in
a given circumference.
all
secants that can be
'Irawn from a given point

137.
to a
given circumference^
A straight line
at one
and touches
other end.
138.
moves so that it remains parallel to a given line, end a given circumference. Find the locus of the
straight rod
moves
fixed rods
which are
to
so that its ends constantly touch two each other. Find the locus of its middle point.
let
139.
In a given circle
A.OB be a
about 0.
diameter,
OC any
radius,
CD
the j)erpendicular from locus of the point if as
Cto AB.
Upon OC take OM'^CD.
Find the
OC turns
Construction of Polygons.
To construct an
140.
eqtRhlteral A,
141.
143.
142.
The perimeter. The altitude.
having given TheVadius of the circumscribed

:
circle.
The radius of the

having given and the bae.
:
inscribed circle.
To construct an
144.
isosceles triangle,
The angle
at the vertex
128
145.
146. 147.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
The angle at the vertex and the
BOOK
altitude.
II.
The base and the radius of the circumscribed The base and the radius of the
circle.
inscribed circle.
148.
tude.
The perimeter and the

Let
alti-
Hints.
quired,
and
ABC be the A reEF the given perimeter.

^^.<
'
The altitude CD passes through the middle of EF, and the A AEC,
y''
BFCbxq
isosceles.
E
:
A D B
To construct a
149. 150.
right triangle, having given

leg.
The hypotenuse and one The hypotenuse and the
altitude
upon the hypotenuse.
151.
152.
upon the hypotenuse as base. The median and the altitude drawn from the vertex of the
leg
altitude
One
and the
rt.
Z.
153.
154.
155.
-
The radius of the inscribed
circle
and one
leg.
The radius
of the inscribed circle
and an acute angle.
156.
An An
acute angle and the
sum
of the legs.
acute angle and the difference of the legs.

triangle,
To construct a
157.
having given
The The
base, the altitude,
and the
at the vertex.
158.
159.
^160.
base, the corresponding median,
and the
at the vertex.
The perimeter and the angles. One side, an adjacent Z, and the sum of the other
sides.
sides.
161.
One
side,
an adjacent Z, and the difference of the other

sides
162.
163.
The sum of two
and the
angles.
One
side,
an adjacent Z, and radius of circumscribed O,
164. 165.
166. 167.
The angles and the radius of the circumscribed O. The angles and the radius of the inscribed O.
An
angle, the bisector,

sides
and the
altitude
drawn from the vertex

to the other side.
Two
and the median corresponding
168.
The three medians.

:
To construct a square, having given 169. The diagonal. 170. The sum of the diagonal and one
side.
EXERCISES.
To construct a
171.
129
rectangle,
One
side
and the
having given formed by the diagonals.

:
172.
173.
The perimeter and the diagonal. The perimeter and the Z of the diagonals.
174.
The
difference of the
two adjacent
sides
and the
of the
diagonals.
To construct a rhombus, having given 175. The two diagonals.

176.
177.
One
side
and the radius of the inscribed
circle.
178.
One angle and the radius One angle and one of the
of the inscribed circle.

diagonals.
To construct a rhomboid, having given: 179. One side and the two diagonals.
180.
181.
182.
The diagonals and the Z formed by them. One side, one Z, and one diagonal. The
base, the altitude,
and one angle.

having given;
184.
To construct an
183.
185.
isosceles trapezoid,
The bases and one
angle.
The bases and the
altitude.
186.
The bases and the diagonal. The bases and the radius of the circumscribed
trapezoid,
sides.
'
circle.
To construct a
187.
The four The
189.
bases,
having given The two bases and the two diagonals. one diagonal, and the Z formed by the diagonals.
:
188.
Construction of Circles.
Find the locus of the centre of a
190.
circle
:
191. 192. 193.

194.
Which has a given radius r and passes through a given point P. Which has a given radius r and touches a given straight line AB
Which
passes through two given points
Pand
Q.
Which touches a given straight line ^5 at a given Which touches each of two given parallels.
Which touches each
of
point P.
195.
two given
intersecting lines.
130
PLANE GEOMETRY.
circle
BOOK
II.
To construct a
196.
which has the radius r and which
also
Touches each of two intersecting lines
AB and
CD.
197.
198.
199.
Touches a given line
AB and
a given circle K.
Passes through a given point

Passes through a given point
circle
P and touches a given line AB. P and touches a given circle K.

P.
To construct a
200.
which shall
201. 202.
203. 204. 205. 206.
Touch two given parallels and pass through a given point Touch three given lines two of which are parallel.
Touch a given Touch a given
line
AB at P and
Pand
pass through a given point Q.
circle at
pass through a given point Q.

P.
Touch two given lines and touch one of them at a given point Touch a given line and touch a given circle at a point P. Touch a given line J,P at P and also touch a given To inscribe a circle in a given sector.
circle.
207.
208. To construct within a given circle three equal each shall touch the other two and also the given circle.
209.
circles, so
that
To describe
circles
about the vertices of a given triangle as
centres, so that each shall touch the
two
others.
Construction of Straight Lines.

210.
211.
To draw a common tangent to two given circles, To bisect the angle formed by two lines, without producing the
lines to their point of intersection.
212.
To draw a
line
through a given point, so that
it
shall
form with
the sides of a given angle an isosceles triangle.

213.
Given a point
through
214.
P a line
between the sides of an angle BAC. To draw terminated by the sides of the angle and bisected at P.
;
and Q which
Given two points P, Q, and a line AB to draw lines from P shall meet on AB and make equal angles with AB. Hint. Make use of the point which forms with P a pair of points
to
svmmetrical with respect

215.
AB.
To find the shortest path from Pto

To draw a tangent
Q which
shall touch a line

it
AB.
216.
to a given circle, so that
shall be parallel
to a given straight line.
jl^.,^
-u
P
III.
/^-f
^^
BOOK
PROPORTIONAL. LINES AND SIMILAR POLYGONS,
The Theory of Proportion.

292.
A proportion is
ratios.
an expression of equality between two
equal
proportion ing forms

:
may
be expressed in any one of the follow-
7= a b
and
is
a:6
= c:a;
a'.h'.:c'.d\
read,
"
the ratio of a to i equals the ratio of e to
c?."
293.
;
The terms
of a proportion are the four quantities
com-
pared the first and Âi'rc? terms are called the antecedents, the second Sind fourth terms, the consequents; tFe first and fourth terms are called the extremes, the second and third terms, the
means.
294.
In the proportion a
=c
c,
d,
is
a fourth propor-
tional to a, b,
and
c.
In the proportion
a:b
a:b
= b:
=b
c is
a third proportional to a
a and
b.
-.c,
In the proportion
is
mean
proportional
between a and
c.
132
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
III.
Proposition
295.
In every proportion the product of the extremes

the product of the means.
is eqii>al to
Let
To prove
a: b
= C' d.
be.
ad ^
b
Now
^==^.
whenc-e. by multiplying both sides
by
bdy
Q.E. D.
ad = be.
Proposition
296.
II.
A mean
to the
Is
equal
proportional between two quantities square root of their product.
In the proportion (t\b
b'.e,
h"
= ac,
root,
296
itlie
product
of the extremes is equal to the
product of the means).
Whence, extracting the square
b = V ac.
Q.E.
D.
Proposition
297.
III.
// the product of two quantities is equal to the product of two others, either two may he made the extremes of a pjôportion in which the other two are
made
the mea,ns.
Let.
ad^
__^
be.
:
To prove
d.
Divide both members of the given equation by bd.
Then'.. -^
r,
f^=S. b d
a:b
=c
d.
a e. d.
THEORY OF PROPORTION.
133
Proposition IV.
If four quantities of the same kind are in proportion, they will he in proportion by alternation ;
298.
that
ond
is, the first term will he to * to the fourth.
the third as the sec-
Let a:h =
a:
c
c:d.
To prove
= b :d.
Now
" _c a "
h~ d
-.
Multiply each member of the equation by
Then
?=i
c
a:c = b:d.
aE.D.
Proposition V.
299. If four quantities are in .proportion, they will he in proportion by inversion ; that is, the second term, will he to the first as th\fourth to the third.
Let
To prove
a: b
c: d.
b:a = d:c.
he
Now
Divide each
= ad.
by
ac.
295
member
.
of the equation
Then
or,
^==i
a
h
:
*^
c.
Q.E.O.
134
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition VI.
300. If four quantities are in proportion, they will he in proportion by composition ; that is, the sum of the first two terms will he to the second term as the
sum
of the last two terms to the fourth term.
Let a:b =
To prove
a-\-h \b^= c
c:d.
-\-
d\
d.
Now
Add
Then
that
or,
,T
,
f = 5, 6 d
1 to
each
member
of the equation.
IS,
^+1 = 1+1; b d a-\-b = e-\-d

!-
d
.h
c.
In like manner,
= c-\-d:d. = c-\- d\ a-\-h \a

a-{-h
Q. E. D.
Proposition VII.
301. If foi^ quantities are in proportion, they will he in proportion by division ; that is, the difference of the first two terms will be to the second term as
the difference of the last two terms to the fourth term.
THEOKY OF PROPORTION.
Proposition VIII.
135
In any propoiiAon the terms are in proportion by composition and division; that is, the sum of the
302.
first
two terms is to their difference as the sum, of the last two terms to their difference.
Let a:b =
Then, by 300,
a-\-b
c:d.
'
_ c-}-d
c
c
a a a
b
And, by 301,
_ d
c
By
or,
ar-{-b
division,
a-\-b
ab c d a~b = c-}-d: c~d.
_ c-\-d
aE.
D.
Proposition IX.
^
303.
In a
series of
is to its
tecedents is to the
sum
equal ratios, the sum of the anof the consequents as any

:
antecedent
consequent.
h.
Let a:b = c:d=e :/= g

To prove
a-\-c-\-e-\-g .b-\-d-{-f-{ratio
= a:b.
Denote each
by
r.
Whence,
br,
= dr,
g -=ib
e =/?',
(/
= hr.
Add
Then
these equations.
a-\- c-\-e-^ -^
d-^f-\-K)r.
Divide by
(6
+ c?+/+ h).
a
b
D
Then
or,
I'rO-ê-^-g b + d-\-f-^h
a-\-c-\-e-{-g:b-\-d-\-f-\-h=â'.b.
Q. E.
136
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition X.
304. TJie products of the corresponding terms of two or more proportions are in proportion. Let a:b = c:d, e:f=g:h, k:l = m:n.
To prove
aeh
bfl
= cgm
dhn.
Now
? = ^, ^=2, ^
hi
dhn
= ^.
n
Whence, by multiplication,
aeh
bfl
'
_ cgm
:
or,
aek
= cgm bfl
dhn.
aE.
D.
Proposition XI.
305. Like powers, or like roots, of the terms of a proportion are in proportion.
Let
To prove
a'.h
= cxd.
THEORY OF PROPORTION.
137
Proposition XII.
307.
Equimultiples of two quantities are in the

ratio as the quantities themselves.
a
same
Let
and
be any two quantities.
To prove
ma mb =a:b.
:
Now
Multiply
? b
= ?.
b
both terms of first fraction
by m.
ihen
or,
:
-.
7nb
b
:
ma mb =: a
b.
Ct E. D.
308.
sumed
ratios.
that fractions
Scholium. In the treatment of proportion it is asmay be found which will represent the It is evident that the ratio of two quantities may be
represented by a fraction when the two quantities compared can be expressed in integers in terms of a common unit. But
when
there
is
no unit in terms of which both quantities can be
expressed in integers, it is possible to find a fraction that will represent the ratio to any required degree of accuracy. (See
251-256.) Hence, in speaking of the product of two quantities, as for instance, the product of two lines, we mean simply the product
of the numbers which represent them
when
referred
to
a com-
mon
of
unit.
An
interpretation of this kind must be given to the product any two quantities throughout the Geometry.
138
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proportional Lines.
Proposition L
309.
Theorem.
sides of
If a line
is
drawn through two
tri-
angle
parallel to the third side, it divides those sides
proportio nally.
^
\
K/
C
Fig.
2.
m/ZZ
B
Fig.
1.
^-J^
In the triangle
To prove
ABC
let
EF
be drawn parallel to BG.
aE= AF
Case L When
AE and EB (Fig. 1) are commefisuroMe. Find a common measure oi AE and EB, as BM. Suppose BM to be contained in BE three times, and in AE four times.
11=1
At
the several points of division on
II
(1)
BE
and
AE
draw
to BC. straight lines These lines will divide
^Cinto seven equal parts, of which i^Cwill contain three, and .î^will contain four, 187 {if parallels intercept equal parts on any transversal, they intercept equal
parts on every transversal).
EC
Compare
(1)
/f>\
Zf=4
and
(2),
^^^
AE AF
EB^FO_^
^^ ^
PROPORTIONAL LINES.
Case
II.
139
When
AE and EB (Fig. 2) are incommensurable.

any number of equal measure to
parts,
Divide AE
into
of these parts as a unit of

will be contained in
EB as many times as
and apply one

it
EB.
K, leaving a
Since
AE and EB are incommensurable, a certain number
of these parts will extend from J7 to a point less than t he unit of measure. remainder
KB
Draw
Then
KH
II
to
BQ.
^^^
I'
ff=TfAE AE
and
Suppose the unit of measure indefinitely diminished, the

ratios
continue
equal
and approach
indefi-
nitely the limiting ratios
EB
and
EC
-j^, respectively.
Therefore
^ = ^'
1.
260
aE.
D.
310.
by a
triangle is to either part cut off line parallel to the base as the other side is to the straight
side of
Cor.
One
corresponding part.
For
or
311.
EB AE=EC: AE, by the theorem. EB:\- AE\ AE= FC+ AE: AE, AB:AE=AO:AE
:
.-.
300
Cor.
2.
^ two
to
lines are cut
by any number oj parallels,
the corresponding intercepts are proportional.
Let the lines be
AB and
CD.
lis
Draw
and N.
AN
II
CD, cutting the
at Z,
M,
Then
AL=CO, LM=-OK, MN=KD.

By
That
the theorem,
180
AM: AM== AE: AL = EH:

is,
:
AF:CG= EH: GK^ HB KD. If the two lines ^^ and CD were parallel, the correspond-
LM= HB
MN.
ing intercepts would be equal, and the above proportion be true.
140
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition
II.
Theorem.
312. If a straight line divide two sides of a triangle proportionally, it is parallel to the third side.
In the triangle
ABC
let
EF
he drawn so that
ABÂC
AE
To prove
Proof.
AF
EFWtoBC.
From
E draw EH
\
II
to
BC.
'
Then
[one side of
AB:AEÂC:AH,
a
310
as the other
^ is
to either
part cut
off
by a line
II
to the base,
side is to the corresponding part).
But
The
last
AB AEÂC:
:
AF.
first
Hyp.
three terms equal, that is,
;
two proportions have the

;
each to each
therefore the fourth terms are equal
AF= AH.
.*.
^-Fand
.^'.S"
coincide.
But
^îs
EF, which
II
to
BC.
Cons.
is
(j
.*.
coincides with
EH,
to
BC.
PROPORTIONAL LINES.
141
Proposition
III.
Theorem.
313. The bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side into segments proportional to the other two sides.
B
Let
CM
bisect the angle C of the triangle CAB.

: :
To prove
Proof.
Since
MA MB = CA C. Draw AE to CM to meet -5 produced at K to AU of the A BAE, we CM

II
(?
is
11
142
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
111.
Proposition IV.
Theorem.
314, The bisector of an exterior angle of a triangle meets the opposite side produced at a point the distances of which from the extremities of this side are proportional to the other two sides.
Let CM' bisect the exterior angle ACE of the angle CAB, and meet BA produced at M\
To prove
Proof.
tri-
M'A M^B ^ CA
:
CB.
Draw
II
AF
to
Since AF'i^
BC at F. CM' of the A BCM\ we have

II
to
CM"
to
meet
309
(1)
Since J:i^
is
I!
to
M'A'.M'B=CF-CB. QM\
t\iQAM'CE^z.AFC,
{being ext.-mt.
106
AofW
AofW
lines)
and
the
Z M^CA = Z OAF,
lines).
104
{hemg alt.-mt
Since 031' bisects the
Z FCA,
Ax.
ZM'CE=ZM'OA.
.-.
the
ZAFC^Z CAF.
.-.
CA =
CF,
156
(if
two
of
A are
equal, the opposite sides are equal).
Putting
CA
for
CF in (1), we have M'a!m'B=CA:CB.

Q. E.
D,
PROPORTIONAL LINES.
143
is divided at M, a 315. Scholium. If a given line and , it is said to be point between the extremities and if it and divided internally into the segments
AB
MA
MB
is
divided at
M\
a point in the prolongation of
AB,
it is
said
to be divided externally into the

M^'-
segments
MÂ
and M^B.
-P
M
,
of division to the extremities of the line.
In either case the segments are the distances from the point If the line is divided
;
and internally, the sum of the segments is equal to the line if the line is divided externally, the difference of the segments
is
equal to the
line.
interrequired to divide the given line Suppose and externally in the same ratio ; as, for example, the nally ratio of the two numbers 3 and 5.
it is
AB
Xi
M'
* >V
'
We
divide
AB
;
parts from
we
or 8, equal parts, and take 3 the point M, such that then have
into 5
+ 3,
MA:MB = S:5.
Secondly,
(1)
parts,
we
divide
AB
into
two equal
left of
on the prolongation of AB, to the equal parts we then have the point
;
:
and lay off three of these A,
M\
such that
(2)
M'A M'B = 3:5.

Comparing
(1)
and
(2),
MA:MB = MA
316.
M'B,
and given straight line is divided internally into segments having the same ratio, the line is externally said to be divided harmonically.
If a
144
317.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
Cor.
1.
BOOK
p
III.
The
bisectors of
an
interior angle
and an
exte-
rior angle at one vertex of divide the opposite side

cally.
triangle
harmoni-
For, by 313
and 314, each
bisector divides the opposite side into segments proportional to the
other two sides of the triangle.

318. Cor. 2. If the points and harmonically, the points
M and M'
B
:
divide the line
AB
hay-
divide the line
MM^
monically.
For,
if
by
alternation,
MB = M'A MA MA = MB
MA:
:
M'B, M*B.
'
298
is
That
is,
the ratio of the distances of
from
equal to the ratio of the distances of The four points A, B, M, and points, and the two pairs, A, B, and
jugate harmonic points.
B from
M,
M and M^ M and M^.
are called harmonic
M,
are called con-
Similar Polygons.
319. Similar polygons are polygons that have their homologous angles equal, and their homologous sides proportional.
E
Thus,
if
1)
-"
the polygons
ABODE and A^B^C^B'U^ are

equal to
similar
the
,
A A,
B,
O, etc., are
A A',
,
B',
C\
etc.
AB
BC
CD
320.
ogous sides
In two similar polygons, the ratio of any two liomolis called the ratio of similitude of the polygons.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
145
Similar Triangles.
Proposition V.
321.
Theorem.
triangles are sim-
Two mutually equiangular
ilar.
In the triangles ABC and A'B'C let angles A, equal to angles A', B', C respectively.
To prove
Proof.
B,
C be
A ABC and A^B^C^ similar.

so that
Apply the A A'B'C^ to the A ABC, A A^ shall coincide with Z A.

A'B'C^
will take the position of
Then the
A AEH.
108
Now
{when two straight
line,
AJSir(ssime as
.-.
AB') = Z
to
B.
^îs
A
II
BC,
lying in the same plane, are cut by a third straight are equal the lines are parallel). if the ext.-int.
lines,
.-.
AB AE= AC: AH,

:
310
m-
AB'.A'B'ÂC'.A^C
In like manner, by applying B^ shall coincide with B, we
A A^B^C* to A ABC,
may
prove that
so that
AB:A*B* = BC:B'C'.
Therefore
322.
the two
A are similar.
319
aE.D.
Cor.
1.
Two
Two
one are equal respectively

323.
triangles are similar if two angles of the to two angles of the other.
Cor.
2.
angle of the one is equal to
right triangles are similar if an acute an acute angle of the other.
146
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition VI.
324.
Theorem.
If two triangles have their sides respectively proportional, they are similar.
In the triangles
ABC and A'B'G' let AB ^ AG ^ BG

A'B' A'G'
B'C'
To prove
Proof.
A ABO and A^B^Q^ similar. Take AE^ A'B', and AII= A'O',
Draw EH.
proportion,
Then from the given
ABÂO
.-.
ae' ah'
II
^îs
to
BC,
it is
!!
to the
'
312
{if
line divide
two sides of a
A proportionally,
third side).
"^
Hence
in the
A ABC d.nd AEH Z ABG= Z. AEH,

/.ACB = Z.AHE,
{being ext.-int.
106
and
AofW
equal
lines).
.'.
A ABC siud AEH are similar,

respectively to
(two
A are similar if two A of one are

other).
.-.
two
322 of the
AB:
AE ==BO:EH;
A*B'
that
is.
AB
- BC: EH.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
But by hypothesis,
147
AB:A'-B'
The
each
to
last
= JBC:'C',
first
two proportions have the

;
each
therefore the fourth terms are equal
three terms equal that is,

;
UB^= B'C.
Hence
in the
A AEH
2.ndi
A'B'C,
and
EH=B'C\ AE=A'B\
^^= ^'C
160
of the other).
:.AAEII=AA'B'C\
{having three sides of the one equal respectively
to three sides
But
.-.
A AEJS is similar to A ABC. A A^B'C is similar to A ABC.
^ e. o.
Scholium. The primary idea of similarity is likeness ofform ; and the two conditions necessary to similarity are
325.
:
I. For every angle in one of the figures there must be an equal angle in the other, and XL The homologous sides must be in proportion.
but in the case oi other polygons,
In the case of triangles, either condition involves the other, it does not follow that it one
condition exist the other does also.
Q'
Thus in the quadrilaterals Q and the homologous sides are proportional, but the homologous angles are not equal. In the quadrilaterals and B! the homologous angles are
,
equal, but the sides are not proportional.
148
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Pkoposition VII.
326.
Theorem.
If two triangles have an angle of the one equal the other and the including sides proportional, they are similar.
to
an angle of
In the triangles
ABC and A'B'C, AB ^ AC

A'Bi
let
ZA = ZA', and
A'C'
To prove
Proof.
A ABC and A'B'C similar.

the
Apply
A A'B'C^
A.
to the
ABC,
so that
.4'
diall coincide with
Then the
^r
A A'B'C
will take the position of
A ABU.
XT
AC AB _ J{J
JLI^
A'B'
That
is,
A'C
ii:|= A-
AE AH
to
Therefore the line

portionally
a
;
EH divides the
.-.
sides
AB
II
and vlC pro
^îs
II
BC,
it is
312
{if
line divide
two sides of a
A proportionally,
to the
third
side).
Hence the and similar.
A ABC and A EH are

.-.
mutually equiangular
A A'B'C
is
similar to
A BC.
Q. E. D.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
149
Proposition VIII.
327.
Theorem.
If two triangles have their sides respectively parallel, or respectively perpe7idiculm\ they are simliar.
In the triangles A'B'C and ABC let A'B', A'C, B'C be respectively parallel, or respectively perpendicular, to AD, AC, BC.
To prove
Proof.
A A'B'C and ABO similar.

A are either equal
_L,
The corresponding
or supplements
of each other,
(if
112,113
II,
two
have their sides
or
they are equal or supplementary).
Hence we may make three suppositions

1st.
2(\.
3d.
A + A' = 2Yt.A, B-{-B' = 2rt.A, C-{- C'=^2Yt A. A = A', B + B' = 2rtA, 0+C' = 2rt.A. B = B', A = A\ C= C. 140
.'.
Since the
sum
of the
of the
two
A
is
right angles, the third supposition only

/.
admissible.
cannot exceed four 138
the two
A ^^Cand A'B'C are similar.

^
are similar).
321
{two mut\ially eauiangular
a E. D
150
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition IX.
328.
Theorem.
The homologous altitudes of two similar triangles have the same ratio as any two homologous
sides.
A o
A'
In the two similar triangles altitudes be CO and CO'.

To prove
ABC and
A'B'C, let the
CO
AC
A'C
AB
A''
Ca
rt.
Proof.
In the
COA
A
and C'O'A',
%
AA^Z. A\
{being homologous of the similar
319
A ABC and A'B'C).

similar,
s
.-.A
[two
rt.
/k^
COA
Z
and CO' A' are

of the one equal to are similar).
323
having an acute
an
acute
^ of the
other
'
CO'
In the similar
A'C'
A^B'C,
^319
A ABCs^nd
AC _ AB
A'C~ A'B'
Therefore,
CO ._ AC ^ C'O A'C
AB
A'B''
Q. E. D.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
151
Proposition X.
329.
Theorem.
Straight lines
intercept proportional segments
dâwn through the same point upon two parallels.
Let the two parallels AE and A'E' cut the straight lines OA, OB, OC, OD, and OE,
To
Proof.
AB
A'B'
Since
BC
B'Cr
is
II
CD
O'B'
DE
UI?
A'E^
to
AE,
OA'B\
similar,
OBC
and OB^C,
etc.,
and the pairs of are mutually equiangular and

.
A OAB
AB
A'B'
OB
OB'
BC
BC
OB
.010
B'C OB {homologous sides of similar A are proportional)

.
AB
A'B'
B'C
Ax.
In a similar
way
it
may
be shown that
and'
.
BC
B'C
Remark.
CD
C'jy
CD CD'
BE
B'E'
Q. E.
condensed form of writing the above
is
AB _
A^B'
(0B^\ _ _BC^ ^ fOO\ _ _CD_ _ fOD\ _ _DE B'C [OCJ C'jy [OD'J D'E'^ \0B']
is
where a
this ratio parenthesip. about a ratio signifies that
used to
it-
prove the equality of the ratios immediately preceding and following
152
PLANE GEOxMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition XI.
330.
Theorem.
'
Conversely
straight lines inte^rcept proportional segments
two parallels,
more non-parallel upon they pass through a common point.

:
// three or
Ih
Let AB, CD, EF, cut the parallels AE and BF so that
AG BD=GE
:
'.
DF.
To 'prove that
Proof.
AB, CD,
EF prolonged meet in a point.

they meet
in 0.
Prolong
AB and CD until
Join
OE.
point where
If
shall
we
designate by
F the
OE
cuts
BF, we
have by
329,
AC'.BD=^CE:DF\
But by hypothesis
AC:BD=CE:DF.
each
These proportions have the first three terms equal, each to therefore the fourth terms are equal that is,
;
DF = DF
.\
.'.
F' coincides with F.

passes through O.
î^ prolonged
\.
.'.
AB, CD, and
î^^ prolonged meet in the point 0.
SIMILAR POLYGONS.
15:
Similar Polygons.
Proposition XII.
331.
Theorem.
ber of triangles, similar eoAih to eax^h, placed, the polygons are similar.
If two polygons are composed of the snmj*. numand similarly
In the two polygons ABCDE and A'B'C'D'K', let the triangles AEB, EEC, CED be similar respectively to
the triangles A'E'B', BE'C\ C'E'D'.
To prove
Proof.
ABCDE similar
(being homologous
to
A' B' CD' E.
/.A'-=Z.A\
319
of similar ^).
Also,
and
By
adding,
In like manner
/:aBE=ZA'B'U' Z FBC = A EB'C Z ABC = Z A'B'C. we may prove Z BCD Z
319
B'C*D\
etc.
Hence the two polygons are mutually equiangular.
Now
AE
A'E'
AB _ ( EB\ fEB\
?
r A'B'
{the
\E'B'J \E^B')
B'C
BG ^f EC\ BC_f EC'
CD _ ED
CD'
homologous
sides of similar
E'D' 7 \E'C'J \E'C', A are proportional).
Hence the homologous

(having their homologous
sides of the polygons are proportional.
Therefore the polygons are similar, .319 A equal, and their homologous sides proportional).
154
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition XIII.
Theorem.
332. If two polyions are sirrvilar, they are composed of the same number of triangles, similar each to each, and similarly placed.
B'
Let the polygons ABODE and From two homologous vertices, as jEB, EC, and U'B', F'C.
To prove
similar respectively
Proof.
to
A'B'G'D'E' be similar.
U and U', draw diagonals
In
A UAB, EEC, ECD A E'A'E', E'E'C, E'C'E'. the A EAB and E'A'B\,
AA = /.A\
[being homologous
319
;
A
__
of similar polygons)
and
AE
A'E'
.'.
AB
A'E'
319
{being homologous sides of similar polygons).
A EAB and
(having an Z
of the one equal to
an
E'A'E' are similar, Z of the other, and the
326
including sides
proportional).
Also,
ZABC=ZA'E'C',
{being homologous
(1)
of similar polygons).
And
Subtract (2) from
AABE-ÂA'B'E',
{being homologous (1),
(2)
of similar A).
ZEBC^ZE'B'C.
Ax. 3
SIMILAR POLYGONS.
155
Now
EB _ AB
E'B'
A'B''
(being homologous sides of similar ^).
And
BO _ AB
B'C
.
A'B''
{being homologous sides of similar polygons).
EB
'
BC
B'C*
'
Ax.
are similar,
E'B'
.-.
A EBC siud
E'B'C*
326
{having an
of the other, of the one equal to an proportional).
and
the including sides
In like manner
we may prove
A ECD and
E'C'D'
similar.
a E. D.
Proposition XIV.
333.
Theorem.
the
same
The perimeters of two similar polygons have ratio as any two homologous sides.
B'
c
A' B'C D'E',
Let the two similar polygons be ABODE and and let P and P' represent their perimeters.
To prove
P.FÂB: A'B\
:
AB
{the
.-.
A'B'
= BC: B^C' - CD C D\
:
etc.,
319
303
homologous
sides of similar
:
polygons are proportional).

etc. ==
AB + BC, etc.
consequents as
is,
A'B' +
sum
BC,
AB
A'B\
sum
{in
series
of equal ratios the
of the antecedents is to the

is to its
of the
any antecedent
consequent).
That
F:P = AB.A'B\
ciEa
156
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Numerical Properties of Figures.

Proposition
XV.
Theorem.
334. If in a right triangle a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle to the hypotenuse I. The perpendicular is a mean proportional be-
tween the segments of the hypotenuse.

II. Each leg of the right triangle is portional between the hypotenuse and
a mean
its
pro-
adjacent
segment.
In the right triangle ABC, let BF be drawn from the vertex of the right angle B, perpendicular to AC.
I.
To prove
In the
rt.
Proof.
BF= BF: FC. A BAF ^^d. BAG

AF:
the acute Z.
is
common.
Hence the
in the
rt.
A are similar.
common.
323
A BCFsmd BOA
the acute Z. Cis
Hence the
A are similar.
CBF,
323
Now
as the
rt.
A ^-Siând CBF'dve both similar to ABC,

A
the shortest side of the one,
they are similar to each other. In the similar ^îând
AF, BF, BF,

II.
the
the shortest side of the other, medium side of the one,

of the other.
:
FC, the medium side
To prove
and
AC:
ACiAB BO
AB AF, BC FC
:
NUMERICAL PKOPERTIES OF FIGURES.

In the similar
157
A ABC and ABF,

the longest side of the one, the longest side of the other, the shortest side of the one,
the shortest side of the other.
AC,
AB, AB,
AF,
Also
in the similar
A J.J5(7and FBC,
side of the one,
side of the other,
AC, the longest BC, the longest
BC,
335.
the
FC, the
Cor.
1.
medium medium
side of the one, side of the other.

legs
q. e. o.
The squares of the two

to
of a right triangle
are proportional
the adjacent segments of the hypotenuse.

in 11. give,
The proportions
AB'=--ACxAF,
By
by 295, and BC' =
ACx
CF.
dividing one by the other,
we have
-BC^
336.
AB'_ ACxAF _AF A<yxCF CF'

the hypotenuse arid either leg the hypotenuse
Cor.
2.
The squares of
to
are propoo'tional
and
adjacent segment.
p ^
337.
AG" _ ACxAC _AC AB" ACxAF AF

Cor.
3.
An
angle inscribed in a semicircle
is
a right
angle ( 264).
I.
Therefore",
The perpendicular from any point in

,
the circumference to the diameter of a circle is a mean proportional between the segments of the diameter.
[_
The chord drawn from the point to either extremity of the diametei' is a tnean proportional between the diameter and the
II.
adjacent segment. Bemaek. The pairs of correspofeding sides in similar triangles may be called longest, shortest, medium, to enable the beginner to see quickly these pairs but he must not forget that two sides are homologous, not
;
because they appear to be the longest or the shortest

they
lie
sides,
but because
opposite corresponding equal angles.
158
PLANE GEOMETRY,
Proposition XVI.
BOOK
III.
.Jl
Theorem.
legs of a right
338.
The sum of the squares of the two

is
triangle
equal
to the
square of the hypotenuse.
Let ABC be a right triangle with

To prove
Proof.
its right angle at B.
AB" + C' = AC\

Draw
BF 1. to
AC.
Then
and
IF = AC X AF BC' = ACx CF
AB" +
334
By
to
adding,
W"
:=--
AC{AF-i- CF)
= AC\
q. e. d.
339. Cor. The square of either leg of a right triangle is equal the difference of the squares of the hypotenuse and the other leg.
340.
Scholium.
The
is
square to the side

ber
ratio of the diagonal of a the incommensurable num-
Vs.
For
then
if
^ O'
is
the diagonal of the square
ABCD,
AC
Divide by
AB' + BC\
ov
AC' = 2AB.
AB
we have
AC" AB'
2,or ^V2.
and
Since the square root of 2 is incommensurable, the diagonal side of a square are two incommensurable lines.
341,
The projection of a
line
CD
comprised between the perpendiculars CF and let fall from the extremities of
that part of the line
AB
upon a straight
line
AB
is
DR
CD.
Thus,
PR
is
the projection of
^'~
CD
upon AB.
'B
li
NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES.
159
Proposition XVII.
Theorem.
342. In any triangle, the square of the side opposite an acute angle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides diminished hy twice the product of one of those sides and the projection of tJie other
upon that
side.
DC
Let C be an acute angle of the triangle ABC, and the projection of AC upon BC.
To prove
AB" -
BC''-\-
IC"-2BCx DC
Proof.
If
fall
upon the base (Fig. 1),
DB = BC-DC',
If
fall
upon the base produced (Fig. 2),
BB=^BC~Ba
In either case,
BB'
Add AB'
to
^ W-^ BC" -2 BOX
BC.
we have
338
both sides of this equality, and
IB" -f BJ^, ^ BC'.+ AB^-h BC'- 2BCxBC: But A^c\- BB' = A^^,
V
and
A^+^'ÂC",
rt.
(the SIU71 of the squares ofihe two legs of a of the hypotenuse).
A is
equal
to the
square
Put
AB^ and AC'
for their equals in the
above equality,
AB' =
BC''
+ AG^- 2 BCx BC.
160
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition XVIII.
Theorem.
343. In any obtuse triangle, the square of the side opposite the obtuse angle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides increased by twice the
product of one of those sides and the projection of

the other
upon that
side.
Let C be the obtuse angle of the triangle ABC, and
CD be the projection of AC upon BC produced.

To prove
Proof.
AB' = BC' + AC" +
2BCx
DC.
Squaring,
DB\^
to
DB=^BC-\- DC. BO"" + DO^ -\-2BCx DC.

sides,
Add
AD
both
and we have
AD' + DB" = BC'-\-AD'+DC"-^2BC X DC

But
and
{the
AD^-{-DW = AB\
Aff-\-I)C''
338
to the
= AC\
A is
equal
sum
of. the,
squares of the two legs of a rt. of the hypotenuse).:
square
Put
AB
and
AC for their equals in the above AB - BC + A(f + 2BCX DC
equality,
aE.
Note. The
the altitudes
if
last three
theorems enable us to compute the lengths of the lengths of the three sides of a triangle are kr.own.

Proposition XIX.
161
Theorem.
344. I. The sum of the squares of two sides of a triangle is equal to twice the square of half tJie third side increased by twice the square of the median upon that side.
II. The difference of the squares of two sides of a triangle is equal to twice the product of the third side hy the projection of the median upon that side.
In the triangle ABC let AM be the median, and MD the projection of AM upon the side. BC. Also let AJi be greater than AG.
To prove
I.
II.
AB" + AC^ = 2 BM' + 2 AM\ AB^ - AO" = 2BCx MD.
Proof.
Since
AB>AC,
the Z.
AMB
will be obtuse,
and
153
the
AMC will be acute.
Then
{in
any sum of the squares
AB" = BM[ + AM' -f 2 BMx MB, 343 the obtuse Z is equal to the obtuse A the square of the side opposite
of the other two sides increased by twice the product and the projection of the other on that side) ;
of one of those sides
and
{in
the square of the side opposite an acute is equal to the sum oj the squares of the other two sides diminished by twice the product of one that of those sides and the projection of the other
any
1^ = 110'^ AM'' -2MCXMD,

Z
upon
siae).
342
Add
Then
these two equalities,
and observe that
BM= 3fC.
q.e.d.
AB" + AO^ = 2BM\-\-2AM\

first.
Subtract the second equality from the
Then
if
AB'-AC' = 2BCxMB.
known.
Note. This theorem enables us to compute the lengths of the median*?

the lengths of the three sides of the triangle are
162
PLANE GEOMETRY,
BOOK
III.
Proposition XX.
Theorem.
345. If any chord is drawn through a fixed point within a circle, the product of its segments is constant in whatever direction the chord is drawn.
Let any two chords AB and CD intersect at

To prove
Proof.
0.
OA X
0B= OD X
Z.C^ZB,
OC.
In the
Draw AC and BD. v40Cand BOD,

263
AD).
{each being measured hy h arc
Z.A
.'. the when two A of
= ZI),
A
263
[each being measured by | arc BO).
A are similar,
the one are equal to two
322
{hvo
are similar
of the other)
Whence
:
OA, OD,
the longest side of the one, the longest side of the other,
OC, the shortest- side of the one,
OB,
/.
OAxOBÔDx OC.
This proportion
^^
295
ae. D
346.
Scholium.
may
be written
OD
\
that
is,
OA^qc
OB'
0^^J_. OD OB'
00
the ratio of two corresponding segments is equal to the reciprocal of the ratio of the other two corresponding
segments.
In this cast the segments are said to be reciprocally
proportional.
163
Proposition XXI.
347.
Theorem.
If from a fixed point without a circle a secant drawn, the product of the secant and its external segment is constant in whatever direction the secant is drawn.
is
B
Let OA and OB be two secants drawn from point
To prove
Proof.
0.
OA X 00^ OB x
01).
Draw ^(7 and AD.
In the
A OAB and OBC

Z
is
common,
ZA = AB,
(each being measured by ^ arc CD).
.'. the two are similar, when two A of the one are equal to two
263
322
(two i^ are similar
of the other).
Whence
OA, the longest side of the one, OB, the longest side of the other, OD, the shortest side of the one,
OC, the shortest side of the other.
.-.OAx
OC=OBx
when
OD.
if
295
Q. E. D.
Remabk. The above proportion

about
until
continues true
the secant
OB
turns
B and D approach
it
is
each other indefinitely.
Therefore,
by
the theory of limits, OA X Off'.
true
and
D coincide
at
H.
"Whence,
0C=
This truth
is
demonstrated directly in the next theorem.
164
PLANE aEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition XXII.
Theorem.
348. If from a point without a circle a secant and a tangent are drawn, the tangent is a mean propor-
tional between the whole secant
and
the external
segment.
the point
To prove
Proof.
Let OB he a tangent and OC a secant drawn from to the circle MBC.
00 -.03 = OB: OM.

Draw îf and
5(7.
In the
O^Jf and OBO ^ O is

Z.
common.
OBM
an
is
measured by i arc 3fB,

tangent
269
{being
Z formed hy a
(being
and a
chord).
(7 is
measured by \ arc
an
inscribed Z).
BM,
263
.'.
,\Z.OBM=AO. OBO &nd OBM&re similar,

A
of the one equal to two
322
{having two
of the other).
Whence
00,
OB, OB,
the longest side of the one, the longest side of the other, the shortest side of the one, the shortest side of the other.
Q. E. D.
OM,
NUMERICAL PHOtERTIES OF FIGURES.

Proposition XXIII.
349.
165
Theorem.
bisector of an angle of a equal to the product of the sides of this angle diminished by the product of the segments determined by the bisector upon the third side of the
The square of the

is
triangle
triangle
BU
'Kn
E
Let AD bisect the angle BAC of the triangle ABC. = AB X AC- DB X DC. To prove
AF
Proof,
Circumscribe the,0 about the ABC. to meet the circumference in E, and draw EC. Produce
^^C
Then
AD in the A ABD and
ZBAD = ZCAE,
AEC^
ZB = Z E,
Hyp.
263 322
{each being measured hy \ the arc AC).

.-.
A ABD and AEC

A
[two
are similar if two
o^re similar, of the one are equal respectively to two the other).
oj
Whence
AB, AE, AD,
the longest side of the one, the longest side of the other, the shortest side of the one,
A C,
/.
But
AB X AC= AD X AE^ = AD(AD+DE) = AD" AD X DE. AD X DE= DB x DC,

-{-
295
346
(the product of the segments of
a
.'.
Q is
a chord drawn through a fixed point in

constant).
Whence
AB X a:c= aB'+DBxDC AD" = ABxAC DB x DC.

if tlie
q. e. d.
Note. This theorem enables us to compute the lengths of the bisectors

of the angles of a triangle lengths of the sides are
known.
166
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition
350.
XXIV.
Theorem.
sides is
In any triangle the product of two
equal to the -product of the diameter of the circurnscrihed circle hy the altitude upon the third side.
Let ABC be a triangle, AD the altitude, and the circle circumscribed about the triangle ABC. Draw the diameter AE, and draw EC.
To prove
ABC
AB.X
AC=AExAD.
TKUBLEMS OF CONSTKUCTION.
167
Proposition
351.
XXV.
Problem.
To divide a given straight line into parts proportional to any number of given lines. H A^ K B
m^
p^
.
^
to
Let AB,
To divide
Illy
n,
and
p,
be given straight lines. m,

n^
AB into parts propartimial

Draw AX, making an
and p.
with
Construction.
acute
A.
On ^Xtake AC=7n,
CE=n, EX=p.
Draw BX.
From
-7
and Cdraw ^JTand CII
II
to
BX.
.ând Hene
P,oof.
{a line
the division points required.
fi^V AC = yASj
sides of
-=^. CE EX
a
^ 309
divides those
drawn through two
AW
to the third side
sides proportionally).
.-.
AIT
m,
UK KB = AC
:
CU EX.
:
Substitute
n,
and p
: :
for theii- equals

:
AC, GE^ and EX.

aE.F
Then
AH UK KB =^ m
-.p.
168
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition
352.
XXVI.
Problem.
to three
<
To find a fourth proportional

lines.
given
t--^^
straight
Let the three given lines be

To find a fourth 'proportional
to
m,
n,
and p.
and p.
m,
n,
Draw Ax and Ay
Oonstruction.
containing any acute angle.
On Ax
take
AB equal to
AD=p.
m,
C= n.
On
At/ take
Draw BD.
From
(7
draw
CF
\\
to
BD,
to
meet
Ay
at F.
BFis
Proof.
(a line
the fourth proportional required.
AB B0= AB:
:
BF,
309
drawn through two
sides of
W to
the third side divides those
Substitute m,
71,
snidp for their equals
AB, BC, and AB.
Then
=p
BF.
n.OBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
169
Proposition XXVII.
353.
Problem.
to
To find a third proportional
two given
straight lines.
V*-
Ae
n be the
Let m and
To find a third proportional

Oonstruction.
two given straight to m and n.
lines.
Construct any acute angle A,
and take
AB=^m, AC=n.
D, making
:ôduce
AB to
II
BD = AC.
Join
BC.
meet reproduced at E.
Through
D draw DE
*
to
BCio
CE is
Proof.
(a line
the third proportional io
AB and
AC.
AB BD = AC:
:
CE.
309
drawn through two
sides of
W to
the third side divides those
Substitute, in the above proportion,

:
AC iov its Then AB AC=AC: CE. That m\n n CE.

is,
:
equal
BD.
Ex. 217. Construct

Special Cases: (1) a
x, if (1)
=
c
3,
(2)
ar
- -
c
2, 6
= 4;
(2)
3,
7,
c == 11
(3)
2,
c-=3; (4)o
3, c
5:
(5)a
2c.
170
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition XXVIII.
354.
Problem.
To find a
mean
proportional between two given
straight lines.
II
m
Ai^ ^
(J
::;
ji
_TjT -^
Let the
twô
given lines be m and
n.
To find a mean proportional between

Construction.
m and n. On the straight line AE

AC^= m, and CB
take
~ n.
AB as a diameter describe a semi-circumference. At C erect the _L OH to meet the circumference at H. CH'm a mean proportional between m and n. Proof. AC -CH =CH CB, 337
On
.-.
:
[the JL let fall

is
from a point in a circumference to the diameter of a a mean proportional between the segments of the diameter).
circle
Substitute for
^Cand CB
their equals
m and n.
Q. E.
F.
Then
355.
m
A
Gil
^ CB
n.
when one
extreme and mean ratio, straight lin is divided of the segments is a mean proportional between the
whole line and the other segment.
Ex.218. Construct X
Special Cases
:
if
a;
=Va5.
(1)
2, 6
-3
(23
1,
=5
(3)
3,
7.
TROBLEMS OF CONSTEUCTION.
171
Proposition
356.
XXIX.
Problem.
To divide a given line in extreine and
mean
ratio.
\G
0--
Let AB be the given

To divide
line.
ra.iio.
AB in extreme and mean At B erect a J_ BE equal to one-half of A B. Oonstmction.

From âs a centre, with a radius equal to TJB, describe Draw AU, meeting the circumference in iând G. On ^^take^C=:î^. On BA produced take AC -= AG.
Then
in
a O.
AB
is
divided internally at
ratio.
: :
and externally
at C"
extreme and mean

Proof.
AG AB = AB
301 and
AF,
348
{if
from a point without a O a secant and a tangent are drawn, gent is a mean proportional between the whole secant and the
segment).
the tan-
external
Then by
AG^ AB AB = AB - AF AG-]-AB:AG = AB-\-AF By construction FG = 2FB^ AB.

:
300,
AF, AB.
(1)
(12)
.-.
AG-~AB = AG-FG = AF=AO.

becomes
Hence
or,
(1)
by inversion,
(2)
Again, since becomes
AC AB = BC :AC-^, AB AC^ AC BCJ CA ^ AG = AB -f Al\ ^ C'B C'A = C'A AB. ^

:
Q. E.
F.
172
PLANE GEOMETKY.
BOOK
III.
Proposition
357.
XXX.
Problem.
Upon a given
line
of a given -polygon, to the given polygon.
homologous to a given side construct a polygon similar to
>n
-^'
Let A'E' be the given line homologous to AE of the given polygon ABODE. To construct on A'U' a polygon similar to the given polygon.
From E draw the diagonals EB and EC. From E' draw E'B\ E'C\ and E^ D\ making Z^^'^'^', BÊ^C\ and (7'^'i)' equal respectively
Oonstruction.
to
BEC, and CED. From A' draw A'B\ making Z. E'A'B'= Z EAB,
and meeting E'B' at B'. From B' draw B'C, making Z E'B'C
A AEB,
= Z EBO, = Z ECB,
From
and meeting E'C at C. draw O'B', making Z E'C'B' and meeting E'B' at B'.
is
Then A'B'C'B'E'
Proof.
the required polygon.
E'B'C,
{two
similar, 322 are similar if they have two A of the one equal respectively to two
ECB and
The corresponding E'C'B' are
A ABE and A'B'E', EBO
and
of the other).
Then the two polygons
are similar,
similar to each other {two polygons composed of the same number of similarly placed, are similar).
331 and
TROBLEMS OF COMPUTATION.
173
Problems of Computation.
219.
To
coni})ute the altitudes of a triangle in terms of its sides.
C
m//i
c
F D
Fig.
2.
At
least
one of the angles
.4
or .S
is
acute.
Suppose
it is
the angle B.
g
In the In the
A A
CBB, ABC,
h^
b^
a''
BD' + c''-2cxBD.
338
^342
Whence,
BB
/i2
Hence
^ =a^_ (g^ + c' b^Y "" 4aV-(a' +

4c2
4c2
c^
c^
i!r
b'^)
^
_^
(2ac
g'
+ c' - b^)(2ac - a' 4c
{(a
+ cy-b^){b^-(a-cf}
4c2
-i
^
Let
{a
c){a
b){b +
4c2
2s.
c){b
a+
c)
a + 6 + c== a +
c
Then
Hence
h^
2s
- b = 2{s - b\ 6 + a c = 2 (s c), 6 a + c == 2 (s a). X 2(s - g) X 2(s - 6) X 2(s Ac""

root,
c)
By
simplifying,
and extracting the square

-
h = Vs {s ~ a) {s b) {s c).
220.
To compute the medians of a triangle

a2
in terms of its sides.
By 344,
Whence
+ 52_2m2 +
2/'^y.
6>)-c2.
(Fig. 2)
4m2 =
2(a2
r/
174
221.
PLANE GEOMETRY. -BOOK

To compuLo the
^2
III.
bisectors of a triangle in terms of the sides.
By
^ 349,
By
'i
313,
h
.-.
ah-ADx BD. BD _AD + BD

a
he
c^
a+h
and
ah
a+
ac
AD =
BD-.
ahc^
a +
Whence
(a
+ hf
= a6(l
ah{{a
(a
i-\
+ h)''~c'} + hf + ^ -^ c) (<^ + (a + hf
2(s-c) + hf
c).
^ (q^
c)
ahx2sX
{a
Whei
a
2i22.
+b
y/abs{s^
To compute the radius of the

350,
circle
circumscribed about a
tri-
angle in terms of the sides of the triangle.
-.^
,j
By
or
ABxAO=-AExAD,
he
Ex AD.
h) (s
But
AD
V s [s a){s
.
c).
Whence
223.
ahc
4\/s(s-a)(.s-6)(s-c)
If the sides of a triangle are
?
'*
3, 4,
and and
5, is
the angle opposite 5
right, acute, or obtuse
224.
if the sides of a triangle are

?
7, 9,
12,
is
the angle opposite
12 right, acute, or obtuse

225.
'
'
If the sides of a triangle are

?
7, 9,
and
11,
is
the angle opposite
11 right, acute, or obtuse
226. The legs of a right triangle are 8 inches and 12 inches; find the lengths of the projections of these legs upon the hypotenuse, and the distance of the vertex of the right angle from the hypotenuse. 227. If the sides of a triangle are 6 inches, 9 inches, and 12 inches,
find the lengths (1) of the altitudes (2) of the medians tors (4) of the radius of the circumscribed circle.
; ;
(3) oi
the bisec-
V-
EXERCISES.
175
Theorems.
"*
228.
Any two
altitudes of a triangle are inversely proportional to
the corresponding bases.
229.
Two circles
touch at P.
Through
P three lines are drawn, meetB\ C,

respectively.
ing one circle in ^, B, C, and the other in A^, that the triangles ABC, A^B^C/ are similar.
Prove
the arc CD.
AB, CD intersect at M, and A is the middle point of Prove that the product AB x -43/ remains the same if the chord AB is made to turn about the fixed point A. Hint. Draw the diameter AE, join BE, and compare the triangles
v230.
Two
chords
thus fv^rmed.
s 231.
The sum of the squares of the segments of two perpendicular

is
chords
If
AB, CD
equal to the square of the diameter of the circle. are the chords, draw the diameter BE, join AC,
ED, BD,
and prove that AC=- ED.

^232. In a parallelogram
diagonal Prove that
^233.
in their
Apply
338.
ABCD,
a line
^C
in F, the side
BC
in G,
is drawn, meeting the and the side AB produced in E.
DE
= FOx FE.
to
The tangents
two intersecting
circles
drawn from any point

produced, will
x/
common chord
produced, are equal,
(g 348.)
circles, if
^234. The
bisect their
'
common chord of two intersecting common tangents. ( 348.)

circles
235,
If
two
touch each other, their
common
tangent
is
mean
proportional between their diameters. be the common tangent. Draw the diameters AC, BD. Hint. Let to A, B, G, and D. Show that and BPC Join the point of contact
AB
are straight lines
to each other,
and compare
APD ^ ABC, ABD.

common
236. If three circles intersect one another, the
chords
all pass
through the same point. Hint. Let two of the chords
meet at 0.
the
Join the point of intersection to G, and suppose that produced meets
AB and CD E
EO
same two circles at two different points P and Q. Then prove that OP=ÔQ\ hence,
that the points
Pand Q
coincide.
<*i
176
"'237.
t>^"
PLANE GEOMETRY.
If
BOOK
III.
tangent internally, all chords of the greater the point of contact are divided proportionally by the circumference of the smaller circle.
circle
two
circles are
drawn from
the circumferences, and prove that the
Hint. Draw any two of the chords, join the points where they meet A thus formed are similar.
is
^238. In an inscribed quadrilateral, the product of the diagonals equal to the sum of the products of the opposite sides.
Hint. Draw DE, making
CDE^ ZADB.
Also the
A ABD and CDE are
similar.
A BCD
The and
^^'
ADE are similar.

239.
The sum of the squares of the four

is
sides of
of the squares of the diagonals, increased by four times the square of the line joining the middle points of the diagonals.
any quadrilateral
equal to the
sum
onals.
Hint. Join the middle points F, E, of the diagDraw EB and ED. Apply ^ 344 to the
A ABC
"
and ADC, add the
results,
and eliminate
BE^ + DE^"
by applying
343 to the
A BDE.
is
240. The square of the bisector of an exterior angle of a triangle equal to the product of the external segments determined by the bisector upon one of the sides, dimin-
ished
by the product
of the other
two
sides.
Z BCH of A ABC. Circumscribe a O about the A, produce DC to meet the circumference in F, and draw
Hint. Let
CD
bisect the exterior
the
BF.
VxoYQ
ÂCD,
BCF
"
similar.
Apply
| 347.
is
241.
If a point
joined to the vertices of a triangle
ABC, and
is drawn, meeting OB through any point A^ in OA a line parallel to at B^, and then through B^ a line parallel to BC, meeting OC at C\ and (7 is joined to A\ the triangle A^B^C^ will be similar to the tri-
AB
angle
ABC.
If the line of centres of
C,
242.
two
circles
meets the circumferences at
the points A, B,
D, and meets the common exterior tangent at P, then
PAxPD^PBxPC
^
243.
The
line of centres of
is
two
circles
meets the
common
exterior
tangent at P, and a secant
drawn from
Prove that
P, cutting the circles at the
consecutive points E, F, G, H.
PExPH= PFx PQ.
EXEBCISES.
177
Numerical Exercises.
"^244.
line
in
is
drawn
cutting
ÂG
The
D,
BO
in
parallel to a side E. If ^Z)

:
AB of a triangle ABC, and DC= 2 3, and AB= 20 inches,

:
findDJ^.
^245.
/.;
;,
J-
sides of a triangle are 9, 12, 15.

(^ 313.)
Find the segments made "
"^^ hj\^r
^-i^
bisecting the angles.

'^246.
tree casts a
shadow 90
feet long.
feet long,
when a
is
vertical rod 6 feet

?
/''.
high casts a shadow 4

^
247.
h.
till
How
^^
high
the tree
'^'
by
"^
The bases of a trapezoid are represented by a, b, and the altitude Find the altitudes of the two triangles formed by producing the
they meet.
legs
248.
The
homologous
~
to 8
sides of a triangle are 6, 7, 8. In a similar triangle the side îs equal to 40. Find the other two sides. %
249.
The perimeters of two similar polygons

polygon
is
are 200 feet
and 300
feet.
If a side of the first
24
feet, find
the homologous side of the
second polygon.
250.
<^
long must a ladder be to reach a window 24 feet high, if *-^ the lower end of the ladder is 10 feet from the side of the house ? "^ v
How
O 251.
^
If the side of
a, find
the altitude.
1f^
$.
2o2.
253.
If the altitude of
h, find
the side. -
(^
Find the lengths of the longest and the shortest chord that can be drawn through a point 6 inches from the centre of a circle whose
'^
radius
is
equal to 10 inches.
T ^
>
^
is
^
254. The distance from the centre of a circle to a chord 10 inches long 12 inches. Find the distance from the centre to a chord 24 inches long. 255.
.-^
is 5 inches. Through a point 3 inches from drawn, and also a chord perpendicular to the Find the length of this cl*^^, and the distance from one end diameter. Q of the chord to the ends of the diameter. "f Hi "
The radius of a
circle
the centre a diameter
is
^56. The
radius of a circle
is
6 inches.
Through a point 10 inches
from the centre tangents are drawn. Find the lengths of the tangents, ^ and also of the chord joining the points of contact.
^|66
\0
'
257.
If a chord 8 inches long
is
3 inches distant from the centre of
the circle, find the radiuB^nd the distances from the end of the chord to
the ends of the diameter which bisects the chord,
c^*
''
178
258.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
The radius
of a circle
is
BOOK
III.
13 inches.
Through a point 5 inches
from the centre any chord is drawn. What is the product of the two seg? What is the length of tlfei sljoytest chord that can mer^Q\hi the chord
be drawn through the point
259.
?
/
the end of a tangent 20 inches long a secant is drawn through the centre of the circle. If the exterior segment of this secant is 8 inches, find the radius of the circle. ^J^ /
260.
inches.
From
The radius of a circle is 9 inches the length of a tangent is 12 Find the length of a secant drawn from the extremity of the
;
tangent to the centre of the

261.
circle.
The radii of two circles are 8 inches and 3 inches, and the disFind the lengths of their comtance between their centres is 15 inches.
mon
"
'
tangents.
line 10 inches long divided in
262. Find the segments of a and mean ratio.

263.
extreme
The
sides of a triangle are 4, 5, 6.

?
Is the largest
angle acute,
right, or obtuse
^
Problems.
"
264.
To divide one
side of a given triangle into segments proportional

( 313.)
to the adjacent sides.

'
265.
To produce a
line
AB to
a point Cso that
AB AC=3:5.
:
one side of a given triangle a point whose distances from the other sides shall be to each other in a given ratio.
266.
find in
'"
To
267.
Given an obtuse triangle
to
draw a
line
from the vertex of the
obtuse angle to the opposite side which shall be a between the segments of that side,
-
mean
proportional
268.
Through a given point

that
P within
a given circle to
draw a chord
AB so
269.
AP:
BP^ 2:3.
P in the arc
AB.
subtended by a chord
AB
-
To draw through a given point & chord which shall be bisected by
270,
To draw through a point

that
P, exterior to a given circle, a secant
PAB so
271.
PA:AB = 4::3.
P, exterior to a given circle, a secant
PAB so
272.
To draw through a point that AB^ ^ PAx PB.

To
find a point 3 1.
:
Pin
the arc subtended
by a given chord
AB
so
that
PA:PB =
EXEECISES.
273.
179
a secant so that the

in the ratio of 3
:
To draw through one of the points of intersection of two circles two chords that are formed shall be to each other
5.
2, |, J.
^274. To divide a line into three parts proportional to
Having given the greater segment and mean ratio, to construct the line.
v275.
~-276. To construct a circle which and touch a given straight line.
of a line divided in extreme
shall pass
through two given points
277.
To construct a To To
circle
which shall pass through a given point and
touch two given straight

278.
279.
lines.
inscribe a square in a semicircle.

inscribe a square in a given triangle.
Hint. Suppose the problem solved, and DEFO the inscribed square. to AB, and let Draw produced meet j^|-
CM
II
AF
CM\n M. Draw
produce
AB to
Off and meet at

these
is
MN K
F
MN
1. to
AB, and
Ql
\
AOF
are similar;
also the
The A ACM, A AMN, AFE
are similar. the figure
a square. By constructcan be found. ing this-square, the point

280.
CMNH
By
triangles
show that
/A
To
To
inscribe in a given triangle a rectangle similar to a given
rectangle.
281.
inscribe in a circle a triangle similar to a given triangle.
282.
To
inscribe in a given semicircle a rectangle similar to a given
rectangle.
283.
triangle.
To circumscribe about a
circle
a triangle similar to a given
284.
To construct the expression, x

To construct two straight
= ^^
de
that
is,
^
d
-
e
285.
lines,
having given their sum and

having given their difference
their ratio.
286.
To construct two
straight lines,
and
their ratio.
287.
in their plane, to
circumferences at
B and C, so that AC='1'.2. Hint. Suppose the problem solved, join OA and produce
:
and 0^, and a point A Having given two circles, with centres draw through the point A a straight line, meeting' the
AB
it
to D.
making
OA A
/)
2.
Join
DC\
k.
GAB, A DC
are similar.
BOOK
IV.
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
358.
The area
of a surface
is
the numerical measure of the
surface referred to the unit df surface. The unit of surface is a square whose side
as the square inch, the square foot, etc.
359.
is
a unit of length ;
Equivalent figures are figures having equal areas.
Proposition
I.
Theorem.
360. The areas of two rectangles having equal alti^ tudes are to each other as their hases.
^ o /^ Let the two rectangles be AC and AF, having the

^
same
rr,
altitude AD.
10 ^ prove
AE Proof. Case When AB and AE are commensurable. Suppose AB and AE have a common measure, as AO,
rect.î^
I.
VQQi.AC -
AB = -
which
is
contained in
Then
AB seven times and in 4^ =
^^four
'
times.
^ ^ (1)
Apply
this
measure
AE to AB
--
and
ll\
and
at the several
points of division erect Js. The rect. ^(7 will be divided into
and the
rect.
^jPwill be divided
se-. en rectangles, into four rectangles.
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
These rectangles are
all equal.
181
186
7
Hence
rect.
AC
^6^
rect.î^
(2)
From
Case
(1)
and
rect.
(2)
_^^
^ n
rect.î^
AE
Ax.
II.
Wlicn
AB and AE are incommensurable,

^^ c
fi
B
Divide
of
K
number
AB into any
to
them
Since
AE
of equal parts, and apply one as often as it will be contained in AE.
number
AB and AE
are incommensurable, a certain
of these pai-ts will extend from to a point less than one of the parts. remainder
KE
K, leaving a
Draw KIT
Since
II
to
EE.
AB and
îTare commensurable,
recLASÂK
rect.
AC
ab'
is
Case
I.
These ratios continue equal, as the unit of measure

nitely diminished,
indefi-
rect.î^
rect.
AC
and
AE respectively. -^
^.
,
and approach
^
^
indefinitely the limiting ratios
AB
rect.
AE AE
AB
q
25C
rect.ê
(if
two variables
constantly equal, and each approaches a limit, the limits are equal). _ q
361.
to
Cor. The areas of two rectangles having equal bases are each other a^ their altitudes. For and may be con-
sidered as the altitudes,

Note.
AB AE AB and AB as the bases.
"triangle,"
In propositions relating to areas, the words "rectangle," etc., are often used for "area of vectangle," "area of tri-
angle," etc.
182
PLANE GEOMETRY
BOOK
IV.
Proposition
II.
Theorem.
362. The areas of two rectangles are to each other as the products of their bases by their altitudes.
R
h
h'
Let
bases
Jl
and PJ be two rectangles, having for their and b', and for their altitudes a and
a'-.
To prove
Proof.
m^
R
8
aX
a'
X V
that of R,
Construct the rectangle 8, with its base the same as and its altitude the same as that of R\
Then
{^rectangles
a
to
361
each other as their altitudes) 'es)
having equal bases are
and R'
360
{rectangles having equal altitudes are to each oilier as their bases)
By
multiplying these two equalities,
R _ aXb
R'
a'xb''
Q.1
Ex. 288. Find the ratio of a rectangular lawn 72 yards by 49 yards

to a grass turf 18 inches
by 14
inches.
Ex. 289. Find the ratio of a rectangular courtyard 18^ yards by 15J
yards
to a flagstone 31 inches by 18 inches, Ex. 290. A square and a rectangle have the same perimeter, 100 yards. The length of the rectangle is 4 times its breadth. Compare their areas.
many
Ex. 291. On a certain map the linear scale is 1 inch to 5 miles. How acres are represented on this map by a square the perimeter of
is
whicli
1 inch
AREAS OF ruLYGoNS.
183
Proposition
363.
III.
Theorem.
is
The area of a rectangle

base
equal
to the
product
of
its
and
altitude.
s
Let R be the rectangle, b the base, and a the altitude ; and let U be a square whose side is equal to the linear unit
To prove
the area of
R ~ axh.
^^
y
R
{two rectangles are
to eacJi
axb
362
and
altitudes).
other as the product of their bases
But
.*.
U
Scholium.
the
area of R.
358
b.
q. e. d.
the area of
^ = aX
364.
:.he
When
the base and altitude each contain
linear unit an integral
number
of times, this proposition
is
rendered evident by dividing the figure into squares, each
LIJJ
u
if
equal to the unit of measure.

linear units,
Thus,
the base contain seven
and the altitude
four, the figure
may
be divided
;
into twenty-eight squares, each equal to the unit of measure and the area of the figure equals units of surface.
7x4
184
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IV.
Proposition IV.
366.
Theorem.
is
The area of a parallelogram

its
equal
to the
product of
base
BE
and altitude. C F
D
its base,
Let AEFD be a parallelogram., AD

its altitude.
and CD
To prove the area of the

Proof.
*
O AEFD ^ ADx CD.

II
From
draw
AB
to
DC to meet
i^.^*
produced.
Then the figure ABCD base and altitude as the

In the
rt.
Avill
O AEFD.
be a rectangle, with the same
A ABE and DGF AB CD and AE=

--=
DF,
179
{heing opposite sides of a CJ).
.'.AABE=ADCF,
{two
rt.
161
M. are
equal when the hypotenuse and a side of the one are equal respectively to the hypotenuse and a side of the other).
Take away the Take away the

.-.
A DCF, and we have left the rect. ABCD. A ABE, and w^j have left the O AEFD.
But the area

.-.
the
ABCD -o^CJ AEFD. ABCD = axb, area of the O AEFD = axb.

red.
of the rect.
Ax. 3
363
1
Ax.
Q. E. O.
366.
Cor.
1.
Parallelograms having equal bases and equal Parallelograms having equal bases are
;
altitudes are equivalent.

367.
Cor.
2.
to
each
other as their altitudes
are
to
to
parallelograms having equal altitudes each other as their bases ; any two parallelograms are
each other as the products of their bases by their altitudes.
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
185
Proposition V.
368.
Theorem.
is
The area of a triangle

its
equal to one-half of
the product of
base by its altitude.
B
Let ABC be a
altitude.
triangle,
D
and DC
its
AB
its base,
To prove the area of the

Proof.
.
From G draw
A ABC ^^ AB X DC. CH to AB.

II
From ^draw AIIW

The
figure
(having
to
BC.
ABCIT is
its
a parallelogram,
168
opposite sides parallel),

its
and ACia
a
diagonal.
..AABC=AAIIC,
(the diagonal of
178
divides
it
The area of the ABCJI is equal to the product of its base by its altitude. 365 Therefore the area of one-half the CJ, that is, the area of the ABC, is equal to one-half the product of its base by its
into two equal ^).
altitude.
Hence,
the area of the
A ABC=iAB X
BC.
Q. E. D.
369. Cor. 1. Triangles having equal bases tudes are equivalent.
and equal
alti-
370. Cor. 2. Triangles having equal bases are to each other as their altitudes ; triangles having equal altitudes are to each
other as their bases
any two
by
triangles are
to
each other as the
product
of their bases
their altitudes.
186
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PROPOsiTioisr VI.
BOOK
IV.
Theorem.
371.
The area of a trapezoid
the
sum
is equal to one-half the parallel sides multiplied hy the altiof
tude.
AREAS UF POLYGONS.
187
Proposition VII.
Theorem.
374. The areas of two tidangles which have an angle of the one equal to an angle of the other are to each other as the products of the sides including tJie equal
.
angles.
Let the triangles A in: and angle A.

rj, 10 prove
ADE have
the
common
A ABC A ADE
ABxAC
ADxAE
Proof.
Now
and
188
PLANE GEOMETEY,
BOOK
IV.
Comparison of Polygons.
Proposition VIII.
Theorem.
375. The areas of two similar triangles are to each other as the squares of any two homologous sides.
A'
Let the two triangles be ACB and A'C B'.

To prove
A ACB A A'C'B' A ACB A A'C'B'

to
AF
Jii
Draw
Then
{two
the perpendiculars
CO and CO'. CO
AB X
AB
A'B'
A'B' X CO'
CO
CO''
370
are
each other as the products of their bases by their altitudes).
But
{the
^=^:
A
gous
bases).
1328
homologous altitudes of similar
have the same ratio as their homolo-
Substitute, in the above equality, for
CO CO'
its
AB
equal
A'B''
then
A ACB
AA'C'B'
AB
A'B'
^ X
AB
A'B'
AB'
jJb'
COMPARISON OF POLYGONS.
Proposition IX.
376.
189
Theorem.
The areas of two similar polygons are to each other as tJie squares of any two homologous sides. E
B'
C'
Let S and S^ denote the areas of the two similar polygons ABC, etc., and A'B'C, etc.
To prove
Proof.
^rertices
S'
= AB" A^'\
:
the diagonals from the homologous two similar polygons are divided into 332 triangles similar and similarly placed.
By drawing
all
J and
\ the
AB'
A'B'
A ABE
AA'B'IJ'
rBE\,^ A BCE
Kb'e'V
A B'C'E'
375
sides).
CE'
{similar
A CDE A C'B'E'
the squares of
A are
.
to
each other
any two homologous
A BCE A CDE A ABE That A A'B'E' A B'C'E A C'D'E' A ABE AB" ABE -V BCE ^ CDE A A'B'E' + B'C'E' + C'B'E' A A'B'E' J'^b'"'
,
,
IS
^^^
(i?i
series
of equal ratios the sum of the antecedents is to the consequents as any antecedent is to its consequent).
sum
of the
S:S' = AB":A'B'
377.
Q. E. O.
The areas of two similar polygons are to each olhe)' as the squares of any two hoinoloqous lines. 378. Cor. 2. The homologous sides of two similar polygons have the same ratio as the square roots of their areas.
Cor.
1.
190
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IV.
Proposition X.
379.
^Theorem.
Hi6
squai'e described
'
on the hypotenuse of a
right triangle is equivalent to the suin of the squares on the other two sides..
Let BE, GH, AF, be squares on the three sides of the right triangle ABC.
To prove
Proof,
BC' ^ AB" + AC\
Through OE, and draw

Since
are
rt.
draw
ALWio
AD and FC.
and
A BAG, BAG,
A,
CAH
are
CAO
and
BAH
straight
lines.
Since
the
for
BF, same square, and the same reason, and since
BD ~ BC,
being sides of
BA
Z ABDÂFBC, each being the sum of a rt. Z and the A ABC, i\iQAABD = AFBC.
Now
[having the
15U
the rectangle same base BD, and

lis
BL
is
double the
A ABB,
AL and BD),
the saine altitude, the distance between the
and
{having the same base
the squareîîs double the FB, and the same altitude, lis FB and GC).
A FBC,
the distance between the
Hence the rectangle
BL
In like manner, by joining
that the rectangle CL is Therefore the square BE, which
equivalent to the square AF. ^ând BK, it may be proved equivalent to the square CH.
is
is
the
sum
of the rectangles
BL and
^F.
380.
CL,
is
equivalent to the
sum
.
of the squares
CH and
Q, E. D.
Cor. The square on either leg of a right triangle is equivalent to the difference of the squares on the hypotenuse and
the other leg.
COMPARISON OF POLYGONS.
191
is
Ex. 293, The square constructed upon the sum of two straight lines equivalent to the sum of the squares constructed upon these two line^, increased by twice the rectangle of these lines.
Let
AB and BC
and
be the two straight lines, and
AC
their
sum.
Con-
struct the squares
AB
meet
respectively.
ACOK and ABED upon ^Cand A Prolong BE and DE until they

respectively.
B C
KG
CO
Then we have the

Hence,
square
EFGH,
with sides each equal to BC.

is
the square
ACOK
the
sum
of the squares
ABED
BCFE,
BC.
])
and EFOir, and the rectangles the dimensions of which are equal
DEHK and
to
AB and
192
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IV.
Proposition
XL
Problem.
381. To construct a square equivalent to the of two given squares.
sum
liK
A-
Let R and
R'
be two given squares.

to
To construct a square equivalent

Construction.
H'
+ H.
Construct the
rt.
A.
Take
equal to a side of H',
AB equal to a side of R\
Construct the square
/S',
and draw BC.

its sides
having each of
equal to BC.
S
Proof.
{the
is
the square required.
to the
square on the
BC' - AC' + AB\ hypotenuse of a rt. A is equivalent

squares on the two
379
sum
of the
'.S-E''\-R.
Q. E.
F.
Ex. 296. If the perimeter of a rectangle equal to twice the width, find the area.
is
72
feet,
and the length
is
Ex. 297. How many tiles 9 inches long and 4 inches wide will be required to pave a path 8 feet wide surrounding a rectangular court 120
feet
long and 36 feet wide

298.
Ex.
is
equal to
The bases of a trapezoid are 16 feet and iO 5 feet. Find the area of the trapezoid.
feet
each leg
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
193
Proposition XII.
Problem.
382. To construct a square equivalent to the difference of two given squares.
Let B be the smaller square and

Oonstruction.
to
rt.
B'
the larger.
PJ R.
Construct the
A.
Take
AB equal to a side of R.
with a radius equal to a side of
From
^ as a centre,
R\
describe an arc cutting the line
^Xat
C.
Construct the square S, having each of
its sides
equal to
A C.
380
8 is
Proof.
{the square
to the difference
on
either
AC^ ^ Mp^ - AW, leg of a rt. A is equivalent

and
.-.
of the
squares on the hypotenuse
the other leg).
^=0=
R'
~ R.
to
Ex. 299. Construct a square equivalent whose sides are 3 inches and 4 inches.
the
sum
of
two squares
Ex. 300. Construct a square equivalent to the squares whose sides are 2J inches and 2 inches.
difference of
two two
Ex. 301. Find the side of a square equivalent to the squares whose sides are 24 feet and 32 feet.
sum
of
Ex. 302. Find the side of a square equivalent to the difference of two squares whose sides are 24 feet and 40 feet.
Ex. 303.
diagonal
is
A
10
feet.
rhombus contains 100 square feet, and the length of on( Find the length of the other diagonal.
194
PLANE CtEOMETEY.
BOOK
IV.
Proposition XIII.
383.
Problem.
to the
To construct a square, equivalent of any number of given squares.
sum
/
I
m
Let
m,
n, o, p, r
A
be sides of the given squares.
-\-}-
^B
To construct a square
o m'^ n^ -^-p^ + Take AB = m. Oonstmction. Draw AC =n and to AJB at A, and draw BC. Draw CU = o and d. to BC at O, and draw BU. Draw UF ==j) and A. \o BE at E, and draw BE. Draw EII= r and JL to BE at E, and draw BH.
d^
^'''*-
The square constructed on

Proof.
BIT is
BH''-EE'-\-BE\
-Fn"-{-EF'-ÊB\^'
- EH" + EF' -^{eC' + OF) ^ EH' + EC! + EF' +'6^' +

{the
sum
of the squares
on the two legs of a rt. A on the hypotenuse).
aS)\
to the
379
is
equivalent
square
That
is,
jm' ^ m' + n' + o' + p' + r^
a E.
F.
195
Proposition XIV.
Problem.
384. To construct a polygon similar to two given similar polygons and equivalent to their sum.
R'
Os
11
A'B'
Let Tt and Ji' be two similar polygons, and AB and two homologous sides.
to
To construciji similar polygon equivalent

Oonstruction.
R-\-
i?'.
rt. Z P. Take P//- A'B'^ and PO = AB. Draw OH, and take ^"P" - OIL
Construct the
Upon A"B", homologous

Then P"
Proof.
is
to
AB,
construct
^" similar
to
P.
the polygon required.
PO'
+ PJI" = 0W\
.'.
AB' 4-
JJlp"
= A^Wt
Now
and
P
4"
P[
AB'
2"B"'
AHj^^
376
A"B'*
[similar polygons are to each other as the squares of their homologous sides).
By
addition,
P+P^_AB'-\-A'B
I
T?*^
P"
A"B"'
Q. E. F
P''oP + P'.
196
PLANE OEOMETRY.
BOOK
IV.
Probositlon
XV.
Problem.
385. To construct a polygon similar to two iven similar polygons and equivalent to their difference.
197
Proposition XVI.
386.
Problem.
to
To construct a triangle equivalent
a given
polygon.
\:\Sits
A
"be
-sk:
Let ABCDHE
Construction.
the given polygon.

to the
To construct a triangle equivalent
given polygon.
From
and from
D draw DE,
to
^draw HFW
DE.
meet IFF at E, and draw I>E. to CE to meet Again, draw CE, and draw duced at E, and draw CE.
Produce
^^to
EE
II
AE pro-
In like manner continue to reduce the number of sides of

the polygon until
Proof.
we
obtain the
A CII{'.
has one side less than the
The polygon
ABODE
polygon
ABCDHE,
DE
is
but the two are equivalent.
For the part and the A

{jor the base
ABCDE
II
is
common,
DEF^ A DEH,
their vertices
to the base).
3G9
common, and
FH
and
H are
in the line
The polygon
ABCK
has one side
less
than the polygon
ABODE,
but the two are equivalent.
For the part ABOF\% common, and the A OF/f =c= A CED,
i^Jor the
base
CF
is
common, and
their vertices
to the base).
KD
K and D are in the
369
line
I!
In like manner the
A OIKo= ABCK.
Q. E.
F.
198
PLANE GEOMETEY.
BOOK
IV.
Proposition XVII.
387.
Problem.
ratio to
To construct a square which shall have a given a given square.
m-
A'^
-MJ
E"-
Let R be the given square, and the given m

To construct a square which shall he
Construction.
to
ratio.
M as n
is to
m.
Take equal to a side of R, and draw Ay, acute angle with AB. making any
AB
On Ay take AE=m, EF= n, and join EB. Draw EC to EB to meet AB produced at C.

II
On
At
^ C as
a diameter describe a semicircle.
B erect the JL BD, meeting the semicircumference at D. a side of the square required. Then BD Denote AB by a, ^Cby h, and BD by x. Proof. Now a X = x \h that x^ = ah. " 337
is
:
\
is,
^lence,
a^ will
have the same

\
ratio to
:
x"^
and
h.
to
aoS
Therefore a^
But a
(a straight line
'.
a^ a^ h = m
:
ah
n,
309
drawn through two
sides of a A, parallel to the third side, divides those sides proportionally).
Therefore a^
x^
:
=m
g^
n.
:
By
Hence
n
has to
inversion, x^
n m.
ratio to
the square on
BD
will
have the same
R as
q. e.
f.
m.
199
Proposition XVIII.
388.
Problem.
to
To construct a polygon sUnilar

ratio to
it.
a given
poly-
gon and having a given
200
PLANE GEOMETKY.
BOOK
IV.
Proposition XIX.
389.
Problem.
to
a given
parallelogram.
m.
N
b
O
base,
Let ABCD be a parallelogram,

altitude.
Us
and
a its

^Construction.
to
the
O ABCD.
a,
Upon
the line
MX take MN=
and
NO =
h.
MO as a diameter, describe a semicircle. At N erect NF to MO,, to meet the circumference at P.

Upon
is
Then the square R, constructed upon a line equal to ABCD. equivalent to the
Proof.
O MN :NP=NP: NO,
P^ a ABCD.
NP,
337
[a 1. let fall
of a circumference to the diameter proportional between the segments of the diameter).
from any point
is
a mean
\NP'=MNxNO = axb.
That
390.
is, Q. E. F.
Cor.
1.
A
hy
square
talcing
may
its
he constructed equivalent
side
to
given triangle, tween the base
for
a mean proportional
be-
and
one-half the altitude of the triangle.
391i Cor. 2. square may be constructed equivalent to a given polygon, by first reducing the polygon to an equivalent a square equivalent to the triangle, and then constructing
triangle.
(J<JtAH.
a
201
Problem.
Proposition XX.
392. To construct a parallelogram equivalent to a îven square, and having the sum of its base and altitude equal to a given line.
Let R be the given square, and let the sum of the base and altitude of the required parallelogram be equal to the given line MN.
To construct a
equivalent
to
R, with
the suvi of
its
hose
if
and
altitude equal to
3fN.
Oonstniction.
Upon
MN as a diameter, describe a
semicircle.
li.
At
erect a JL
MP,
equal to a side of the given square

cutting the circumference at 8.
Draw
PQ
II
to
MN,
'Dv^vf
SC 1-
io
MN
and
Any
O having CM
P.
for its altitude
CN for
its
base
is
equivalent to
Proof.
But
(a _L
let
SC= PM. .\Sd' = PM"=P. MC SC= SC CN,

:
100,
130
337
fall from any point in
the circumference to the diameter is proportional between the segments of the diameter).
a mean
Then
Note. This problem
the
SC'^MCxCN
may be
stated
:
q.e.f.
lines
To construct two straight
sum and product
of which are known.
202
PLANE GEOMETEY.
BOOK
IV.
Peoposition
393.
XXL
Problem.
To construct a parallelograin equivalent to a given square, and having tlve difference of its base and altitude equal to a given line,
s
\c..
M\
'B
\N
R'
Let R be the given square, and let the difference oi the base and altitude of the required parallelogram be equal to the given line MN.
To construct a equivalent to R, with the difference of the base and. altitude equal to MN.
Construction.
Upon
the given line
MN2.^
a diameter, describe
circle.
From
M draw
(7
MB, tangent
to the
O, and equal to a side

intersecting the cir-
of the given square R. Through the centre of the
draw
BB
cumference at
and B.
,
Then r.ny as B} having altitude, is equivalent to B.
O,
BB
for its base
and
BQ
for its
Proof.
{if from
BB
BM^ BM
BC,
and the part without
348
a point without
aOa secant and a tangent are drawn, the tangent is

the whole secant the O).
a mean proportional between
Then
and the
O, that
difference
is,
BM"-BBxBC,
between
BB
and
BC
is
the diameter of the

q. e.
f.
MN.
may
be stated:
To construct two straight the difference and product of which are known.
Note. This problem
lines
203
Proposition XXII.
394.
Problem.
pohj'
To
constriict
gon P,
and equivalent
a polygon similar to a given to a given polygon Q,
204
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IV.
/
Problems of Computation.
Ex. 307. To find the area of an equilateral triangle in terms of
side.
its
Denote the side by
a,
the altitude
a"
4
by
A,
and the area by
S.
Then
Ji'
= a'
2
3a2
Bui
S = axh
'.S=^X aVS
2
a^Vo
4
Ex. 308. To find the area of a triangle in terms of
its sides
By Ex.
Hence,
219,
J Vs {s
a)
{s
b) {s c).
c)
S=-X^
Vs{s-a){s b){s
= Vs (s a) (s
Ex. 309. To
circumscribing
If
b) (s
c).
find the area of a triangle in terms of the radius of the
circle.
B denote
the radius of the circumscribing circle, and h the altitude
of the triangle,
we
have, by Ex. 222,
bxc = 2Rxh.
Multiply by
a,
and we have
But
axbxc = 2Bxaxh. axh = 28.

..axbxc =
.-.8=
4:Iix
abc
AB
is
Note. The
radius of the circumscribing circle
equal to
abc
4:8'
EXERCISES.
~L
205
Theorems.
^310. In a right triangle the product of the legs is equal to the product of the hypotenuse and the perpendicular drawn to the hypotenuse from the vertex of the right angle.
\311. If ABC is a right triangle, C the vertex of the right BD a line cutting AQ'yq. B, then BD^ + ZC^ = Ib' + UQ^.
angle,
N312. Upon the sides of a right triangle as homologous sides three similar polygons are constructed. Prove that the polygon upon the hypotenuse is equivalent to the sum of the polygons upon the legs.
313.
to each,
Two
isosceles triangles are equivalent if their legs are
and the
altitude of one
is
equal each equal to half the base of the other.

is
314.
The area of a circumscribed polygon
equal to half the product
of
its
perimeter by the radius of the inscribed
circle.
315. Two parallelograms are equal if two adjacent sides of the one are equal respectively to two adjacent sides of the other, and the included angles are supplementary. 316.
Every
it
straight line
drawn through the centre of a parallelogram

two adjacent
Ls
divides
317.
into
two equal
parts.
If the middle points of
joined, a triangle is entire parallelogram.
formed which
sides of a parallelogram are equivalent to one-eighth of the
318. If
the
sum
of either pair of triangles
any point within a parallelogram is joined to the four vertices, having parallel bases is equivalent to
one-half the parallelogram.

319. The line which joins the middle points of the bases of a trapezoid divides the trapezoid into two equivalent parts. 320. The area of a trapezoid is equal to the product of one of the and the distance from this leg to the middle point of the other leg.
321.
legs
The
lines joining the
middle point of the diagonal of a quadri-
lateral to the opposite vertices divide the quadrilateral into lent parts.
two equiva-
322. The figure whose vertices are the middle points of the sides of any quadrilateral is equivalent to one-half of the quadrilateral. the middle point of AB, P any point in 323. ABQ\s> a triangle, is drawn parallel to PC, and meeting AB between A and M. If
M
is
MD
BC at
D, the triangle
BPD
equivalent to one-half the triangle
ABC
206
PLANE GEOMETBY.
BOOK
sum
of
IV.
324.
Find the area of a rhombus,

is
if
the
its
diagonals
is
12
feet,
and
their ratio
5.
325.
is
Find the area of an
isosceles right triangle if the
hypotenuse
5
20 feet
triangle, the
326. In a right Find the area.
hypotenuse
is
13
feet,
one leg
is
feet.
327.
328.
Find the area of an
isosceles triangle if the base

if
if
Find the area of an equilateral triangle 329. Find the area of an equilateral triangle
330.
one side
the
= b, and leg = c. = 8. altitude = h.

roof,
A house is 40 feet
feet
long, 30
feet wide,
25 feet high to the
and 35
its
high to the ridge-pole.
Find the number of square

4
5.
feet in
entire exterior surface.
331.
The
the hypotenuse
332.
sides of a right triangle are as 3 Find the area. is 12 feet.

if
The
altitude
upon
Find the area of a right triangle
one leg
= a,
and the
altitude
upon
feet,
the hypotenuse
h.
if
333.
111
Find the area of a triangle feet, and 175 feet.
the lengths of the sides are 104
334.
The area
of a trapezoid
and 40
335.
feet,
feet respectively.
is
is 700 square feet. The bases are 30 Find the distance between the bases.
feet
ABCD a trapezium; ^5 = 87 feet, 5C= 119 DA = 169 feet, ^C= 200 feet. Find the area.
What
is is
feet,
(7Z>
= 41
336.
whose radius
25
the area of a quadrilateral pircumscribed about a circle feet, if the perimeter of the quadrilateral is 400 feet ?
What
is
the area of a hexagon having an equal perimeter and circum-
scribed about the

337.
same
circle
triangle the perimeter of an equivalent
The base of a
is
15
feet,
and
if
its
altitude
is
is
8 feet.
feet.
Find
rhombus
the altitude
338. Upon the diagonal of a rectangle 24 feet by 10 feet a triangle equivalent to the rectangle is constructed. What is its altitude ? 339. Find the side of a square equivalent to a trapezoid whose bases
are 56 feet
340.
and 44
feet,
and each leg
is
10
feet.
Through a point
parallel to
P in
of
the side
AB
of a triangle
ABC,
a line
is
drawn
BC, and so
as to divide the triangle into
two equiva-
lent parts.
Find the value
AF in
terms of
AB.
EXERCISES.
341.
207
What
part of a parallelogram
to the
drawn from one vertex

342.
is the triangle cut off by a line middle point of one of the opposite sides ?
25
feet.
In two similar polygons, two homologous sides are 15 feet and The area of the first polygon is 450 square feet. Find the area
of the other polygon.

343. The base of a triangle is 32 feet, its altitude 20 feet. What is the area of the triangle cut off by drawing a line parallel to the base and at a distance of 15 feet from the base ?
344. The sides of two equilateral triangles are 3 feet and 4 the side of an equilateral triangle equivalent to their sum.
feet.
Find
345.
If the side of
another,
what
is
one equilateral triangle the ratio of their areas ?
is
equal to the altitude ot
Find 346. The sides of a triangle are 10 feet, 17 feet, and 21 feet. the areas of the parts into which the triangle is divided by bisecting the angle formed by the first two sides.
In a trapezoid, one base is 10 feet, the altitude is 4 feet, the area Find the length of a line drawn between the legs parallel to the base and distant 1 foot from it.
347.
is
32 square feet
348.
much must be taken from

the same
349.
?
If the altitude A of a triangle is increased by a length m, how the base a in order that tlie area may remain
Find the area of a right triangle, having given the segments p, which the hypotenuse is divided by a perpendicular drawn to the hypotenuse from the vertex of the right angle.
q,
into
Problems.
350.
To construct a To transform a
triangle equivalent to a given triangle,
and
having one side equal

351.
to a
given length
I.
triangle into an equivalent right triangle.

into an equivalent isosceles triangle.
352.
353.
To transform a triangle
To transform a
triangle
ABQ into
I,
ing one side equal to a given length
an equivalent and one anglequal
triangle, havto
angle
=o=
BAC.
II
Hints.
Upon
AB (produced
J. (7
CD, and meeting

354.
necessary), take (produced if necessary) at ^;

if
AD = draw BE to A BED A BEC.

I,
To transform a given
to a
triangle into an equivalent right triangle,
having one leg equal
given length.
208
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IV.
355, To transform a given triangle into an equivalent right triangle, having the hypotenuse equal to a given length. 356. To transform a given triangle into an equivalent isosceles tri-
angle, having the base equal to a given length.
357.'
To construct a triangle equivalent to The sum of two given triangles.

The
difference of
358. 359.
triangle.
two given
triangles.
To transform a given triangle

into
into an equivalent equilateral
To transform a parallelogram
360. 361. 362.
A parallelogram having one side equal to a given length. A parallelogram having one angle equal to a given angle. A rectangle having a given altitude.
into
:
To transform a square
363.
364.
An
equilateral triangle.
365.
A right triangle having one leg equal to a given length. A rectangle having one side equal to a given length.
to
:

366.
Five-eighths of a given square.

Three-fifths of a given pentagon.
367.
368.
line through the vertex of a given triangle so as to divide the triangle into two triangles which shall be to each other as 2 3.
:
To draw a
triangle into two equivalent parts in one of the sides. a line through a given point
369.
To divide a given
by drawing
370. To find a point within a triangle, such that the lines joining this point to the vertices shall divide the triangle into three equivalent parts. 371.
To divide a given triangle
into
two equivalent parts by drawing
a line parallel to one of the sides.

372. To divide a given triangle into two equivalent parts by drawing a line perpendicular to one of the sides.
373. To divide a given parallelogram into two equivalent parts by drawing a line through a given point in one of the sides. 374. To divide a given trapezoid into two equivalent parts by draw-
ing a line parallel to the bases.

375. To divide a given trapezoid into two equivalent parts by drawing a line through a given point" in one of the bases.
BOOK
V.
REGULAR POLYGONS AND

395.
CIRCLES.
recjular
;
polygon
as, for
and equiangular
the square.
a polygon which is equilateral example, the equilateral triangle, and

is
Proposition
396.
I.
Theorem.
An
equilateral polygon inscribed in
circle is
a regular jwlygon.
Let ADC,
a circle.
etc.,
be an equilateral polyso^ inscribed in
To prove the polygon

Proof.
ABC,
etc.,
regular.
The
{in the
arcs
AB, BC, CD, etc., are equal, same O, equal chords subtend equal arcs).
230
Hence
and
arcs
ABC, BCD,
etc.,
are equal.
are equal,
Ax. 6
the
A, B,
C, etc.,
{being inscribed in equal segments).
Therefore the polygon

equilateral
ABC,
etc., is
a regular polygon, being

q.e. d.
and equiangular.
210
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition
397.
II.
Theorem.
circle
may
he circurnscrihed about,
circle
may
he inscribed in,
and a any regular polygon.
Let ABODE be a regular polygon.

I.
To prove
that
circle
may
he
circumscribed about
ABODE.
Proof.
Let
be
tlie
centre of the circle passing through
A,B,a
Join
Since the polygon
is
OA, OB, 00, and OD.

equiangular, and the
A OBOis isosceles,
Z.
ABO = A BOD
and
0B0~- 4- OOB A OB A = Z OOD By subtraction, Hence in the A OB A and OOD the Z OB A = Z OOD, the radius OB = the radius
Z.
00,
and
(having two sides
AB--=OD.
'
395
150
and
the
:.l\OAB^/\OOD,
and
the included /. of the one equal to two sides included of the other).
.-.
OA = OD.
0,
Therefore the circle passing through A, B, and

passes through D.
also

In like manner
it
CIRCLES.
circle
211
passing
so
may
be proved that the
through B,
through
radius
II.
also passes through all the vertices in succession.

C,
and D,
E; and
on
Therefore a circle described from
as a centre,
and with a
OA,
will be circumscribed about the polygon.

circle
To prove that a
may
be inscribed in
ABODE.
Since the sides of the regular polygon are equal chords of the circumscribed circle, they are equally distant from the centre. 236
Proof.
Therefore a circle described from

the distance from
to a side of the
as a centre,
and with
polygon as a radius, will

q. e.d.
be inscribed in the polygon.

398.
The radius
of the circumscribed circle,
OA,
is
is
railed
the radius of the polygon.

399.
The radius
of the inscribed circle,
OF,
called the
apothem of the polygon. 400. The common centre

scribed circles
401.
is
of the circumscribed
and
in-
called the centre of the polygon.

radii
The angle between

angle
drawn
to the extremities of
any
side, as
AOB,
is
called the angle at the ceître of the
polygon.
By joining the centre to the vertices of a regular polygon, the polygon can be decomposed into as many equal isosceles Therefore, triangles as it has sides.
402.
Cor.
to
equal
403.
the centre of a regular polygon is divided by the number of sides of four right angles
1.
The angle at
the polygon.
Cor.
2.
The radius drawn
to
any
vertex of
a regular
is
polygon
bisects the
angle at the vertex.

the
404. Cor. 3. The interior angle of a regular polygon supplement of the angle at the cento'c^
For the
the
A AB0=2ZAB0^Z ABO + ZBAO. Z ^^Cis the supplement of tne Z AOB.
Hence
212
PLANE GEOMETRY.
Proposition
III.
BOOK
V.
Theorem.
/d.n 405.
any number of equal
If the circumference of a circle is divided into parts, the chords joining the
form a regular inscribed and the tangents drawn at the points of polygon, division form a regular circumscribed polygon.
successive points of division
I
Let the circumference be divided into equal arcs, AB, BC, CD, etc., be chords, FBG, GGH, etc., be tangents. I. To prove that ABODE is a regular polygon.
Proof.
The
sides
{in the
same
AB, BC, CD,
etc.,
are equal,
230
396
equal arcs are subtended hy equal chords).

is
Therefore the polygon
regular,
is
{an equilateral polygon inscribed in a
Q is regular).
a regular polygon.
etc.,
To prove that the polygon Proof. In the AFB, BQC,

II.
FGHIK
CHD,
etc.
Also, Z BAF= Z ABF=- Z CBG = Z BCG,

{being measured by halves of equal arcs).
AB = BC= CD,
all
etc.
395 269
Therefore the triangles are
Hence
Also,
/.F=AO = AH, etc. FB^BG-=GC = CH, etc.

Therefore i^(?
equal isosceles triangles.
= 6^^, etc.
.*.
FGHIK
Tangents
i^
a regular polygon.
395
a
Q.E. O.
406.
Cor.
1.
to
a circumference
at the vertices of
regular inserihed polygon
form a regular circumscribed poly-
gon of the same number of sides.
REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES.

407.
213
circle,
Cor.
2.
the tangents
drawn
If a regular polygon is inscribed in a at the middle points
of the arcs subtended by the sides of the
polygon form a circumscribed regular polygon, whose sides are parallel to the
sides of the inscribed polygon and whose vertices lie on the radii {prolonged) of
m n' For any two corA! and A' B\ perpendicular to OM, are parallel, and the tangents MB^ and NB\ intersecting at a point equidistant from OJf and OiV"( 246), intersect upon the
the inscribed polygon. responding sides, as
AB
bisector of the
408.
Z M0N{1
163)
that
is,
upon the radius OB.
Cor.
3.
are joined
lines
to the
If the vertices of a regular inscribed polygon middle points of the arcs subthe-
tended by the sides of the polygon,

double the number of sides.
joining
form a regular inscribed polygon of
409. Cor. 4. If tangents are drawn at the middle points of the arcs between adjacent points of contact of the sides of a regular cir-
cumscribed polygon, a regular circumscribed
polygon of double the

formed.
number
of
less
Scholium. The perimeter of an inscribed polygon is than the perimeter of the inscribed polygon of double the number of sides; for each pair of sides of the second polygon
410.
is
greater than the side of the
first
polygon which they replace
(137).
The perimeter of a circumscribed polygon is greater than the perimeter of the circumscribed polygon of double the number of sides for every alternate side FG, SI, etc., of the poly;
gon FOIII,
etc.,
scribed polygon
ABCD,
replaces portions of two sides of the circumand forms with them a triangle, and
is less
one side of a triangle
than the sum of the other two
sides.
214
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition IV.
411.
Theorem.
Two regular polygons of the are similar. sides
same numher of
Let Q and
n sides.
Q'
be two regular polygons, each having
To prove
Proof.
Q and
Q' similar polygons.
The sum
of the interior
A of each - 2) 2 rt. Zs, (n
polygon
is
equal to
205
{the
sum
of the interior
of a polygon is equal to 2 rt. times less 2 as the polygon has sides).
taken as
many
206
equal
Each angle
{for the
of either polygon
'-
>
of a regular polygon are all equal, and hence each divided by their number). to the sum of the
Z is
Hence the two polygons

Since
Q and
Q' are mutually equiangular.
AB = BC,
etc.,
and A'B'
= B'Q\ etc.,
eio.
395
AB'.A'B'-=-Ba', B'0\
Hence the two polygons have
their
homologous
sides
proportional.
Therefore the two polygons are similar.
^319
412,
numher of
Cor. The areas of two regular polygons of the same sides are to each other as the squares of any tivo
sides.
homologous
37G
CIRCLES.
215
Proposition V.
'
Theorem.
-413.
The perimeters of two regular polygons of the
same ninnber of
sides are to each otiier as the radii of their cireicmseribed circles, and also as the radii of their inscribed circles.
A M B
Let P and
P'
^M
M'
denote the perimeters,
and
Js
0'
the
centres, of the
two regular polygons.

O'A',
:
From
0, 0'
draw OA,
:
OB,
O'B',
and
OM,
O'M'.
To prove
Proof.
F P = OA
O'A'
= OM:
0'M\
411
Since the polygons are similar,
In
P:P = AB:A'B'. the isosceles A OAB and O'A^B' = the Z 0', the Z and OA -'OB = O'A' O'B'.
:
333
402
326 319
328
ratio as their bases).
.-.
the
A OAB and
AB AB
:
O'A'B' are
:
similar.
.-.
A'B'
Also
{the
= OA O'A', A'B' = OM: O'M',

same
homologous
altitudes of similar ^^ have the
.-.
F:F'=OA:
O'A'
= OM:
OM'.
Q. E, D.
414.
number of
Cor. The areas of two regular polygons of the same sides are to each other as the squares of the radii
of their circumscribed circles, radii of their inscribed circles.
and
also as the squares of the
376
216
PLANE GEOMETEY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition VI.
415.
Theorem.
eters of
The difference hetween the lengths of the perima regular inscribed polygon and of a similar circumscribed polygon is indefinitely diminished as
the
number of the sides of the polygons is
indefinitely
increased.
Let P and
AB and
A'B'
two corresponding
P' denote the lengths of the perimeters, sides, OA and OA' the
radii, of
the polygons.
is
To prove that as the number of the sides of the polygons ~ is indefinitely diminished. indefinitely increased, JP
Proof.
Since the polygons are similar,
F:P=OA':OA.
By
division,
413
Whence
F ~ P-. P= OA^ ~- OA: OA. ^^'~ ^^ i^ - P=Px

-
OA
Draw
In the
the radius
OC to
OA^C,
OA' ~ 00 < A'O,

two sides of a
the point of contact of
A^BK
137
(the difference between
A is
less
than the third
side).
Substituting
OA
for its equal
00,
OA'-~OA<A'0.
But
as the
number
of sides of the polygon
is
indefinitely
;
increased, the length of each side is indefinitely diminished that is, A'P\ and consequently A'G, is indefinitely diminished.

Therefore
CIRCLES.
is
217
indefkiitely
OA'OA,
and the
which
is less
than A'C,
,
diminished
fraction
OA
the denominator of
which But
is
the constant
OA,
is
Therefore P'
416.
P always
Cor.
remains
less
than the circumference.

q. e. d.
Pis
The
diffei-ence
between the areas of 'a regular

is
insc7'ibed
polygon and
of a similar circumsciihed polygon
indefinitely diminished as the num,her of the sides of the poly-
gons
is indefinitely increased.
if
For,
8 and
/S"
:
denote the areas of the polygons,
8'
8={6A'' Ol)
:
By
division, 8'
-8: 8=
= OA^ OCT. - OC' 0C\ 61^

:
414
Whence
Since
8'
- 8= 8x ^:i9^' = 8x^^
OC"
00"
can be indefinitely diminished by increasing the number of the sides, 6^ 8 can be indefinitely diminished.
A'C
417.
Scholium.
The perimeter P'

is
than P, and the area 8'

radius
constantly greater constantly greater than 8; for the
is
constantly greater than OA. But P' constantly constantly increases ( 410), and the area xS" decreases, and the area 8 constantly increases, as constantly the number of sides of the polygons is increased.
is
OA'
decreases and
Since the difference between
small as
since
we
please, but cannot be
P' and made

limit.
can be
made
as
P' is decreasing while P is P' and P tend towards a common
absolutely zero, and increasing, it is evident that
This
common
limit
is
the length of the circumfe7'ence. Also, since the difference between the areas
259
8* and
can be
made
zero,
as small as
we
is
please, but cannot be
made
absolutely
it is
and since 8'

limit
is
decreasing, while
is
increasing,
limit.
evident that 8' and
tend towards a
common
This
common
the area of the circle.
218
PLANE GEOMETRY.
Pkoposition VII.
BOOK
V.
Theorem.
418.
Two
circuimferences have the
same
ratio as
their radii.
Let C and
radii, of
C he the circumferences, the two circles Q and Q',

Q'.Q^=B:EK
R and
B'
the
To^rove
Proof,
Inscribe in the (D two similar regular polygons, and
denote their perimeters by
P and
;
F\
413) that is, Conceive the number of the sides of these similar regular polygons to be indefinitely increased, the polygons continuing
to
Then
F'.P = R:E'{%
B^xP^RxP.
have an equal number of
sides.
Then P' X
will
P will
continue equal to
PX
is,
P',
and
P and P
:
approach indefinitely
and
;
C as their respective limits.

C
:
.-.
P'xC^PxC' ( 260)
that
C^P
P\
Q. E. O.
Cor. The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is constant. For, in the above proportion, by doubling both terms of the ratio P', we have
419.
C:C' ^2P'.2P\
By
alternation,
C'.^P^C :2P\
is
Thi constant ratio
denoted by
tt,
so that for
(7,
any
circle
whose diameter
is
=
'IP
P and circumference
7r,
we have
or
tt is
0=27rP.
incommensurable, and there-
420.
Scholium. The
ratio
fore can be expressed in figures only approximately.
EEGULAE POLYGONS AND CIRCLES.
219
Proposition VIII.
421.
Theorem.
The area of a regular polygon is equal to onethe product of its apothem hy its periineter. half
Let P represent the perimeter, R the apothem, and S the area of the regular polygon ABC, etc.
To prove
Proof.
8=^RxP.
Draw OA, OB, OC,
is
etc.
The polygon The apothem

base.
divided into as
the
many
A as
"
it
has sides.
is
common
altitude of these
A,
by
tlie
and the area of each
A
the
is
equal to ^
^ multiplied
^
368
Hence the
the
are.* of all
is
equal to ^ i? multiplied by
sum
of aP. the bases.

of the areas of all the
But the sum

of the polygon,
A
is
is
equal to the area
and the sum of
all
the bases of the
equal to the perim-
eter of the polygon.
Therefore
/S'
4-
i2x P.
aE.
D.
422.
In different circles similar arcs, similar
sectors,
and
similar segments are such as correspond to equal angles at the centre.
220
PLANE GEOMETEY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition IX.
423.
Theorem.
The
area, of
its
eirele is
its
equal
to one-half the
product of
radius hy
circumference.
Let li represent the radius, G the circumference, and 8 the area, of the circle.
To prove
Proof.
8-=^RxC.
circle,
and denote
Circumscribe any regular polygon about the its perimeter by P.
Then the area
of this polygon
= ^Rx P,
and the area
421
Conceive the number of sides of the polygon to be indefithen the perimeter of the polygon approaches nitely increased
;
the circumference of the circle as
its limit,
of the
polygon approaches the circle as its limit. But the area of the polygon continues to be equal to onehalf the product of the radius by the perimeter, however great
the
number
of sides of the polygon.
Therefore
424.
^-ii^X a
260
Q. E. D.
of
its
The area of a sector equals one-half the product radius by its arc. For the sector is such a part of the
Cor.
1.
is
circle as its arc
of the circumference.
circle equals
ir
425.
Cor.
2.
The area of a
thnes the square
of
its
radius.
For the area of the
O -i
i?
X (7= -J ii? X
7ri2
= 'kE\
REGULAE POLYGONS AND CIRCLES.

426. Cor. 3.
221
othei' OjS the
The areas of two

For,
if
circles
are
to
each
squares of their radii. and i?' the radii,
8 and
/S"
denote the areas, and
427.
Cor.
4.
circumferences, are
Similar arcs, being like parts of their respective to each other as their radii ; similar sectors,
to
being like parts of their respective circles, are

the squares of their radii.
each other as
Proposition X.
Theorem.
428. The areas of two similar segments are to each other as the squares of their radii.
^
'
p'
seg-
Let AC andA'C be the radii of the two similar ments ABP and A'B'Ff.
To prove
Proof.
ABP
sectors
{having
A'B'F = AO' jJO^.

:
The
ACJ3 and A'O^B* are the A at the centre, C and (7,
similar,
equal).
422
In the
A ACB and A'C'B' /. C= A C\ A0= CB, and A'C = C'B\ Therefore the A ACB and A^C^B^ are similar.
sector
326 427 375
Now
and
A CB
sector
A^C^B^ =
Hence
That
is,
A ACB: A A'C'B* = sectov ACB - A ACB ÂC^^ sector A'C'B' - A A'C'B' JTQf^
:
AO" AJC^^\ AC' AJW',

:
ABF
A'B^F^
= AO'
AJG''.
222
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition XI.
429.
Problem.
circle.
To inscribe a square in a given

By-
^C
Let
To
be the centre of the given

a square in
the circle.
circle.
inscribe
Construction.
Draw
Join
the two diameters
AC
and
BD X
to
each other.
AB, BC, OD, and DA.

rt.
Then
Proof.
The
ABCD is the square required. A ABC, BCD, etc., are A,

sides
264
(being inscribed in a semicircle),
and the
{in the
AB, BC,
etc.,
are equal, a square.
230
same
equal arcs are subtended by equal chords).
Hence
430.
the figure
ABCD
is
171
Q. E. F.
Cor.
By
bisecting the arcs
AB, BC,
etc.,
a regular
"polygon of eight sides may be inscribed in the circle; and, by continuing the process, regular polygons of sixteen, thirty-two, sixty-four, etc., sides may be inscribed.
Ex. 376. The area of a circumscribed square

area of the inscribed square.
is
equal to twice the
Ex. 377. If the length of the
side of
an inscribed square
?
is
2 inches, /
what
is
the length of the circumscribed square
223
Proposition XII.
431.
Problem.
circle.
To inscribe a regular hexagon in a given
Let
be the centre of the given

circle
circle.
To inscribe in the given

Construction.
a regular hexagoyi.
radius, as OC.
From
draw any
From Cas a
OC,
describe an arc intersecting the circumference at F.
Draw Oi^ and CF.

Then
Proof.
CF is
a side of the regular hexagon required.
The
A OFC is equilateral and

Z FOG
is,
equiangular,
rt.
Hence the
of.
rt.
A, or | of 4
A.
138
And
the arc i^Cis
-J-
of the circumference
ABCF.
is
Therefore the chord FC, which subtends the arc FC, side of a regular hexagon
;
and the
figure
CFD,
is
etc.,
formed by applying the radius
six
p.
times as a chord,
432.
a regular hexagon.
q, e.
Cor.
1.
By
pining
the alternate voiices

circle.
A,
C,
D, an
equilaiei'al triangle is
inscribed in the
433.
Cor.
2.
JBy bisecting the arcs
AB, BC,
etc.,
a regular
polygon of twelve sides may be inscribed in the circle ; and, by continuing the process, regular polygons of twenty-four, fortyeight, etc., sides may be inscrihed.
224
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition XIII.
434.
Problem.
circle.
To inscribe a regular decagon in a given
n
Let
be the centre of the given circle.
circle.
To inscribe a regular decagon in the given

Construction.
Draw
it
the radius OC,
and divide
be to
in extreme
and mean
ratio, so that
OC shall
08 as 08 is to 80. From C as a centre, with
355
a radius equal to 08,
describe an arc intersecting the circumference at B, and
draw BC.
Then BO\s, a
Proof.
side of the regular decagon required.
Draw
B8 and
BO.
By
and
construction
00:08=08:80,
B0= 08.
00:B0=B0:80. Moreover, the Z OCB = Z 80B. Hence the A OCB and BC8 are similar,
.-.
Iden.
32G
{having an
of the one equal
of the other, proportional).

to
an
and
the including sides
But the
{its sides
.'.
A OCB is isosceles,
being radii of the same
circle).
OC and OB
BC8, which is similar and CB =
to the
A OCB,
is
isosceles,
B8=08.
.-.
225
A SOB is isosceles, and the Z O = Z 8B0. Buttheext.Z CSBÂ 0^- /. 8B0 = 2Z 0. 145 Z 8CB (= Z C8B) = 2 Z 0, Hence 154 Z 0B0(= Z 8CB) = 2 Z 0. and 154 = 2 A, the sum of the A of the A OCB = 5 Z - of 2 zi, or J^ of 4 A. Z and
the
.
.-.
rt.
-J
rt.
rt.
Therefore the arc -5(7
is
-^^ of
the circumference,
and the chord BCis a
side of a jregular inscribed decagon.
Hence, to inscribe a regular decagon, divide the radius in extreme and mean ratio, and apply the greater segment ten times as a chord.
aE.
435.
F.
Cor.
1.
By joining
By
inscribed decagon,
436.
a regular pentagon
the alteimate vertices of is inscribed.
a regulm
bisecting the arcs BC, CF, etc., a regular sides be inscribed; and, by continuing polygon of twenty the process, regular polygons offorty, eighty, etc., sides be
Cor.
2.
may
may
inscribed.
denote the radius of a regular inscribed polygon, r the apothem, Let a one side, A an interior angle, and C the angle at the centre show that
;
Ex. 378. In a regular inscribed triangle
a = E Vs, r='Ê, A = 60,
(7=120.
Ex.379. In an inscribed square a==Ry/2, r

C'=90*.
= lRy/2,
k = 90,
\
Ex. 380. In a regular inscribed hexagon \L = ^7=60.

Ex. 381. In a regular inscribed decagon
'
R,r-=hR Vs, ^ = 1 20
^^
,^^ ig(V5-l)
= ii2VioT2v^ ^ =
144,
C= 36.
226
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition XIV.
^
Problem.
437. To inscribe in a given circle a regular pentedecagon, or polygon of fifteen sides.
F
Let Q be the given
To inscribe in
Construction.
circle.
a regular pentedecagron.
-E'ZT equal to a side of a regular inscribed
Draw
hexagon,
431
and
-E'i^ equal to
a side of a regular inscribed decagon. 434

Join
FH.
Then FIT will be a

Proof.
side of a regular inscribed pentedecagon.
The
arc
UIT is ^
of the circumference, of the circumference.
and the arc
UF
-J-
is
-^
Hence the
arc
FJI is
is
^^,
or -^, of the circumference,
and the chord FIT

decagon.
a side of a regular inscribed pente-
By
applying
FIT
fifteen times as a
chord,
we have
the
polygon required.
438.
aE. F.
Cor. J5^ bisecting the arcs FJI,
HA,
etc.,
a regular
polygon of thirty sides

etc., sides,
may
be inscribed; and, by continuing
the process, regular polygons of sixty, one may be inscribed.
hundred and twenty
227
Proposition
XV.
Problem.
439. To inscribe in a given circle a regular polygon similar to a given regular polygon.
Let ABCD,
C'D'E' the
etc.,
be the given regular polygon, and
given
circle.
circle
To inscribe in the
etc.
a regular polygon similar
to
ABCD,
Oonstniction.
From
0, the centre of the given polygon,
draw
OD and
OC.
From 0\
the centre of the given circle,
draw aC^ and
making the
aD\ Z a = /. 0.
polygon required.
Draw C'D\
Then
Proof.
C'Z)' will be a side of the regular
Each polygon
will
{= /.
gon
0') is contained times in
have as many sides as the 4 rt. A.

etc., is
Therefoi%vthe polygon
C^DÊ\
similar to the poly
CDE,
{tvjo
etc.,
411
regular polygons of the same
number of sides are
similar).
228
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition XYI.
Problem.
440. Given the radius and the side of a regular inscribed polygon, to find the side of the regular inscribed polygon of double the number of sides.
LetAB be a side of the regular inscribed polygon. To find the value of AD, a side of a regular inscribed polygon of double
the
number of sides.
its
D draw i)^ through the centre O, and draw OA, AH. DHi^ to AB at middle point C. 123 W==OT-AC\ 339 Inthert.AOâ
From
That
is,
00= yôT-AC".
AC=:ÂB',
0(7=
hence
But
Therefore,
V^
A&' = \-AW''.
\AB\
264 334
In the rt.A
DAH,
and
If
for
AD^^^DHxDC = 2 0A(0A-0C), AB = V20A(iOA- 00).

we denote
the radius by B, and substitute
/K
'\/
R^
XAS
00. then
AB
'^2B(B--^B'-iAB')
iff^
.
= ^B(2R- ^'fB'-AB')
Q.E.F.
PROBLEMS OF COMPUTATION.
Proposition XVII.
441.
229
Problem.
circle to its
To compute the ratio of the circumference of a diameter approximately.
Let C be the circumference, and E the radius.

To find the numet-ical
Therefore
valice qfir.
when
27ri^=^Hdb| -^^^Pl^^ C.
We make
formula obtained in the
the following computatrons by the use of the last proposition, when i? 1, and
AB=^\
No.
Bides,
(a side of a regular hexagon).

Form
of Computation.
Length of Side.
Length of Perimeter
12
c,
24
48 96 192
c, C3
V2-V4^rp - (0.51763809/
0.51763809
6.21165708
0.26105238
6.26525722
6.27870041
= V2 V4V4-(0.26105238)^
-^.13080626
C4=v 2- V4-(0.13080626f-i 0.06533817
6.28206396
6.28290510
6.28311544
6.28316941
= V2 - V4 - (0.0654381^7 ^5
C6=V2-V4 -(0.0327234^^7
0.03272346
384
0.01636228
0.00818121
768 c,= V2-V4-(0.0163622l7
Hence we may consider 6.28317

cumference of a
as approximately the cir-
whose radius
is
unity.
Therefore TT-^ i (6.28317)

442.
= 3.14159 nearly.
generally take
q.e.f.
Scholium. In
practice,
we
1
3.1416,
0.31831.
230
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Maxima and Minima.

443.
Supplementary.
same kind, that which
is
is
Among magnitudes
is
of the
greatest
the
maximum, and
that which
smallest
is
the
mAnimûm.
Thus the diameter
of a circle
;
is
the
maximum among
all
inscribed straight lines
among
444.
all straight lines
and a perpendicular is the minimum drawn from a point to a given line.

figures
Isoperimetric figures are
which have equal
perimeters.
Proposition XVIII.
Theorem.
445. Of all triangles having two given sides, that in which these sides include a right angle is the
ma^vlTnum.
A
E
]\
Let the triangles ABC and EBC have the sides AB and BC equal respectively to EB and BC ; and let the
angle
ABC
be a right angle.
To prove
Proof.
A ABC > A EBC.

From
E let
fall
the
Jl,
ED.
The
A ABC ^ndi
EBC,
each other as their altitudes
Now
By
bypotbesis,
AB EB > ED. EB = AB. AB > ED. :.AABC>AEBQ.

.-.
having the same base BC, are to and ED. 370
114
q.e.d.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
231
Proposition XIX.
446.
Theorem.
Of all triangles having the same base and equal

tJie isosceles
perimeters,
triangle is the
maximum.
Let the
let the
ACB and ADB have equal perimeters, and A ACB be isosceles.

S^,
To prove
Proof.
AACB>AADB.
AG to
H, making 021= AC, and
join
Produce
IIB.
circle
ABIIiti a right angle, for it will be inscribed whose centre is C, and radius CA.
Produce ITB, and take
in the semi-
BF= DB.
join
Draw CA'and
But
DM
II
to
AB, and
AP.
Now AII= AC-\- CB - AJ)+ DB = AD-\- I)R
AB+ I)P>AP, hence AH> AP. Therefore HB > BP. But KB = HB and MB = BP. Hence KB> MB.
h
120
121
A ACB &ud ABB.

Therefore
By
180,
KB=-CE
and
MB=^DF,
the altitudes of the
A ABC> A ABB.
370
D
Q. E.
232
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition XX.
Theorem.
447. Of all polygons with sides all given hut one, the -majcimuryv can he inscribed in a semicircle which has the undetermined side for its diameter,
-^
Let ABODE be the maximum of polygons with sides AD, BC\ CD, DE, and the extremities A and E on the straight line MN.
To prove
Proof.
ABCDE can he inscribed in a semicircle.
vertex, as (7, draw CA and CE. must be the maximum of all having the given sides CA and CE', otherwise, by increasing or diminishing the /. ACE, keeping the sides CA and CE unchanged, but along the line MN, we can sliding the extremities A and
From any
The
A ACE
increase the
the rest of the polygon will remain and therefore increase the polygon. unchanged, But this is contrary to the hypothesis that the polygon is
A ACE, while
the
maximum
polygon.
Hence the maximum.

{ihe,
A J. (7^ with the

of A
given sides
CA
and
CE
is
the
Therefore the
Z ACE is
a right angle,
maximum
having two given sides is the including a rt, Z).
445 with the two given sides
Therefore Clies on the semi-circumference.
264
Hence
maximum polygon
undetermined side
every vertex lies on the circumference that is, the can be inscribed in a semicircle having the
;
for a diameter.
ae a
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
233
Proposition XXI.
448.
Theorem.
Of
van he inscribed in a
all polygons with given sides, that circle is the Tnaximum.
which
Let ABODE be a polygon inscribed
in a circle,
and
A'B'C'D'E' be a polygon, equilateral with respect to ABCDEf which cannot be inscribed in a circle.
To prove
Proof.
ABODE greater than A''C'D'E\

Draw
the diameter AIT.
Join Ofi'and BIT.
Upon
CD' (= CD)
construct the
A C'lT'B' - A
CHI),
and draw A' IP.
Now
and
{oj all
ABCH> A'B^C'H\
447
AEDH> A'E'D'W,
polygons with sides all given but one, the maximum can be inscribed in a semicircle having the undetermined side for its diameter).
Add
these
two
inequalities, then
ABCHDE > A'B'C'II'B'E\

Take away from the two
figures the equal
A CUB and C'H'B'.

cle.d.
Then
ABCBE> A'B'C'B'E\
234
PLANE GEOMETRY.
Proposition XXII.
BOOK
V.
Theorem.
449.
Of isoperimetric polygons of the same number
of
sides, the
maximûm
is
equilateral.
Let ABCD, etc., be the maximum of isoperimetric polygons of any given number of sides. To prove AB, BC, CD, etc., equal. Draw ^(7. Proof. The A ABC m\x^t be the maximum of all the A which are formed upon ^(7 with a perimeter equal to that of A ABC
A ABC,
gon
could be substituted for Otherwise, a greater without changing the perimeter of the polygon. But this is inconsistent with the hypothesis that the poly-
A AKC
ABCD,
A
etc., is
.-.
the
the
maximum
A ABC IB isosceles,
isosceles
polygon.
446
the
{of all
having the same base and equal perimeters, the

it
is
In like manner
450.
may
maximum). be proved that
BC= CD,
etc.
q.e.
d.
The TnaximuTn of isoperimehîc polygons same number of sides is a regular polygon.

Cor.
For,
{the
of the
it is
equilateral,
449
is
maximum
of isoperimetric polygons of the same

equilateral).
number
of sides
{the
Also it can be inscribed in a circle, 448 maximum of all polygons formed of given sides can be inscribed in a O). That is, it is equilateral and equiangular, and therefore regular. 395
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
235
Pkoposition XXIII.
451.
Theorem.
polygons, that which is the maxunum,
Of isoperimetric regular
has the greatest number of sides O
Let Q be a regular polygon of three sides, and Q' a regular polygon of four sides, and let the two polygons have equal perimeters.
To prove
Proof.
Q' greate)' than Q.
Draw
at
CD
from Cto any point in
AB.
Invert the
ting
A CDA
(7,
D fall
and place it Cat B, and A at
in the position
DCU,
let-
The polygon DBCE is an irregular polygon of four sides, which by construction has the same perimeter as Q\ and the same area as Q. Then the irregular polygon DBCE of four sides is less than
of four sides. the regular isoperimetric polygon 450 is less than a regular In like manner it may be shown that
isoperimetric polygon of five sides,

452. Cor. The area of a
and
so on.
q. e, d.
circle is greater
than the area of
any polygon of equal perimeter.

\382. Of all equivalent parallelograms having equal bases, the rectangle has the least perimeter.
'^383.
Of
all
rectangles
of a
given area, the square has the least
perimeter.
^384. Of all triangles upon the same base, tude, the isosceles has the least perimeter.
and having the same
alti-
^^^^85. To divide a straight shall be a maximum.
line into
two parts such that
their product
236
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Proposition
XXIV.
Theoeem.
453. Of regular -polyions having a given area, that which has the greatest number of sides has the least
perimeter.
Q'
area,
Let Q and Q' be regular polygons having the same and let Q' have the greater number of sides.
To prove the perimeter of
Proof.
Q greater
than the perimeter of Q\
eter as
Let Q" be a regular polygon having the same perimQ\ and the same number of sides as Q.
Then
Q>
Q\
451
of
{of isoperimetric regular polygons, that which has the greatest sides is the maximum).
number
But
.-.
Q=Q'. Q > Q".
.'.
the perimeter oi
Q> the perimeter of Q".

Cons.
But the perimeter

.'.
= the perimeter of Q". the perimeter oi Q > that of Q'.

of Q'
circle
is
454.
Cor.
The circumference of a
less
than the
perimeter of any polygon of equal area.
386.
To
a rectangle having the

'
inscribe in a semicircle a rectangle having a given area maximum area.
^^387. To
find a point in a semi-circumference such that the
distances from the extremities of the diameter shall be a
sum of maximum.
its
EXERCISES.
237
Theorems.
388. The side of a circumscribed equilateral triangle is equal to twice the side of the similar inscribed triangle. Find the ratio of their areas. 389.
The apothem of an inscribed equilateral triangle
is
equal to half
the radius of the circle.

390. The apothem of an inscribed regular hexagon the side of the inscribed equilateral triangle. 391. The area of an inscribed regular hexagon fourths of that of the circumscribed regular hexagon.
is is
equal to half
equal to three-
392. The area of an inscribed regular hexagon is a mean proportional between the areas of the inscribed and the circumscribed equilateral
triangles.
393. The area of an inscribed regular octagon is equal to that of a rectangle whose sides are equal to the sides of the inscribed and the cir-
cumscribed squares. 394. The area of an inscribed regular dodecagon

times the square of the radius.
395.
lar if
it
is
equal to three
Every
equilateral polygon circumscribed about a circle

sides.
is
is
regu-'
has an odd number of
396. Every equiangular polygon inscribed in a circle has an odd number of sides.
regular
if it
397.
Every equiangular polygon circumscribed about a
circle
is
regular.
398. Upon the six sides of a regular hexagon squares are constructed outwardly. J rove that the exterior vertices of these squares are the vertices of a regular dodecagon.
vertices of a regular hexagon are joined by straight that another regular hexagon is thereby formed.- Find the ratio of the areas of the two hexagons.
399.
The alternate
lines.
Vrove
400.
tional between
The radius of an inscribed regular polygon is the mean proporits apothem and the radius of the similar circumscribed
regular polygon.
401.
The area of a
is
diameter
402.
to the
circular ring is equal to that of a circle whose a chord of the outer circle and a tangent to the inner circle.
side of
The square of the
an inscribed regular pentagon
is
equal
sum
of the squares of the radius of the circle
and the
side of the
inscribed regular decagon.
238
If
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
_
V.
R denotes the radius of a circle, and a one side of a regular inscribed

:
polygon, show that

403.
In a regular pentagon, a In a regular octagon,
= R
-y
]ô
2 VS.
404,
= R "^2
=-
\/2.
405.
In a regular dodecagon, a
v2-^\/l.
406. If on the legs of a right triangle, as diameters, semicircles are described external to the triangle, and from the whole figure a semicircle on the hypotenuse is subtracted, the remainder is equivalent to the given
triangle.
407.
The radius
of a circle
== r.
Find one
side of the circumscribed
408.
The radius of a
circle
= r.
is r,
Find one
side of the circumscribed
regular hexagon.
409.
If the radius of a circle
is
and the
side of
an inscribed regular
polygon
)olygon
a,
show that the
side of the similar circumscribed regular
is
equal to
2ar
"MIO. The radius of a

regular octagon
is
circle
= r.
Prove that the area of the inscribed
equal to 2r^\/2.
feet,
^411. The sides of three regular octagons are 3
feet,
and 5
feet,
Find the side of a regular octagon equal in area to the respectively. sum of the areas of the three given octagons. ^v^
the width of the ring between two concentric circumferences whose lengths are 440 feet and 330 feet ? ^ ""
is
M12. What
O'
^-413.
Find the angle subtended at the centre by an arc 6

the radius of the circle
is
feet 5 inches
long,
if
8 feet 2 inches.
-W* "t
\414.
Find
the'
is
whose length
415.
angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal to the radius of the circle. 6"'^*
X^r
the length of the arc subtended by one side of a regular/ dodecagon inscribed in a circle whose radius is 14 feet? 'V-,V^ '%^'t |*'
is
What
v416.
Find the
side of a square equivalent to a circle
whose radius
is
56 feet
ff.lfjt:,^
EXERCISES.
^417. Find the area of a circle
square
M:18.
feet. / 3'
239
in a square containing 196
^ ,9 ^ ^
insrfrijbed
^^
^/ f^^ ^
cir
of a circular grass plot is 28 feet. Find the diam"* eter of a circular plot just twice as large. /-"^ _j ^
The diameter
Find the side of the largest square that can be cut out of a cular piece of wood whose radius is 1 foot 8 inches. ^ I "^ t'
*419.
M20. The radius of a

times as kirge
-421.
?
circle is 3 feet.
1
"What
?
-.
is
thejfadius of a circle 25
^ as large
-^z^
is
large
feet.
^^%)
are the radii of the con-
The
radius of a circle
What
centric circumferences that will divide the circle into three equivalent
parts?
X.l"
o^^^^J^
^>^-
is 12 feet, and the radius of the circle is Find the height of the arc. 423. The chord of an arc is 24 inches, and the height of the arc is.-9 inches. Find the diameter of the circle.
^422. The chord of half an arc

feet.
18
424. Find the area of a sector, if the radius of the circle is 28 feet, and the angle at the centre 22^. 425. The radius of a circle = r. Find the area of the segment subtended by one side of the inscribed regular hexagon.
426.
If the
Three equal
radius
circles are described,

is r,
each touching the other two.
common
find the area contained
between the
circles.
Problems.
To circumscribe about a given
427.
428.
circle
:
An
429.
square.
430.
A A
regular hexagon.
regular octagon.
431. Todraw through a given point a line so that it shall divide a given circumference into two parts having the ratio 3 7.
:
432.
To construct a circumference equal
to the
sum
of
two given
circles.
circumferences.
433.
To construct a To construct a
To construct a
circle
equivalent to the
sum
of
two given
a given
434.
circle
circle
equivalent to three times
circle.
circle.
435.
equivalent to three-fourths of a given

:
436.
To divide a given circle by a concentric circumference Into two equivalent parts. 437. Into five equivalent
parts.
240
plane geometry.
book
v.
Miscellaneous Exercises.
Theorems.
438.
The
extreroities of the base of
line joining the feet of the perpendiculars dropped from the an isosceles triangle to the opposite sides is
parallel to the base.
439.
If
exterior angle
440.
AD bisect the angle J. of a triangle ABC, and BD bisect the CBF, then angle ADB equals one-half angle ACB.
is
The sum The

The
pointed star)
441.
442.
of the acute angles at the vertices of a pentagram equal to two right angles.
(five-
bisectors of the angles of a parallelogram form a rectangle.
altitudes
AD, BE, QF of the

AB, BC,
triangle
ABC bisect the
angles
of the triangle DEF. Hint. Circles with
^C as
diameters will pass through
E and
cir-
D,
E and
443.
F,
D and
F, respectively.
line intercepted
The portions of any straight
between the
cumferences of two concentric circles are equal.

of the 444. Two circles are tangent internally at P, and a chord Prove that PC bisects the larger circle touches the smaller circle at C.
AB
angle
Hint.
445.
APB. Draw
common tangent
at P,
and apply
^ 263, 269, 145.
The diagonals
of a trapezoid divide each other into segments
vertices of a triangle upon the opposite sides divide each other into segments reciprocally proportional.
which are proportional. 446. The perpendiculars from two
in the circumference of a circle two chords 447. If through a point are drawn, the chords and the segments between and a chord parallel are reciprocally proportional. to the tangent at
448.
The perpendicular from any point

a
of a circumference
upon a
proportional between the perpendiculars from the same point upon the tangents drawn at the extremities of the chord.
chord
is
mean
449. In an isosceles right triangle either leg is a mean proportional between the hypotenuse and the perpendicular upon it from the vertex
of the right angle.

450.
eter
The area of a triangle is equal to half the product of by the radius of the inscribed circle.
its
perim-
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.
241
451. The perimeter of a triangle is to one side as the perpendicular from the opposite vertex is to the radius of the inscribed circle. 452.
equilateral polygon
453.
The sum of the perpendiculars from any point within a convex upon the sides is constant.
diameter of a circle
is
divided into any two parts, and upon
these parts as diameters semi-circumferences are described on opposite sides of the given diameter. Prove that the sum of their lengths is equal
to the semi-circumference of the given circle,
circle into
and that they divide the two parts whose areas have the same ratio as the two parts
is
into
which the diameter
divided.
Lines drawn from one vertex of a parallelogram to the middle points of the opposite sides trisect one of the diagonals.
454. 455.
If
two
circles intersect in the points

is
any secant
CAD
drawn
limited
A and B, and through A by the circumferences at C and D, the
straight lines BO,
BD,
are to each other as the diameters of the circles.
456. If three straight lines BB^, CC\ drawn from the vertices to the opposite sides, pass through a common point of a triangle within the triangle, then
AA\
OB' BB'
ABC
OA'
PC ^.
CC^
AA'
'
457. Two diagonals of a regular pentagon, not drawn from a vertex, divide each other in extreme and mean ratio.
common
Loci.
458.
points
Find the locus of a point P whose distances from two given and B are in a given ratio (m n).
:
any straight line cumference of a fixed circle ; in

is
459.
OP
drawn from a
point
fixed point
to the cir-
OP a
is
taken such that
OQ: OP
is
constant.
460.
Find the locus of

a fixed point
Q.
From
a straight line
^P
is
drawn
to
any point
ratio
in a
given straight line CD, and then divided at
in a given
(m
n).
Find the locus of the point P.
461.
lines are in a given ratio.
Find the locus of a point whose distances from two given straight (The locus consists of two straight lines.)
462.
Find the locus of a point the sum of whose distances from two
is
given straight lines
equal to a given length
k.
(See Ex. 73.)
242
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
Problems.
463. Given the perimeters of a regular inscribed and a similar circumscribed polygon, to compute the perimeters of the regular inscribed and circumscribed polygons of double the number of sides. 464.
To draw a tangent
to a given circle such that the
segment
inter-
cepted between the point of contact and a given straight line shall have a given length.
To draw a straight line equidistant from three given points. To inscribe a straight line of given length between two given circumferences and parallel to a given straight line. (See Ex. 137.)
465. 466.
467.
tances from
To draw through a given point a straight line so that its distwo other given points shall be in a given ratio (m n). Hint. Divide the line joining the two other points in the given ratio.
:
468.
Construct a square equivalent to the
sum
of a given triangle
and a given parallelogram.

469.
altitude equal to a given line,
Construct a rectangle having the difference of its base and and its area equivalent to the sum of a
Construct a pentagon similar to a given pentagon and equiva-
given triangle and a given pentagon.

470.
lent to a given trapezoid.
471.
To
find a point
shall be as the
whose distances from three given straight numbers m, n, and p. (See Ex. 461.)
circles intersecting at the
lines
472. Given
two
a secant
B AC such that AB shall
be
to
ACin
point A. To draw through a given ratio (m n).

:
Hint. Divide the line of centres in the given

473.
ratio.
To construct a
triangle, given its angles
and
its
area.
474.
To construct an equilateral triangle having a given area. 475. To divide a given triangle into two equal parts by a line drawn
parallel to one of the sides.
To find a fourth point 476. Given three points A, B, C. the areas of the triangles AFB, APC, BFC, shall be equal.
477.
sides,
P such
.
that
To construct a triangle, given and the angle included by them.

To divide a given
circle into
its
base, the ratio of the other
478.
any number of equivalent parts by

circles
concentric circumferences.
479. In a given equilateral triangle, to inscribe three equal tangent to each other and to the sides of the triangle.
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
LINES AND PLANES IN SPACE.

Definitions.
455.
that a straight line joining in the surface.
plane has already been defined as a surface such any two points in it lies wholly
is
A
eral
plane
considered to be indefinite in extent, so that

usually represented by a quadrilat-
however
far the straight line is produced, all its points lie in

;
the plane
but a plane
is
supposed
to lie in the plane.

is
456.
A plane
said to be determined
by
lines or points, if
no other plane can contain these lines or points without being coincident with that plane.
457.
in
it
as an axis,
plane can be n\ade to turn about any straight line and be made to
choose.
assume as many different positions as
we
Hence
it
is
evident that a plane is not determined by a straight line.
-^^^~~^
'
>
y
through
all
/
N
points of space.
line
In making a complete revolution about a straight line as an

axis the plane passes successively
458.
plane
line.
is
determined by a straight
and a
point
without that
244
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
i^^
VI.
If a plane containing the straight line

this line as an axis until it con-
AB
revolve about
tains the point C, the plane
is
determined.
revolve either
line
For
if
AB as an
way about
the plane the
'
''^
axis, it will cease to contain the
point
C.
459.
For,
line
Three points not in a straight line determine a plane. by joining any two of the points we have a straight and a point without it, and these determine a plane. 458
Two intersecting straight lines determine a plane. For, a plane containing one of these straight lines and any point of the other line in addition to the point of intersection
460.
is
determined.
461.
lines-
458
Two parallel straight
determine a plane.
two parallel straight lines lie in tjoje- same ;glane, and a plane containing either of these parallels and any point in the other is determined. 458
For,
462.
A
;
straight line
pendicular to
its foot
every straight line of the plane

is,
that
a plane if it is perdrawn through" the point where it meets the plane. through
is
perpendicular
to
In this case the plane

463.
is
perpendicular to the
line.
line is ohlique to
a plane
if it is
not perpendicular
its foot.
to all straight lines
drawn
in the plane
through
464. The distance from a point to a plane dicular distance from the point to the plane. 465.
is
the perpen-
line is parallel to
a plane
if it
cannot meet the plane
however
far
both are produced.

is
In this case the plane
parallel to the line.
466. Two plfines are parallel if they cannot far they are produced.
meet however
LINES AND PLANES IN SPACE.

467.
245
The
projection of
a point on a plane
to
is
the foot of the
perpendicular from the point

plane.
468.
the
The
is
plane
469.
projection of a line on a the locus of the projections of
all its points.
/^
is
î
The angle which a
with a plane on the plane.

470.
makes '^ the angle which it makes with

line
its
projection
The
intersection of two
to the
planes
is
the locus of
all
the
points
common
two planes.
I.
Proposition
471. is
Theorem.
If two planes cut each other, their intersection

line.
a straight
Let MN and PQ be two planes which cut one another.

Proof.
To prove their intersection a straight line. Let A and be two points common to the two planes. Draw a straight line through the points A and B.
Since the points
and
are
common
to the
two planes,
this straight line lies in
both planes. 455 No point out of this line can be in both planes for only one plane can contain a straight line and a point without the line. Therefore the straight line through and is the locus of
;
all
the points
common
to the
two planes, and
is
consequently
q. e. o.
the intersection of the planes ( 470).
246
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VI.
Perpendicular Lines and Planes.

Proposition
472.
II.
Theorem.
straight line is perpendicular to each of two other straight lines at their point of intersection,
it is
If a
perpendicular to the plane of the two
lines.
\1'
Let AB be perpendicular
To prove
Proof.
to
BG and BD
at B.
these lines.
A B perpendicular
cutting
jP,
to
the
plane MN of
at C,
Through
B draw in MJV any other

0, BE, BD,
making
straight line
BE,
and draw
CD
to Prolong each of the points and Since
AB
BF= AB,
AF
E, and D. and join A and i^to

its
C,
E, and D.
each J_ to
a>i
BO
BD are
\.AC=='FC2.xid.AD = FD.
.-.
middle point,
122
A ACD = A FCD ( 160), and hence Z ACDÂ FCD. Now in the A ACE and FCE AC= EC, CE= CE, and Z ACE=- Z FCE. A AOE^- A FCE 150), and hence AE= FE. BEis to AF at B. 123
.-.
("^
.'.
Hence î? is _L to BE, any, that is, drawn in through B, and therefore is
MN
every, straight line
to MN.
462
E, D.
PERPENDICULAR LINES AND PLANES.
247
Proposition
473.
III.
Theorem.
Every perpendicular that can he draivn to a straight line at a given point lies in a plane perpendicular to the line at the given point.
Let the plane

the
MN be perpendicular
to
to
AB
at B.
To prove that BE,, any perpendicidar

plane
AB
at
B,
lies
in
MN.
Let the plane containing is BE' then to
;
in the line
AB and BE intersect MN M^\ 462 Since in the-piftne ABE only one JL can be drawn to AB atB ( 89), BE and BE^ coincide, and BE lies in MN Hence every JL to ^^ at ^ lies in the plane MN. At a given point' m a straight line one plane 474. Cor.
Proof,
AB
Q. E. D.
1.
perpendicular to the line can he drawn, and only one. 475. Cor, 2. Through a given point without a straight
one plane can he
the line,
line,
drawn perpendicular
one.
line,
to
and only
be the
it.
Let
^C
and
the point
In the plane OCA draw 00 JL to ^C, .and in another plane containwithout

ing
^C draw CD 1. to AC 2X C Then determine a plane X to AC. x X to AC and passing through cuts the plane Every plane OCA in a line to AC and containing 0. This coincides, But then, with 00, and every such plane is Jl to AC &t C.
CO and CD
to only one plane can be plane can be drawn from
^Cat C(
474).
0.
Hence only one
X to AC
a.t
248
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Proposition IV.
476.
Theorem.
he
drawn
Through a given point one perpendicular can to a given plane, and only one.
Fig.
1.
...........____
Fig.
2.
Case
I.
When
the given point is in the given plane.
Let A be the given point
in the
plane
MN (Fig.
to
1).
MN
A
To prove that one perpendicular can be erected at A, and only one.
the
plane
Proof.
DEHK 1. to BC, and cutting MN'ixi DE. At A erect in the plane DESK a line AF to DE.
a plane
Draw in JfiVany line
-SCthrougli A, and pass through
The
is
line
EC, being
J. to the plane
DEHKhj construction,
the plane.
-L to
î^ which
is,
passes through
its foot in
it is
462
struction,
is
to DE by conJL to BC\ and as X to the plane MN. 472 Moreover, every other line AG drawn from A, oblique to MN. For îând AG intersecting in A determine a plane DEHK, which cuts MN'm the straight line DE; and as AF X to MN, X to DE ( 462) hence AG oblique to DE ( 89), and therefore to MN {^ 463). Therefore ^îs the only X to ifiV at the point A.
That
AF
is
it is
is
it is
i^

Case
II.
249
'plane.
When
the given point
is
without the given
Let A be the given point,
and MN
the plane.
To prove that one perpendicular can be drawn from
to
MN,
plane
and only
one. in
Proof.
Draw
JL to
FQ
3IN any line UK, and pass through A HK, cutting MN m FG, and ^în C.
Let
fall
from A, in the plane FQ, a J_

plane
Draw
in the
MNa.nj
AB upon FO. other line F from F.
Prolong
A to
E, making
F= AB,
(7
and
Since
in
join
is
and
F to each of the points
and F.
FC
the
rt.
FQ,
A FCA
X to FQ by construction, and CA and FCF are right angles.

and
and
CF lie
462
In the
A FCA
FCF,
and
FCis common,
.-.
CA =
CF.
122
A FCA = A FCE (S
.'.
151),
and hence
FA = FE.
BF
is
J. to
AE at B.
line
123
That
through
is,
AB
is
its foot,
_L to BF, any straight and therefore _L to MN.

line
drawn
in
MN
FQ which cuts the plane MN in _L to FG ( 462). being to the plane MN,

is /ie
oblique to
Moreover, every other straight MN. For the lines
AF and
to
AI, drawn from A, is ^/determine a plane the line FG. The line AB
Therefore
oblique to
FQ, and consequently
MN
Al
(^ 463). to
Therefore
AB
is
the only
X from A
MN.
Q. E. O.
477.
to
Cor. The perpendicular

it is
is
the shortestMne from

to
a point
a plane, for
the shortest
lihefrom the point

its
any straight
line of the
plane passing through
foot ( 114).
250
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Proposition V.
Theorem.
478. Oblique lines drawn fi'om a point to a -plane, and meeting the plane at equal distances from the foot of the perpendicular, are equal; and of two ob.
lique lines meeting the plane at unequal distances from the foot of the perpendicular the more remote is the greater.
Let AC and AD cut off the equal distances BC and BD from the foot of the perpendicular AB, and let AD and AE cut off the unequal distances BD and BE, and BE be greater than BD.
To prove
Proof.
BC= BD
The
AB, and The right ^^(7 and by hypothesis.
A0= A
AE> AD.
AC =^ AD.
Q. E. D.
ABD have AB common, and
right A ^^^, ^^(7 have AB common, and^^> BC.
Therefore they are equal, and
Therefore
479.
AE> AC (^ 119), and hence AE>AD.

Equal
oblique lines
Cor.
1.
from a point
to
a plane
vieet the
plane at equal distances from the foot of the perpen-
dicular ; and of two unequal oblique lines the greater m.eets the plane at the greater distance from the foot of the perpendicular. 480. Cor. 2. The locus of a point in space equidistant from
all points in the circumference of
circle is
ing through the centre

circle.
and perpendicular
to
straight line passthe plane of the

Proposition VI.
481.
251
Theorem.
to
If from the foot of a perpendicular

line is
drawn at right arvgles in the plane, the line drawn from its with the line in the plane to any point
a straight
pendicular
is
to
a plane any line
intersection
perpendicular
to
of t,ê perthe line of the plane.
252
SOLID GEOMETRY.
Proposition VII.
BOOK
VI.
Theorem.
483.
Two
straight lines perpendicular to the
same
plane are parallel.
Let AB and CD ha perpendicular To prove AB and CD parallel.

Proof.
tliroiigh
to
MN.
Let
D draw
be any point in
AB\
îîn the plane 3IN JL Then CD is to
join to
AD and
BD.
BD, and
462 481
ER
to
Also,
AD to
is
EF.
Therefore CD,
the same plane. Therefore
AD, and BD,
being _L
EF at
;
D,
lie
in
473
hypothesis, they are

484.
AB and CD lie in the same plane and since, by to MN, they are _L to BD. 462 Therefore AB and CD are parallel.
q. e. d.
Cor.
1.
If one of two parallel lines

is
is
perpendicular
to
a plane, the other

For,
if
AB and CD are
II
also perpendicular
II,
to
is
and
AB
the plane. to the plane
MN,
and
II
through any point to to MN, it will be
if
of
CD a line is drawn
( 483).
AB
Since
through the point

to
AB (
only one line can be drawn 101), CD will coincide with this J.
and be
^>
J_ to
MN.
485. Cor. 2. If two straight lines
AB and EF
and EF,
are parallel to a third line CD, they are parallel JL to CD, is J_ to each other. For, a plane
MN
AB and î^(484). Hence AB being to MN, are parallel ( 483).

to
parallel lines and planes.
Parallel Lines and Planes.

Proposition VIII.
Theorem.
486. // two straight lines are parallel, every plane containing one of the lines, and only one, is parallel to the other line.
Let AB and CD be two parallel plane containing CD and not AB.

To prove
Proof.
lines,
and
MN
any
AB and 3Nparallel. The lines AB and CD are in the same plane A BCD,
MNin the' line
AD,
it
which
intersects the plane
CD.
Since
if
AB
is
in the plane
must meet the plane

;
MN,
is,
in a point common to the two planes But since a point of their intersection CD.
at
all,
that
is
II
in
AB
to
CD,
it
cannot meet CD.
Therefore
to
AB
cannot meet the plane

q. e. d.
MN,
and hence
Cor.
1.
is
II
MN.
Through a given straight line a plane can any other given straight passed parallel
487.
to
be
For, if a plane is passed and any point one of the lines through C of the other line CD, and a line CE is
line in space.
AB
drawn
in this plane
II
to
AB,
the plane
II
MN
determined by
CD and CE is
to
^^. 486
254
488.
SOLID GEOMETEY.
Cor.
to
BOOK
AB
to
VI.
parallel
For,
if
2. Through a given point a plane can any two given straight lines in space. is the and given point, and
be
the given lines, by drawing through a to in the plane determined line A'B'
II
CD
AB
by AB and
0,
and
also a line
C^B'
II
CD
we
VA"-
in the plane determined by shall have two lines A'B' and
CD
and
0,
CD'
determine a plane passing through

lioes
which and
to each of the
AB and
CD.
Proposition IX.
486
Theorem.
489. If a given straight line is parallel to a given plane, the intersection of the given plane with any plane passed through the given line is parallel to
that line.
""-
^
%^
Let the line AB be parallel
to the
CD be the intersection of
through AB.
To prove
MN
plane MN, and let with any plane passed
AB and CD parallel. Proof. The lines AB and CD are in the same plane ABCD, and therefore the line AB meets the line CD, must meet
if
it
the plane
MN.
is
But meet it
AB
;
that
to MN, and therefore cannot by hypothesis it cannot meet CD, however far they may be is,
II
produced.
Hence
AB and CD are parallel.

Q. E. D.
PARALLEL LINES AND PLANES.

490.
255
Cor. If a given straight line

lies
a parallel
plane
point
the given line in the plane.

to
and a plane are parallel, drawn through any point of the

line
II
For the plane determined by the given

(7
of the plane cuts
MN
in a line
CD
to
AB and any AB ( 489)

;
;
but through
only one parallel to
therefore a line
drawn through C
the plane
II
AB can be drawn ( 101) to AB coincides with CD,
and hence
lies in
MN.
Theorem.
/'
Proposition X.
491.
Two planes perpendicular
to the
same
straight
line are parallel.
Let
MN
and PQ be two planes perpendicular
to the
straight line AB. and To prove

Proof.
MN MN
2<x\di
PQ parallel. PQ cannot meet.

line,
For
if
they could meet,
we should have two planes from a point J^ to the same straight line. But this is
[through a given point vnthout a straight
of their intersection
475 impossible, only one plane can he passed
Therefore JfiVand
to the
given
line).
PQ
are parallel.
Q. E. D.
Ex. 480. Find the locus of a point in space equidistant from two
given parallel planes.
Ex. 481. Find the locus of a point in space equidistant from two given points and also equidistant from two given parallel planes.
256
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VI.
Proposition XI.
Theorem.
492. The intersections of two parallel planes hy a third plane are parallel lines.
\y
Let the parallel planes

To prove the intersections
Proof.
MN and PQ be cut by B8. AB and CD parallel.

118.
AB and CD are in the same plane
They are also in the parallel planes cannot meet however far they extend.
Therefore
493.
MN and PQ, which

a E. D.
AB and CD cannot meet, and are parallel.

1.
Cor.
Parallel lines included between parallel planes
are equal. For, if the lines ^(7 and

will intersect
BD are
II
II,
JOând PQ in the lines AB and CD ( 492). Hence ABDCis, a parallelogram, and AC s^nd BD are equal.
494.
distant.
the plane of these lines
Cor.
2.
Ttvo parallel planes are everywhere equally
For Js dropped from any points in to measure the distances of these points from PQ. But these Js are parallel
( 483), and hence equal ( 493). are equidistant from PQ.
MN
PQ
Therefore all points in
MN
PAKALLEL LINES AND PLANES.
257
Proposition XII.
495.
Theorem.
straight line perpendicular to one of two parallel planes is perpendicular to the other.
.^^
V-S^''--'
258
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Proposition XIII.
498.
Theorem.
If two angles not in the same plane have their and lying in the same direction, they are equal, and their planes are parallel.
sides respectively parallel
^v*''
MN and
Let the angles A and A' be respectively in the planes PQ and have AD parallel to AD' and AC parallel to A'C and lying in the same direction.
To prove
Proof.
/.
A = Z.A\
and
MN
II
to
FQ.
Take
AD and A^D^ equal, also ^Cand ^'(7' equal.

Join
AA\ DD\ CC\

II
CD, C'D\
the figure
is Since equal and parallelogram, and AA'
AD
to
In like manner
Also, since CQ*
^ DD\ AA! = CC\
A^D\
ADDÂ^
is
182
AA\
they are
II
and DD^ are each and equal.

is
II
to
AA\
and equal
to
Therefore
.'.
CDD'C'
a parallelogram, and
CD -
C'D\
A ADC^-- A A'D'C\
PQ is
II
and
Z A-^Â\
^(7 and
497).
160
Also, since
to each of the lines
AD ( 486),
q. e. d.
PQ is
II
to the
plane of these lines
MNi%
PARALLEL LINES AND PLANES.
259
Proposition XIV.
499.
Theorem.
If two straight lines are intersected by three parallel planes, their corresponding segments are
proportional.
^^ A
---\
260
SOLID aEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Dihedral Angles.
500. The opening between two intersecting planes a dihedral angle.
is
called
The
line of intersection
the planes
501.
AB of the planes the edge, and MA and NB are the /aces of the dihedral angle.
is is
designated by Thus, the edge. dihedral angle in the margin may be
dihedral angle
its
its
edge, or
by
its
two
faces
and
designated by
502.
AB,
or
to
by
M-AB-N.
In
order
have a clear
notion of the magnitude of the dihedral angle AB, suppose a plane

at first in coincidence with
MA
to
turn about the edge AB, in the direction indicated by the arrow, until it coincides with the face JSfB.
of this plane
503.
is
The amount of
rotation
the dihedral angle
AB.
when they can be made
i
Two
dihedral angles are equal
to coincide.
504.
Two
a
cent if they
dihedral angles have a common edge

face
M-AB-N
be-
Q.r\di
JSf-AB-P are adja-
AB, and
505.
common
NAB,
tween them.
When
a plane meets another
plane and makes the adjacent dihedral angles equal, each of these angles is called a right dihedral angle.
506.
with
this
plane is perpendicular to another plane second plane a right dihedral angle.
if it
forms
DIHEDRAL ANGLES.
507.
Two
vei'tical
dihedral angles are angles that have the
same edge and the
faces of the one are the prolongations of the faces of the other.
508.
angles are acute, obtuse, complementary, under the same conditions as plane angles supplementary,
are
acute,
Dihedral
obtuse,
complementary,
supplementary, respec-
tively.
The demonstrations of many properties of dihedral are identically the same as the demonstrations of analangles ogous theorems of plane angles.
509.
The following are examples
1. If a plane meets another plane, it forms, with it two adjacent dihedral angles whose sum is equal to two right dihedral angles.
2. If the sum of two adjacent dihedral angles is equal to two right dihedral angles, their exterior faces are in the same
plane.
two planes intersect each other, their vertical dihedral are equal. angles
3.
If
4. If a plane intersects two parallel planes, the exteriorinterior dihedral angles are equal the alternate-interior dihedral angles are equal the two interior dihedral angles on the
; ;
same
5.
side of the secant plane are supplements of each other.
When two planes are
cut by a third plane,
if
the exterior-
interior dihedral angles are equal, or the alternate-interior dihedral angles are equal, and the edges of the dihedral angles
thus formed are parallel, the two planes are parallel.

6.
Two
Two
dihedral angles whose faces are parallel each to
each are either equal or supplementary.

7.
dihedral angles whose faces are perpendicular each
to each are either equal or supplementary.
262
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Measure of Dihedral Angles.

610. The plane angle of a dihedral angle is the plane angle formed by two straight lines, one in each plane, perpendicular to the edge at the same point.
511. The plane angle of a dihedral angle has the same magnitude from whatever point in the edge the For any two such perpendiculars are drawn.
angles, as tively
CAD, OIH,
(
parallel
100),
have their sides respecand hence are equal
(498).
Proposition XV.
512.
Theorem.
Two dihedral
angles are equal if their plane
angles are equal.
DIHEDRAL ANGLES.
263
Proposition XVI.
513.
Theorem.
tJie
Two dihedral angles have
same
ratio as
their plane angles.
Case
I.
When
the plane angles are commensuroible.
Let A-BC-D and
A'-B'C'-D^
let their plane angles able.
ABD and
be two dihedral angles, and A'B'D' be commensur-
To prove
Proof.
A-BC-D
A'-B'C'-D'
= /. ABD Z A'B'D'.
:
and A'B'D' have a common Suppose the A and five which is contained three times in Z. measure, times in Z A'B'D'.
ABD
ABD
Then
ZABD'.Z.A'B'D' =
measure
to
Z'.b.
Apply
this
Z ABD and Z A'B'D', and

^Cand
through
the lines of division and the edges
B'C^ pass planes.

A'-B'C'D'
These planes divide
A-BC-D into three parts, and

:
into five parts, all equal because they
have equal plane angles.
Therefore Therefore
A-BC-D A-BC-D
:
A'-B'C'-D'
= 3:5.
A'-B'C'-D'
-Z
ABD Z A'B'D'.
:
264
Case
II.
SOLID aEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
When
the plane angles a7ê incommensurable.
Let A-BC-D, A'-B'G-D' be dihedral angles, and let their plane angles ABD, A'B'B' be incommensurable.
To prove
Proof.
A-BC-D
A'-BÔ'-D'
into
= 1 ABD Z A^B'D\
:
Divide the
Z ABD
any number
and apply one

Since
of these parts to the
Z A'B'D^
of equal parts, as a measure.
ABD
number
of these
and A'B'D' are incommensurable, a certain parts will form the Z A'B'BJ, leaving a
less
remainder J^B'D',
than one of the parts.
Pass a plane through
^'ând B'C.
Since the plane angles of the dihedral a^ngles. A-BC-D and A'-B'G'-JEJ are commensurable, we have by Case I.,
A-BC-D A'-B'C'-B:=Z
:
ABD Z A'B'K
:
If the unit of measure is indefinitely diminished, these ratios continue equal, and approach indefinitely the limiting ratios,
A-BC-D
.-.
A'-B'C'-D, and
A-BC-D
A'-B'C'-D'
Z ABD Z A'B'D'. = Z ABD Z A'B'D'.

: :
260
Q. E. D.
514.
of the dihedral angle.
Scholium. The plane angle is taken as the measure (Compare 262.)
DIHEDRAL ANGLES.
265
Planes Perpendicular to Each Other.

Proposition XVII.
515.
Theorem.
a straight
If two 'planes are perpendicular to each other, line drawn in one of them perpendicular
perpendicular
to the other.
to their intersection is
A
tion AB.
N
ta MN, and let their intersec-
Let the plane PAB be perpendicular CD be drawn in PAB perpendicular to

To prove
Proof.
CD perpendicular
is
to
MN.
In the plane Jfi\^ draw
DE JL to ^^ at D.
Then
CDE
the plane angle of the right dihedral angle

therefore a right angle.
P-AB-N, and
By
Therefore
section,
is
construction
CD A
is
a right angle.
at their point of inter-
CD
is
X to DA and DE
and consequently
Cor.
1.
-L to their plane
MN.
472
Q. E. D.
516.
a perpendicular
will
lie
If two planes are perpendicular to each other, to one of them at any point of their intersection
in the other.
For, a line
CD
be
drawn
point
D will
X to
one J_ can be drawn to

erected at
MN 515). But at the point D only MN 476). Therefore a X MN

{^ (
in the plane
PAB _L to AB
at the
to
D will coincide with CD and lie in the plane PAB.
266
517.
SOLID GEOMETRY
Cor.
2.
BOOK
VI.
If two planes are perpendicular

to
to
each other,
a perpendicular
lie
one of them
from any point
of the other will
in the other.
For, a line
CD
be
drawn
L to AB will
one
can
to MN{^ 515).
in the plane
PAB from the point C

C only
Therefore a
be drawn to
MN
But from the point

and
lie
( 476).
to
MN
drawn from Cwill coincide with
CD
in
FAB.
Proposition XVIII.
518.
Theorem.
If a straight line is perpendicular to a plane, every plane passed through the line is perpendicular to the first plane.
Let CD be perpendicular to MN, and PAB be any plane passed through CD intersecting MN in AB.
To prove the plane
Proof.
PAB perpendicular
is
to
the
plane
MN.
Draw
DE in the plane MN,

CD
and
to
AB.
Since
to MN,
it is
JL to
AB.
Therefore
Z CDE is the plane angle of P-AB-N But Z CDEh a right angle, and therefore PAB is JL to 3IN
plane perpendicular
to
to
514
Q. E. D.
519.
is
Cor.
the edge of
a dihedral
angle
perpendicular
each of its faces.
DIHEDRAL ANGLES.
267
Proposition XIX.
520*
Theorem.
If two intersecting planes are each perpendicu-
lar to
a third plane, their intersection
is also
perpen-
dicular to that plane.
AB
Let the planes BD and BC intersecting in the line be perpendicular to the plane PQ.
To prove
Proof.
A B perpendicular
erected to
lie in
to
the
plane PQ.
to the
A X
PQ
at
three planes, will
the two planes
B, a point common BC and BD.
516
it
And
must coincide with

.'.
since this JL lies in both the planes their intersection AB.
BC and BD,
aE.
to
AB
is
JL to the plane
PQ.
D.
521.
Cor.
1.
If a plane
PQ is
perpendicular
it is
each of two
to their
intersecting planes
intersection
522.
ABC and ABI),

PQ is
perpendicular
AB.
2.
Cor.
If a plane
perpendicular
to
two planes
ABC
to
and
ABD,
which include a right
qlihedo'al angle, the
intersection of
any two of these planes is perpendicular to the third plane, and each of the three intersections is perpendicular
the other two.
268
SOLID GEOMETRY.
Proposition XX.
BOOK
VI.
Theorem.
523. Through a given straight line not perpendicular to a plane, one plane, and only one, can be passed perpendicular to the given plane.
Let AB be the given line not perpendicular plane MN.

To prove that one plane can be passed through
dicular
Proof.
to
to the
AB perpen-
MN,
and only one.

point
From any
of
AB draw AC lîo MN,

AD.
AC, a
and through
AB and J^Cpass a plane

MN,
since
it
The plane
line
AD
if
is
_L to
to MN.
MN,
this is impossible, since
passes through
518
Moreover,
the plane
two planes could be passed through l.io/ to MN. 520 their intersection would be
AB
But
the plane
MN
AB AB
is
by hypothesis oblique
to
Hence through
624.
tion IS
AB only one plane

is
can be passed _L to 3N.
aE
D.
Cor. If a straight line
oblique
to
a plane,
its
projec-
a straight
line.
For, the plane passed through the -Is let fall from different points of
AB to MN contains all AB upon MN ( 516).
Therefore the intersection
is a projections of the points in AB. But the intersection is a that is, the projection of straight line. straight line
;
CD of these planes is the locus of the CD
AB
DIHEDRAL ANGLES.
269
Proposition XXI.
625.
Theorem.
bisects a dihethe faces of the
Every point in a plane which

angle
is
dral
angle.
equidistant
from
^3f
A
Let plane AM bisect the dihedral angle formed by the planes AD and AC; and let PE and FF be perpendiculars drawn from any point P in the plane AM to the planes AC and AD.
To prove
Proof.
FE=PF.
AD.
AO.
Through PE and PF pass a plane intersecting the planes ^(7 and AD in the lines OE and OF, and join PO.
The plane Pî^ is JL
to
^(7 and
to
518
521
Hence the plane
PEE
rt.
is
JL to their intersection
/.APOE=ZPOF,
[being measures respectively of the equal dihedral
.'.
A POE=
rt.
A M-OA- C and M- OA-D). POF. 148

a E. D.
:.PE=PF.
vEx. 485. Find the locus of a point in space equidistant from three given points not in a straight line.
Ex. 486. Given two points
and
B on the same side of a given plane

sum
of
its
MN\ find a point A and B shall be a
in
this
plane such that the
distances from
minimum.
270
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Angle
of a Straight Line and a Plane.
Proposition
526,
XXIL
Theorem,
The acute angle which a straight line makes own projection upon a plane is the least angle which it irvahes with any line of the plane.
with
its
at A, and let AG he its Let BA meet the plane projection upon the plane MN, and AD any other line drawn through A in the plane.
To prove
Proof.
MN
BA C less than /. BAD. Take AD = AC, and join BD.

/.
lnihQABAC2.nd.BAD
BA = BA, AC= AD,

.-.
but
BC< BD.
Q.
477
153
E. Dc
ZBACh less than Z BAD,

line
;
Scholium. If the straight A, the angle -S^C increases point

527.
AC
turns about the
^C is
obtuse,
perpendicular to its and reaches its maximum value
a right angle when initial position; then it becomes

it is
when
AC
falls
upon
Afterwards the angle passes prolongation of CA. through the same values in reverse order.
AOHh.Q
DIHEDRAL ANGLES.
271
Perpendicular between Two Straight Lines.

Proposition XXIII.
Theorem.
Between two straight lines not in the same plane, one common perpendicular can he drawn, and
ld2Sy
only one.
I
.,.
M A\
-^r
"!
D'" r
7
'
â"
.::
it::::":"::::"::.":"^:::"JN
lines.
be-
Let AB and CD be the given
To prove that one common perpendicular can be drawn tween them, and only one.
Proof.
let
Through any point
MNhQ the plane

C".
AB at
At
plane
Through
B of AB draw BG to CD, and AB and BG. CD pass the plane CD' X to MN, and intersecting
II
determined by
C' erect a
C'Cto the plane MN. C'C will CD ( 516), and be X to AB and CD' ( 462).
Since
lie in
the
CWis
a
JL to
CD',
it is
X to CD
( 102).
Hence
common perpendicular to CD and AB. Moreover, CC is the only common perpendicular.

if
CC is
For,
would be
any other
to
But
(
EH in
Hence
EB could be X to CD and AB, it AB ( 102), and hence X to MK BG X to MN the plane CD' and X to C'D\
line
and
is
515), and we should have two Js from But this is impossible.
E to
MN.
476
D.
CC is
the only
common
X to CD and AB.
aE.
272
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Polyhedral Angles.
529. 'pdyhedral angle is the opening of three or more planes which meet at a common point.
530.
The common point
8 is
intersections of the planes BA, SB, etc., are its edges; the portions of the planes included
the vertex of the angle, and the
A
/y
\
between the edges are its faces, and the angles formed by the edges are its face angles.
531.
/-,
\
\
The magnitude of a polyhedral angle B depends upon the relative position of its faces, and not upon
their extent.
532. In a polyhedral angle, every two adjacent edges form a face angle, and every two adjacent faces form a dihedral These face angles and dihedral angles are the parts angle.
'/-
----'\c
of the polyhedral angle.

533.
Two
polyhedral angles
to
?
/7
\
can be
made
^
yy
\
^
coincide
and
are equal if their corresponding parts are equal and arranged in the same order.
A//
^^Y-
X//
B'
^B
''''''Ao
y.''''-\c'
A
534. polyhedral angle is convex if any section a plane cutting all its faces is a convex polygon.
535.
made by
A polyhedral
it
according as
536.
angle is called trihedral, tetrahedral, has three isices, four faces, etc.
etc.,
A trihedral
,
tri-rectangular
angle is called rectangular, hi-rectangular, according as it has one, two, or three right
dihedral angles.
room form adjacent walls and the floor of a rectangular a tri-rectangular trihedral angle.
Two
537.
trihedral angle
is
called isosceles
if it
has two of
its
face angles equal.
SYMMETRICAL POLYHEDRAL ANGLES.

Symmetrical Polyhedral Angles.
538.
If the
273
edges of a given polyhedral angle 8-
A BCD
are produced through the vertex 8, another polyhedral angle 01). 8-A'B'C^D' is formed, symmetrical with respect to 8-
AB
The
face angles
etc.,
A8B,
equal
B8C,
angles
etc.,
are
respectively to the face
A'8B\ B'8C',
since they are ver-
tical angles.
Also
the
dihedral
angles whose edges are
8A, 8B,
etc.,
etc.,
are equal
respectively to the dihedral angles
whose edges are 8A', 8B',
since they are vertical dihedral angles. (The second shows a pair of vertical dihedral angles.) figure are arranged from left to right in the The edges of
8-ABCD
order
8B, 80, 8D, but the edges

to
left
from right
in the order
8B\
of 8-A'B'O'I)* are arranged 80', 8D' that is, in an

;
order the reverse of the order of the edges in 8-
A BOD.
symmetrical polyhedral angles, therefore, have all their parts equal, each to each, but arranged in reverse order. In general, two symmetrical polyhedral angles are not superThus, if the trihedral angle 8-A'B'O' is made to posable. turn 180 about the bisector xy of the angle A'80, the side
Two
8A'
will coincide
the face A'80' with
with 80, 80' with 8A, and A80; but the dihedral
angle 8A, and hence the dihedral angle 8A', not being equal to 80, the plane A'8B' will not coincide with B80; and, for a similar
reason, the plane 0'8B' will not coincide with A8B. Hence the edge 8B' takes some position
8B" not
coincident with
8B
that
is,
the trihedral angles
are not superposable.
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Proposition
539.
XXIV.
Theorem.
angle
is
The sum of any two face angles of a trihedral greater than the third face angle.
S
In the trihedral angle 8-ABG let the angle greater than A8B or B8G.
To prove
Proof.
Z.
ASO
be
A8B + Z B8C greater than Z A8C. In A8C draw 8D, making Z A8D = Z A8B. Through any point D of 8D draw ADC in the plane
Take
A8C.
8B = 81).
Pass a plane through the line ^(7 and the point B.
In the
A A8B and A8B, A8= A8, 81) - 8B, and Z A8B = Z A8B. A A8B = A A8B ( 150), and AB = AB.
.-.
In the
A ABC;
AB-\-BC> AC
137
But
AB
subtraction,
=AB
BC> DC
= 8D,
but
By
Inthe A^/S'(7and D8C, 8C= 8C, and 8B
BC> DC
153
Therefore Z B8C is greater than Z D8C '.\AA8B-\- B8C are greater than A A8D + Z'/S'C. A A8B + B8C are greater than Z A8C That
is,
POLYHEDRAL ANGLES.
275
Proposition
540.
XXV.
Theorem.
poly-
hedral angle
The sum of the face angles of any convex is less than four right angles.
Let S be a convejc polyhedral angle, and let its faces be cut by a plane, making the section ABCDE a convex polygon. To prove Z ASB + Z. BSC, etc., less than four rt A.
Proof.
From any
point
within tbe polygon draw
OA, OB^
OC, OD, OE.
The number
be
tl|3
of the having their common vertex at will same as the number having their common vertex at 8.
Therefo]?e the
sum
of all the
vertex at the
common
equal to the vertex at 0.

is
sum
A of the A having the common of all the A of the A having

at
But
in the trihedral
A formed
^, B,
C, etc.
and
Z SAE-^ Z SAB is greater than Z EAB, Z 8BA + Z SBC is greater than Z ABC, etc.
of the
539
Hence the sum
A at
the bases of the
A whose comA at
is
mon
vertex
of the
greater than the sum of the whose common vertex is 0.

is
is
the bases
sum
sum of the A at the vertex 8 A at the vertex O. = 4 A. But the sum of the ^ at
Therefore the
of the
rt.
less
than the
rt,
92
Therefore the
sum
of the zi at
/iS'
is less
than 4
A.
Q. E. D.
276
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
Proposition
XXVI.
Theorem.
or symmetriGol
541. Two trihedral angles are equal when the three face angles of the one
are respectively
equal to the three face angles of the other.
B' E'
ABE
E'
In the trihedral angles S and S' let the angles ASB A8C, BSC, -be equal to the angles A'S'B', A'S'C, B'S'C,
respectively.
To prove
Proof.
S-ABQ and S^-A''C'
equal or symmetrical.
take the six equal dis-
tances
On the edges of these angles 8A, SB, SO, S'A\ S'B\ S'C\
Draw
The
to
AB, BO, AC,
AB\ BW\ AC.

are equal respectively
isosceles
A SAB,
8AQ, SBC,
S'A'B',S'A'C\ S'B'C.
150
AB, AC, BC&re
equal respectively to
AB',
AC,
B'C.
.\AABC=AAB'C.
in SA draw and At any point and ^/S'C respectively, and JL to SA.
160
BU
BF in the faces ASB

^
of an
These lines meet

{since the
AB and
isosceles A).
^(7 respectively,
A SAB and SAC are acute,
each being one of the equal
Join B!F.
On
S'
A t&ke A B' = AB.
POLYJEEDRAL ANGLES.
277
Draw
In the
BE'
rt.
respectively, J_ to 8' A\
and D'i^' in the faces of A'&'B' and A^'CP and join E'F'.
A ABE and A'E'E', AD = A'B', and Z DAE== Z B'A'E'. A ABE = A A'B'E'.

.-.
rt.
rt.
149
.-.
AE= A'E' and BE= B'E'.

we may prove
In like manner
AE=A'E'
and
BE=B'F'.
A ^îând A'E'F' AE= A'E, AE= A'F', and Z EAF= Z E'A'F'. A AEF= A A'E'F\ and î^= ^'i^', 150 A EBE and E'B'F' we have Hence, in the EB = E'B', BF= B'F', and EF= E'F'. A EBF= A E'B'F' and Z î)i^= Z E'B'F'. 160
Hence
in the
.:
.-.
Therefore the dihedral angle
B-AS-C ecû&h
dihedral angle
A, are equal).
B'-A'S'-C,
{since
A EDF
and E^D^F\
it
the measures of these dihedral
equal respectively to the dihedral o. e. o. angles A'-B'8'-C' and A'-C'8'-B\
may A-BS-C diTidi A-C8-B are
In like manner
be proved that the dihedral angles
This demonstration applies to either of the two figures de-
noted by 8'-A'B'C\ which are symmetrical with respect to each other. If the first of these figures is taken, 8 and xS" are
equal.
If the second is taken,
8 and
8' are symmetrical.
542. Scholium. If two trihedral angles have three face angles of the one equal to three face angles of the other, then the dihedral angles of the one are respectively equal to the dihe-
dral angles of the other.

""Ex. 487.
An
isosceles trihedral angle
and
its
symmetrical trihedral
angle are superposable. ^
Ex. 488. Find the locus of a point equidistant from the three edges of a trihedral angle. *Ex. 489. Find the locus of a point equidistant from the three faces of a trihedral angle.
BOOK
VII.
POLYHEDRONS. CYLINDERS. AND CONES.

Polyhedrons.
543.
'polyhedron
is
planes, limited their intersections are the edges,
The bounding
a solid bounded by planes. by each other, are the faces, and the intersections of the
edges are the

544.
'vertices,
of the polyhedron.
any two
545.
diagonal of a polyhedron is a straight line joining vertices not in the same face.
of four faces
is
A polyhedron
called a tetrahedron ; one
of six faces, a hexahedrbn; one of eight faces, an octahedron ; one of twelve faces, a dodecahedron; one of twenty faces, an
icosahedron.
polyhedron is convex if the section made by any plane cutting it is a convex polygon. Only convex polyhedrons are considered in this work.
546.
547.
The volume
of a solid
is its
numerical measure, referred
to another solid taken as the unit of volume.

548.
polyhedron of
six faces,
each face a square,

the linear unit
is
is
called
a cube; and the cube whose edge taken as the unit of volume.
549.
is
generally
Two
solids are equivalent if their
volumes are equal.

are respectively
550.
Two polygons are parallel if their sides
parallel.
POLYHEDRONS.
279
Prisms and Parallelopipeds.

551.
A prism is
a polyhedron of which two opposite faces,
called bases, are parallel polygons, and the other faces, called lateral faces, intersect in parallel lines, called lateral edges. The lateral edges are
equal (493),the lateral faces are parallelograms (168), and the bases are equal ( 179, 498).
552.
The sum of the areas

The
of the lateral faces of a prism
is
called its lateral area.

553.
dicular between the planes of

554.
altitude of a prism is the length of the perpenits bases.

etc.,
Prisms are called triangular, quadrangular,
ac-
cording as their bases are triangles, quadrilaterals, etc.

555.
perpendicular to
right section of a prism its lateral edges.
is
a section
made by
a plane
Truncated Prism.
Right Prism.
Rectangular Parallelopiped.
Parallelepiped
556. A truncated prism is the part of a prism included between the base and a section made by a plane inclined to the base and cutting all the lateral edges.
557.
An
oblique
prism
is
;
a prism whose lateral edges are not
perpendicular to its bases a right prism is a prism eral edges are perpendicular to its bases a regular
;
whose
latis
prism
right prism whose bases are regular polygons. 558. A prism whose bases are parallelograms
is
called a
If its lateral edges are perpendicular to the parallelopiped. it is called a right If its six faces are bases, parallelopiped.
all
rectangles,
it is
called a rectangular parallelopiped.
280
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
I.
Theorem.
559. The sections of a prism are equal polygons,
made hy parallel planes

J)
^"^
Let the prism planes GK, G'K'.

To prove
AD
be intersected by the parallel
GHIKL = O^HTK^V.
Proof. Since the intersections of two parallel planes by a third plane are parallel ( 492), the sides GH, HI, IK, etc., are parallel respectively to the sides O^H*, IIÎ\ etc. The sides GH, HI, IK, etc., are equal respectively to G^H\
PK^
Wr, VK,
equal.
etc.,
since parallel lines

.
comprehended between
parallel lines are
180
The
A GHI, HIK, etc., are equal respectively to A G^Wr,

etc.,
WVK\
since
not in the same plane, having their sides respectively parallel and lying in the same direction, are
equal.
two
Therefore
GHIKL = G'HI'K'L',
498 203
because they are mutually equiangular and equilateral.

Q. E. D.
560.
to
Cor. Aut/ section of a prism parallel
to
the base is equal
the base;
and
all right sections of
a prism are equal.
PRISMS.
281
Proposition
II.
Theorem.
561. The lateral area of a prism is equal to the product of a lateral edge hy the perimeter of. the
right section.
E'
To prove
Proof.
Let GHIKL be a right section of the prism AU. latenâl area of AD' = AA\GII-\- HI-\- etc.).
Consider the lateral edges
AA\ BB\
etc., to
be the
bases of the
UJ
AB\ BC\
etc.,
which form the
lateral surface
of the prism.
Then the bases
of these
UJ
are all equal.
551
to Since the sides of the right section, GH, HI, etc., are AA\ BB', etc. ( 462), they are the altitudes of these UJ, and
the
sum
of the altitudes GIT, ITI,
IK,
etc., is
the perimeter
of the right section. The area of each
is
the product of
/17 is
its
base and
alti-
tude.
365
Hence, the sum of the areas of the

lateral
the product of a
edge
AA^ by
But the sum
of the areas of the
the perimeter of the right section. IE is the lateral area of
the prism. Therefore the lateral area of the prism is equal to the product of a lateral edge by the perimeter of a right section. q. e. d.
562. Cor. The lateral area of a right prism is equal to the altitude multiplied by the perimeter of the base.
282
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
663.
III.
Theorem.
Two prisms
are equal if three faces including
a trihedral angle of the one are respectively equal to three faces including a trihedral angle of the other,
and are similarly
placed.
In the prisms AI and AT, let AD, AG, AJ, be respectively equal to A'D', A'G', A' J', and similarly placed. To prove prism AI=pris77i. A'I\
Proof. By hypothesis the face BAE, BAF, EAF, are B'A'E', B'A'F^ F'A'F', respectively. equal to the face Therefore the trihedral angle A=A^. 541
Apply
to its equal
A'
then the faces
AD, AG, A J,
A' J', respec-
will coincide with the equal faces A'B', A'G',

tively, the points (7
and
B falling at C and D'.

J
As the lateral edges of the prisms are parallel, CIT will take the direction of CÎT', and Blof B'l'. Since the points F, G, and coincide with F', G', and J', each to each, the planes of the upper bases will coincide.
Hence ^will
564.
coincide with JI', and 7" with I'. Therefore the prisms coincide and are equal.
1.
'
q. e. d.
Cor.
mcluding a
565.
Tivo truncated prisms are equal if three faces trihedral of the one are respectively equal to three
faces including a trihedral of the other,
and are similarly placed.
Cor.
2.
Two
tudes are equal.
right prisms having equal bases and altiIf the faces are not similarly, placed, one of the
prisms can be inverted and applied to the other.
^
PEiSMS.
283
Proposition IV.
566.
Theorem.
An oblique -prism is equivalent to a riht prism

is
equal to a right section of the oblique altitude is equal to a lateral edge prism,, the oblique prism. of
whose base
and whose
Let FI be a right section of the oblique prism

Produce
plane
AD'.
AA'
to F',
F^F
making
cutting
section
FF'= AA\
all
and
at
F^ pass the
to
FF\
the faces of
and forming the right To prove

Proof.
F^F
produced, equal and parallel to FI.
AD^
In the solids
AD^^FF. ^7 and A^F, AD = A'D'.
551
Also
AA' = FF' and

parallel to
AG = A'G';
AF= A'F', and FG = B'G', since BB'= GG'; and AB and FG are equal and
for,
A'B' and F'G'
respectively, since
AB' and FG' are
parallelograms ( 551).
equilateral
Therefore J. 6^ and A'G' are mutually-
and equiangular, and hence equal. In like manner we may prove ^ând B'JI' equal. Hence the truncated prisms J./ and A'F are equal.
Taking each in turn from the whole
solid,
203
564
we have
<Ê.o.
AD'^FF.
284
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition V.
567.
Theorem.
Any two
opposite faces of
a parallelopiped are
equal and
parallel.
1
Let AG be
a,
parallelepiped.
To prove faces
Proof.
AB
Hence
Also
AF and DO equal and 'parallel. to i)(7and AE to DH. Z EAB - Z HBC.

is
II
is
II
658,
168
498
AB=DC^ndiAE=BB:.
Therefore the face
179

AF= face DG.

II
185
Moreover, the face îîs

(if
to
II
DG,
498
two
A not in
the
same plane have

direction, their
their sides
and
lying in the same
planes are parallel).
In like manner any two opposite faces
may
be proved equal
q. e.
and
parallel.
568.
Scholium.
Any two
may be taken
parallelograms.
for bases, since
opposite faces of a parallelopiped they are equal arid parallel
Ex. 490. Show that any lateral edge of a right prism

altitude.
is
equal to the
Ex. 491. Show that the
lateral faces of right prisms are rectangles.
allel to
Ex. 492. Prove that every section of a prism made by a plane parthe lateral edges is a parallelogram.
PRISMS.
285
Proposition VI.
569.
Theorem.
The plane passed through two diagonally
opposite edges of a parallelopiped divides the parallelopiped into two equivalent triangular prisms.
Let the plane AEG C pass through the opposite edges
AE and CG
of the parallelopiped AG.
To prove that the parallelopiped

equivalent triangular prisms
Proof.
AG
is
divided into two
ABC-F and ACD-H.
made by
Let be a right section of the parallelopiped a plane J, to the edge AE.

Since the opposite faces are parallel,
IJ\s.
II
IJKL
567
to
LK, and IL
to
JK.
492
168
Therefore
IJKL is
a parallelogram.
The
intersection
IK
of the right section with the plane
AEOO\s
the diagonal of the
O IJKL.
is
But the prism base is TTlSTand whose

is
:.AIKJ=ÂIKL. ABC-F \^ equivalent to a

altitude
178
right prism whose
AE, and
the prism
ACD-R
equivalent to a right prism whose base

is
is
ILK, and whose

566 565
altitude
^^.
But these two right prisms are
.-.
equal.
ABC-F- ACD-K.
Q.E.a
286
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition VII.
570.
Theorem.
Two rectangular
parallelopipeds having equal
bases are to each other as their altitudes.
PRISMS.
287
Case
II.
When
AB and A'B' are incommensurable.
^
\ s
p'
\
\
\J
Let
ABhe
divided into any
number
of equal parts,
and
let
measure as
Since
one of these parts be applied to A^B^ as a unit of many times as A^B^ will contain it.
AB and A^B^ are incommensurable, a certain number

D, leaving a
re-
of these parts will extend from A^ to a point mainder DB^ less than one of the parts.
Through pass a plane J_ to A'B\ and denote the parallelwhose base is the same as that of P', and whose altitude opiped
is
A'D, by Q. Now, since AB
9Xidi
A^
D are commensurable,
Case
I.
Q:F=A'I):AB.
If the unit
of
ration continue equal,
iting ratios F'
F and A'B' AB respectively.

:
measure is indefinitely diminished, these and they approach indefinitely the lim-
Therefore
F F= A'B'
:
AB,
260
and each approaches a limit, their {if two variables are constantly equal, limits are equal). Q.E.D.
571. Scholium. The three edges of a rectangular parallelopiped which meet at a common vertex are its dimensions. Hence two rectangular parallelopipeds which have two dimen-
sions in
common
are
to
each other as their third dimensions.
288
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition VIII.
Theorem.
572. Two rectangular parallelopipeds having equal altitudes are to each other as their bases.
Let a, 6, and c, and a', h', c, be the three dimensions respectively of the two rectangular parallelopipeds
P and P\
lo ^ prove Let
~:;r,,
F'
a'x
t,'
b'
be a third rectangular parallelepiped whose dimen-
sions are a\ 5,
and
c.
Now Q
Then
and
has the two dimeDsions b and

a'
and the two dimensions
and
c in
c in common with P, common with P'.
P_â Q a''
{two rectangular parallelopipeds which have two dimensions in to each other as their third dimensions).
common
are
The product
of these
two
equalities is
P_ axb
P'
573.
oJxV
aE.D.
:
Scholium. This proposition may be stated as follows Two rectangular parallelopipeds which have one dimension in
common
are
to
each other as the products of the other two
dimensions.
PRISMS.
289
Proposition IX.
574.
Theorem.
Two rectangular parallelopipeds are to each as the products of their three dimensions. other
290
SOLID GEOMETRY.
Proposition X.
BOOK
VII.
Theorem.
575. The volume of a rectangular parallelopiped is equal to the product of its three dimensions, the unit of volume being a cuhe whose edge is the linear unit.
TIT
/ / / / /
/
PRISMS.
291
Proposition XI.
679.
Tseorem.
is
The volume of any parallelopiped
equal
to
the product of its base by its altitude.
Let
denote the altitude of the parallelopiped AG. To prove that the volume AG ABCD X H.
Consider
Proof.
ADHE \hQ
base of
AO, and
prolong the
right sec-
lateral edges
AB, DC, EF, HO.

A^G\ determined by two
The
tions
A'D'H'E\ B'C'G'F\ with lateral edge A'B' = AB, is 566 equivalent to AG. consider D^C-G^W the base of A^G\ and prolong Again, the lateral edges D'A\ CB\ E\ G'F.
right parallelopiped
Then the parallelopiped AÔ, determined by two

with lateral edge equivalent to A'G'{^ 566), and hence to AG.
tions
right sec-
A^B^NM, KLOP,
solids
A^K=
B'A'
is
The three
equivalent bases, for
have a common altitude ( 494), and ABCD =<> A' B'C'E\^d66), and A'B'd)'
=A'KZB'(nse>). But AÔ is a rectangular parallelopiped, for the right sections A^JV, KO, are rectangles, since the opposite faces A}P, BÔ, are to A'B'LK. Hence the volume ^'0 = A'B'LK X H. 577 Therefore the volume AG = ABCD X H. Q. E. Qy
292
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition XII.
580.
Theorem.
is
The volume of a triangular prism
equal to
the product of its base by its altitude.
Let V denote the volume, B the base, and altitude of the triangular prism. AEC-E',
To prove
Proof.
the
V=BxIl.
EE\
construct the paral-
Upon the edges AU, EC, lelopiped ^ÔZ)-^'.
Then, since a plane passed through two diagonally opposite edges of a parallelopiped divides it into two equivalent triangular prisms,
669
AEC-E' <^\AECD-EK
is
uct of
Since the volume of any parallelopiped its base by its altitude,
equal to the prod-
AECD-E' = AECD x H.
But
.-.
579
AECD = 2B. V=î{2BxII) = BxII.

if its
178
14 inches, and the sides of the base are
Ex. 495. Find the volume of a right triangular prism, 6. 5, and 5 inches.
height
is
PRISMS.
293
Proposition XIII.
581.
Theorem.
is
The volume of any prism

its altitude.
equal
to the prod-
uct of its base hy
Let V denote the volume, B the base, and

altitude of the prism DA'.
To prove
Proof.
the
F= B X IT.
AD
Planes passed through the lateral edge AA', and the of the base, will divide the given prism diagonals AC,
into triangular prisms. The volume of each triangular prism
is
equal to the product
of its base
by volumes of the triangular prisms is equal to the sum of their bases multiplied by their common altitude.
;
its
altitude ( 680)
and hence the sum of the
But the sum

prism, and the
of the triangular prisms is equal to the given sum of their bases is equal to the base of the
is
Therefore the volume of the given prism given prism. equal to the product of its base by its altitude.
That
582.
is,
V=BxII.
to
q.e.d.
Cor. The volumes of two prisms are
each other as the
products of their bases and altitudes ; prisms having equivalent bases are to each other as their altitudes ; prisms having equal
altitudes are to each other as their bases
;
prisms having equiv-
alent bases
and equal
altitudes are equivalent.
294
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Pyramids.
583.
pyramid
is
a polyhedron of which one
face, called
a polygon, and the other faces, called lateral faces, are triangles having a
the base,
is
common
pyramid.
584.
vertex, called
the vertex of the
The intersections The sum

The
of the lateral faces

-
are called the lateral edges of the pyramid.

585.
^j
of the areas of the lateral faces
is
called the
lateral area of the
pyramid.
586.
altitude of a
pyramid
is
the length of the perpen-
dicular let fall from the vertex to the plane of the base.
pyramid is called triangular, quadrangular, etc., as its base is a triangle, quadrilateral, etc. according
587.
588.
A
A
triangular
tetrahedron, and any one of
pyramid, having four faces, is called a its faces can be taken for its base.
589. A pyramid is regular if its base is a regular polygon whose centre coincides with the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the vertex to the
base.
590. The lateral edges of a regular pyramid are equal, since they, cut off equal distances from the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the
Regular Pyramid,
vertex to the base ( 478).

isosceles triangles.
Therefore the lateral faces are equal
591. The slant height of a regular pyramid is the length of the perpendicular from the vertex to the base of any one of its lateral faces. It is the common altitude of all the lateral faces,
and
bisects the base of the lateral face in
which
it is
drawn.
592.
frustum of a pyramid
is
the portion of a pyramid
PYRAMIDS,
included between
its
295
base and a plane parallel to the base
and cutting
all
the lateral edges.
593. The altitude of a frustum is the length of the perpendicular between the planes of its bases, 594.
The
lateral faces of a frustum of a regu-^
lar
pyramid are equal trapezoids.
595.
is
The
slant height of the frustum of a regular
pyramid
the altitude of one of these trapezoids.
Proposition XIV.
596.
Theorem.
to
lateral area of a regular pyramid is equal one-half the product of the slant height by the
The
perimeter of
its base.
mid V-ABCDE, and

To prove that
Proof.
Let S denote the lateral area at the regular pyraVII its slant height
8=^ VII{AB -^-BO-^

VBC,
etc.,
etc.).
The
A VAB,
are equal isosceles
A. 690
The area of thesum of these A=JF^(^5+^C4-etc.)

But the sum of
pyramid.
597.
368
their areas equals the lateral area of the
..8='\VHiAB+BO+eto.).
1.
aE.a
GoR.
The
latciâl
area of the frustum of a regular
pyramid,
is equal to one-half the sum of the perimeters of the bases multiplied by the slant height of the frustum. 371
296
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition XV.
598.
Theorem.
its
If a pyramid
is
cut hy a plane parallel to
base,
I.
The edges and altitude are divided proporThe

section is
tionally ;
II,
a polygon similar
to the hase.
Let V-ABCDE he cut by a plane parallel to its base, intersecting the lateral edges in a, b, c, d, e, and the altitude in o.
To prove
I.
_=^....^
section
IL The
I.
abode similar
to
the base
ABODE.
Proof.
Suppose a plane passed through the vertex
11
to
the base.
Since the edges and the altitude are intersected by three

parallel planes,
Va
VA
II.
^ Vb
vb"
be, etc.,
vd
499
Since the sides ab,

etc.,
are parallel respectively to
AB, BC,
the
492
498
A abc,
etc.
bed, etc., are equal respectively to the
ABC,
BOB,
Therefore the two polygons are mutually equiangular.
PYEAMIDS.
297
Also, since the sides of the section are parallel to the corre-
sponding sides of the base, Vab, Vbc, etc., are similar respectively to
VAB,
VBC,
etc.
"
^ = fZ^\ = Il=fIl\ = ^ AB \VBj BO \VCj

their
is
etc"
CD'
Hence the polygons have

tional
;
homologous sides propor-
Hence
599.
is to
section abode
similar to the base
ABODE.
to
319
o.
aE.
Cor.
1.
Any
section of
a pyramid parallel
its
base
the base as the square of its distance the square of the altitude of the pyramid.
from
the vertex is to
Since
i^ = VO \VBJ
î^V AB
ABODE
abode
*
'
..-^--^.
v(f
AB'
305
g 3^^
But
__abcde_^^^
Al?
Vo
ABODE
their bases,
vo'
600. Cor. 2.
If two pyramids having equal altitudes are cut

to
by planes parallel
their vertices^ the sections will
and at equal distances from have the same ratio as their bases.
Vo
For
abode
and But
.
ABODE~ vcf _abc__ ^ _v_o_^

A'B'O^
yTQ,^
^gg
Vo^V'o\ and V0 = V'O'.

.
abode
:
Whence
601.
abode
3.
ABODE = a'b'c^ a'b'o' = ABODE

:
A'B'CT,
A'B'd.
298
CoR.
If two pyramids have equal altitudes and
equivalent bases, sections made by planes parallel to their bases^ and at equal distances from their vertices, are equivalent
298
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition XVI.
602.
Theorem.
hases
Two triangular pyramids having equivalent and equal altitudes are equivalent.
Let S-ABC and S'-A'B'C have equivalent bases ated in the same plane, and a common altitude. 8-ABC=^ S'-A'B'C. To prove
Proof.
situ-
If the
pyramids are not equivalent, suppose
8-ABO
parts.
the greater.
Divide the
common
altitude into
II
n equal
Through the points of division pass planes to the plane of The corresponding sections of the pyramids are their bases.
equivalent.
601
On
the base of
S-ABC, and on each
section, as lower base,
construct a prism with lateral edges equal and parallel to AD. Similarly, construct a prism on each section of /S^-A'BÔ\
as
upper base,
The sum of the first series of prisms is greater than S-ABC, and the sum of the second series is less than S'-A'B'C; therefore the difference between S-ABC and S^-A'B'C is less than the difference betv^reen the sums of these two series of prisms. Each prism in S'-A'B^C is equivalent to the prism next Hence the difference between above it in S-ABC ( 582).
the two series of prisms
is
the lowest prism of the
first series.
But by increasing n indefinitely this can be made less than any assigned volume, however small. Therefore the two pyramids cannot differ by any volume howq. e. d. ever small therefore the pyramids are equivalent.
;
PYRAMIDS.
299
Proposition XVII.
603.
Theorem.
is
The volume of a triangular pyramid

product of
Er^--^-
equal
to one-third of the
its
base
and
altitude.
Let V denote the volume, and

triangular pyramid
To prove
Proof.
the altitude, of the
S-ABC.
F= J ABCx H.
ABC
construct a prism
On
the base
ABC-8ED,
pyramid
having
its
lateral edges equal
and
The prism
will
be composed
parallel to SB. of the triangular
8-ABC
QXidi.
the quadrangular pyramid S-ACDE. Through 8 and pass a plane AD.
8D
This plane divides the quadrangular pyramid into the two triangular pyramids 8-ACD and 8-AED, which have the
same
altitude
and equal
.-.
bases.
178 602
8-ACD =0= 8-AED.

as having
its
Now
for its
the pyramid for base and
8-AED may be regarded

vertex.
E8D
:.8-AED^8-ABQ.
Hence the three pyramids
is
into
which the prism
ABC-8ED
equivalent
its
divided are equivalent to one-third of the prism.
the pyramid 8is
ABC
is
But the volume

base and altitude.
of the prism
equal to the product of
580
.'.V=\ABCxII.
Q.E.DI
300
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition XVIII.
Theorem.
6P4'. The volume of any pyramid is equal to one' third the product of its base and altitude,
Let V denote the volume ot the pyramid S-ABGDE,

To prove
Proof.
F= ^ ABODE x SO.
pass planes.
Through the edge SI>, and the diagonals of the base'
DA, DB,
These divide the pyramid into triangular pyramids, whose bases are the triangles which compose the base of the pyramid,
and whose common altitude is the altitude 80 of the pyramid. The volume of the given pyramid is equal to the sum of the volumes of the triangular pyramids. But the sum of the volumes of the triangular pyramids is
equal to one-third the
sum
of their bases multiplied
by
their
common
That
605.
altitude.
603
is,
F=- 1 ABODE X SO.

to
a e. d.
each other as
Cor. The volumes of two pyramids are
the products of their bases
altitude^; pyramids having each other as their altitudes; pyramids having equal altitudes are to each other as their bases; pyramids having equivalent bases and equal altitudes are equivalent
and
equivalent bases are
to
Scholium. The volume of any polyhedron may be it into pyramids, computing their volumes and finding the sum of their volumes. separately,
606.
found by dividing
PYEAMIDS.
301
Proposition XIX.
Theorem.
607. The volumes of two tetrahedrons, having a trihedral angle of the one equal to a trihedral angle of the other, are to each other as the products of the
three edges of these trihedral angles.

C'
Let V and V denote the volumes at the two tetrahedrons S'ABC and S-A'B'C, having the common trihedral angle S.
J,
prove
V _ SAxSBxSC
^,
let their
8A^X8B'X8C'
Proof.
Draw
and
CD and CD'
The faces SAB CD, CI)' as the altitudes, and SA'B'-C
to the plane SA^B\ plane intersect SA'B' in SBI)'. and SA'B^ may be taken as the bases, and
of the triangular
pyramids
SAB-C
605
and
SAB X CD SA'B'x CD'

{any two pyramids are
to
SAB
SA'B'
..
CD
C'l)'
each other as the products of their bases

altitudes).
But
and
4^=M^SB^ SA'B' SA' X SB'

cn
.
374 319
CD _^SC
sc'
(being homologous sides of the similar

' '
^ SBC and 8D^C^).

aE.
D.
V _ SAxSBxSC
8A' X SB' X SC*'
302
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
608.
XX.
Theorem.
The frustuTn of a triangular pyramid is equivsum of three pyramids whose common altitude is the altitude of the frustum and whose bases are the lower hase, the upper hase, and a mean
alent to the
proportional between the two bases of the frustuwn.
Let B and b denote the lower and upper bases of the frustum ABC-DEF, and its altitude.
Through the
vertices
A, U,
and U, D,
its
pass planes
dividing the frustum into three pyramids.
Now
the pyramid
E-ABC
has for
altitude
H,
the
alti-
tude of the frustum, and for

frustum.
its
base B, the lower base of the
And
the pyramid
C-EDF
has for
its
altitude
H,
the
alti-
tude of the frustum, and for its base Hence it only remains frustum.
b,
the upper base of the
To prove
altitude
Proof.
E-ADC
H, and for
its
equivalent hase "v
to.
a pyramid, having for

h.
its
BX
E-ABQ 2indi E-ADC,

(7,
mon vertex and common altitude.
their bases in the
regarded as having the comsame plane BD, have a
PYEAMIDS.
.-.
303
:
C-ABE C-ADE = A AEB A AEE,

:
605
{pyramids having equal altitudes are
to
each other as their
bases).
Now since
we have
the
A AEB and AEB have a common altitude,

is,
{that
the altitude of the trapezoid

: :
ABEL),
.-.
That
is,
A AEB A AEB = AB C-ABE C-ABE = AB E-ABC E-ABC= AB

: :
BE, BE.
BE.
370
In like manner
the
E-ABC
common vertex E, and have a common altitude.

.-.
:
their bases in the
and E-BEC, regarded as having same plane BC,

605
E-ABC E-BEC=^ A ABC A BEC

:
But
since the
{that
A ABC and Zî^C have a common altitude,

is,
the altitude of the trapezoid

:
ACFD),
we have
.-.
But
{the section of
A ABC A BEC = AC BE. E-ABC E-BFC= AC BE. -A Dî^ is similar to A ABC,

: :
370
598
is
a pyramid made by a plane
II
to the
base
a polygon
similar to the base).
.-.
Now
and
:.AB'.BE=AC'.BF. E-ABC E-ABC ^ E-ABC E-BFC E-ABC ^\Hy.B, E-BFC = C-EBF= \Hy. b.
: :
319
603
.'.E-ABC=-ViE^xBxiirxb = iJlVBxb.
Hence,
altitude
609.
E-ABC
is
equivalent to a pyramid, having for
its
H, and
for its base
-VB X
b.
o. e. d.
mid
and
is
Cor. If the volume of the frustum of a triangular pyradenoted by V, the lower base by B, the upper base by 6,
the altitude
by
IT,
v=\E:xB-^\E:xb-{-\B:x
=--iirxiB +
b
VbxJ
+ -VB^b).
/^
/
VII.
304
SOLID GEOMETRY. -
BOOK
Proposition XXI.
610.
Theorem.
The volume of the frustum of any pyramid is sum of the volumes of three pyramids equal
to the
whose common altitude is the altitude of the frustum, and whose bases are the lower base, the upper base, and a mean proportional between the bases of
the frustum.
S
Let B and
To prove
the altitude, and
denote the lower and upper bases, V the volume of ABCD-EFGL
V=\II{B + 5 + V^ X b). Proof. Let T-KLM be a triangular pyramid having the same altitude as 8-ABCD and its base KLM=^ ABCD, and Then T-KLM ^ 8-ABCD. 605 lying in the same plane. Let the plane UFG I cut T-KLM in NOP.
Then
NOP
=o=
EFGL
S-PFGZ
leaves
601
Hence T-NOP=o=
Taking away
equivalent.
the
upper pyramids
the
frustums
But the volume

equal to
-^
of the frustum of the triangular
pyramid
is
^(^ + ^ + VBx~b). V^\H{B + h + \/'Bxh).

.-.
609
D.
a E.
^>L^kO
Ij
NUMERICAL EXERCISES.
/^
'
'
vessel
496.
Find the length of an edge of a cubical
which will hold
2 'tons of water.
497.
How many
open at the top, which contains 42 cubic feet ?

^498.
square feet of lead will be required to line a cistern, is 4 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet 8 inches wide, and
^ ^ "T
is
An
open
:
cistern
made
of iron 2 inches thick.
The inner
dimensions are 6 inches.

of water?
^
What
length, 4 feet 6 inches ; breadth, 3 feet ; depth, 2 feet will the cistern weigh (i.) when empty? (ii.) when full
=- 7.2.
^,
"^^
Specific gravity of iron
y^XAûC^
feet
0-^JL(,
^ tT/
feet
^ ^"^
\
499.
An
if
open cistern 6
is J
feet
long and 4|
?
wide holds 108 cubic
of water.
How many cubic

the lead
feet of lead will it
take to line the sides and
bottom,
500.
inch thick
three dimensions of a rectangular parallelepiped are a, find the surface, the volume, and the length of a diagonal.
The
?,
inches,
is
The base of a right prism is a rhombus, one side of which is 10 and the shorter diagonal is 12 inches. The height of the prism 15 inches. Find the entire surface and the volume.
501.
502.
feet,
10
Find the volume of a regular hexagonal prism whose height each side of the hexagon being 10 inches.
is
503.
pyramid 15
feet
At what
"
distance from the vertex
high has a base containing 169 square feet. must a plane be passed parallel to the
?
7
.
base so that the section

504.
allel to
may
contain 100 square feet
The base of a pyramid contains 144 square feet. A plane parthe base and 4 feet from the vertex cuts a section containing 64
;
square feet
505.
find the height of the pyramid.
pyramid 12 feet high has a square base measuring 8 feet on a AVhat will be the area of a section made by a plane parallel to the base and 4 feet from the vertex ? /I
side.
"
I
Two pyramids standing on the same plane are 14 feet high. The has for base a square measuring 9 feet on a side the second a regular hexagon measuring 7 feet on a side. Find the areas of the sections
506.
first
;
fjt.
^
^^ T^-'
made by
v
a plane parallel to their bases and 6 feet from their vertices.

.
507.
The base
feet.
measures 3
of a regular pyramid is a hexagon of which the side Find the height of the pyramid if the lateral area is
equal to ten times the area of the base.
^y^
306
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VII.
'
Peoposition XXII.
611.
Theorem.
is
truncated triangular prism
the
sum of three pyramids whose common
base of the prism, and vertices of the inclined section.
equivalent to base is the whose vertices are the three
Let ABC-DEF be a truncated triangular prism whose base is ABC, and inclined section DBF. Pass the planes AEC and DEC, dividing the truncated
prism into the three pyramids E-ABC, E-ACD, and E-CDF. To prove ABC-DEF equivalent to the sum of the three pyramids,
E-ABC, D~ABC, and F-ABC

E-ABC\\2.^ the base
Proof.
^^Cand
to the
the vertex E.
(for they have
E and B are in the line EB
The pyramid E-A CD ^ B-A CD, 602 the same base A CD and the same altitude, since their vertices
II
base
AGD).
But the pyramid B-ACD may be regarded as having the that is, as D-ABC. base ABC and the vertex
for their
lent,
(&ince the
The pyramid E- CDF^ B-A CF, bases (7Diând ACF, in the same plane, are equiva
369
^ CDF and A CF have
the
common
base
II
their vertices lying in the line
AD
CF and equal altitudes,

to
CF),
PYRAMIDS.
and the pyramids have the same
(since their vertices
307
altitude,
to the
E and B
are in the line

bases
EB
II
plane of
their
ACDF).
be regarded as having the
is,
But the pyramid

base
B-ACF may
F\
that
^^Cand
the vertex
as
F-ABC.
Therefore the truncated triangular prism equivalent to the sum of the three pyramids F-ABC,
ABC-DEF
is
and F-ABC.
B-ABC, a e. d
prism
of a truncated right triangular the product of its base hy one-third the sum For the lateral edges DA, EB, FC, being of its lato'al edges. perpendicular to the base, are the altitudes of the three pyra612.
Cor.
1.
The volume
is
equal
to
mids whose sum

since the
is
volume of a pyramid
altitude, the
equivalent to the truncated prism. And, is one-third the product of its
base by
its
sum
of the
= ABCx\{DA-\-EB + FC).
613.
is
volumes of these pyramids
Cor.
to
2.
The volume of any truncated triangular prism
the product of its right section by one-third iê sum equal For let ABC-A^B^C^ be any truncated of its lateral edges.
Then the right section divides triangular prism. into two truncated right prisms whose volumes are
DEF
it
DEFx\{AD+BE-^ CF) and I)EFxi(AfJD+B'E-i-C'F).

Whence
their
sum
is
I)EFxi(AA'-\- BB'-\-CC*).
308
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Similar Polyhedrons.
614.
Similar polyhedrons are polyhedrons that have the

faces, respectively similar
same number of
and similarly placed,
ai^ their corresponding polyhedral angles equal. Homologous faces, lines, and angles of similar polyhedrons are faces, lines, and angles similarly placed.
615.
Cor.
1.
are proportional.
616. Cor. 2,
The homologous edges of similar polyhedrons 319

are
Two homologous faces of similar polyhedrons

squares of two homologous edges.
proportional
617.
to the
377
Cor.
3.
The
to
are proportional
618.
entire surfaces of two similar polyhedrons the squares of two homologous edges. 303
Cor.
4.
The homologous dihedral angles of similar
polyhedrons are equal.
Proposition XXIII.
619.
Theorem.
into the
to
Two similar polyhedrons inay he decomposed same number of tetrahedrons similar, each and similarly placed. each,
Let P and
P'
be two similar polyhedrons.
SIMILAR POLYHEDRONS.
To prove that the similar polyhedrons
decomposed
to
309
and P' can
be
into the
same number of tetrahedrons, similar each

vertices
each,
Proof.
and
similarly placed.
Through the
A, G,
C,
and the homologous

faces
vertices
A\ G\ Q\
pass planes.
The tetrahedrons
G-ABC
and G'-A'B^C' have the
ABC, GAB, GBO,

G'B'C.
Hence
in the faces
similar respectively to
A'B'C, G'A'B',
332
6^^Cand G'A'C
AG ^( AB\_ AC _( BC\^ GC
A'G'
\A'B'J
A'C
\B'C'J
similar to
G'C'
.319 ^
Therefore the face
GACis
G'A'C
324
Hence the
each.
faces of these tetrahedrons are similar, each to
Also, any two corresponding trihedral
of these tetrahe
drons are equal.

Therefore the tetrahedron
541
G-ABC
is
similar to
G'-A'B'C.
614
and G'-A'B'C* be removed, the polyhedrons for the new faces GAC and will continue similar remaining G'A'C have just been proved similar, and the modified faces 3^nd A'G'F', CGJI &nd C'G'H', will be similar ( 332) also the modified polyhedral A G and G' A and A', Cand
If
;
G-ABC
AGF
C,
will remain equal each to each, since the corresponding
parts taken from them are equal. The process of removing similar tetrahedrons can be carried on until the polyhedrons are reduced to tetrahedrons that is,
;
until the
two similar polyhedrons are decomposed

of tetrahedrons similar each to each,
into the
same number
larly situated.
620,
and
simi-
a E. D.
two homologous lines in two similar polyhe-
Cor.
Any
drons have the sam,e ratio as any two homologous edges.
310
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
621.
XXIV.
Theorem.
to
The volumes of two similar tetrahedrons are each other as the cubes of their homologous edges.
Let V and F denote the volumes of the two similar tetrahedrons S-ABC and S'-A'B'C.
To prove
Proof.
V V
V
V ^ SB
s'B''
Since the homologous trihedral angles
S and
xS"
are
equal,
we have
SBxSCxSA
S'B'
X S'C X S'A'
607
^ 8B
S'B'
SO
S'C
SA
S'A''
But
SB
S'B'
SO
S'C
SA
S'A''
615
SB
S'B'
xMx
S'B'
SB
S'B'
SB"
s^
J73
Q. E. D.
Ex. 508. The homologous edges of two similar tetrahedrons are as 7. Find the rat^ bf theit s^faces and of tJj/ei^jr'v'oluraes.
Ex. 509. If the edge of a tetrahedron

of a similar tetrahedron twice as large.
is a,
find the CI
homologous edge
^^
/7"
"ira}
a.
8'^
SIMILAR POLYHEDRONS.
311
Proposition
XXV.
Theorem.
622. The volumes of two similar polyhedrons are to each other as the cubes of any two homologous edges
Let V, V denote the volumes, GB, G'B' any two homologous edges, of the polyhedrons P and P*,
To prove
Proof.
ilar,
V:V'=0' G^.
:
Decompose these polyhedrons into tetrahedrons simeach to each, and similarly placed. 619
v, Vi, Vj,
,
Denote the volumes of these tetrahedrons by

v\ Vi, vj,
Then
OB"
V^
Vi
QS
Q'l'
V,
_0^
Qi_Bf^
621
Q'l'
V^
V^
=z_L=: -1.
V'
Vi
V2
Whence
v-}-Vi-\-Vi
v'
_v _ GB
v'
4-
Vi'
V2'
Q^^
303
or
V_
GB"
WB''
Q.E.D
312
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Regular Polyhedrons.
623. regular 'polyhedron is a polyhedron whose faces are equal regular polygons, and whose polyhedral angles are equal.
Proposition
624.
XXVI.
Problem.
To determine the numher of regular convex polyhedrons possible.
A
1.
and the sum
convex polyhedral angle must have at least three faces, of its face angles must be less than 360 ( 640). Since each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60, convex
be formed by combining three, four, or The sum of six such angles is 360, five equilateral triangles. and therefore greater than the sum of the face angles of a convex
polyhedral angles
may
polyhedral angle.
Hence not more than three regular convex are possible with equilateral triangles for faces. polyhedrons 2. Since each angle of a square is 90, a convex polyhedral The sum angle may be formed by combining three squares.
of four such angles is 360, and therefore greater than the sum of the face angles of a convex, polyhedral angle. Hence
only one regular convex polyhedron is possible with squares. 3. Since each angle of a regular pentagon is 108, a convex polyhedral angle may be formed by combining three regular
pentagons.
The sum
fore greater than the
sum
of four such angles is 432, and thereof the face angles of a convex polyis
hedral angle.
Hence only one regular convex polyhedron

;
possible with regular pentagons. 4. can proceed no further
We
for the
sum
of three angles
is
of regular hexagons
is
360, of regular heptagons

five regular
greater
than 360,
etc.
Hence only
convex polyhedrons
are possible. There are five regular polyhedrons called, from the number of faces, the tetrahedron, the hexahedron^ the octahedron, the
dodecahedron, the icosahedron.
EEGULAR POLYHEDRONS.
313
Proposition
625.
XXVIL
to
Problem.
tJie
Upon a given edge
construet
regular
polyhedrons.
Let AB be the given edge.

Upon
1.
AB
to
construct the regular polyhedrons.
i = AB.
Oonstmction of the Eegular Tetrahedron. At construct an equilateral triangle. edge in this to its plane, and take a point a
Upon
its
the given
centre erect
Join
D such that DA D to each of the vertices of the triangle ABC.

D-ABCD is
a regular tetrahedron.
The polyhedron'
Proof.
triangles equal, since their face angles are all equal.
The four faces are by construction equal equilateral are ( 480), and the four trihedral angles A, B, C, D,
541
Therefore
2.
D- ABC
is.
a regular tetrahedron.
Oonstmction of the Eegular Hexahedron.
Upon
jr
the given
,Qt
1^
edge AB construct the square ABGD,
and
upon the sides of this square construct the to the plane squares AF, BG, CH, BE,
ABCD.
The polyhedron ^6^
hedron.
Proof.
is
a regular hexa-
by construction A and the eight trihedral angles A, B, equal squares,
The
six faces are
/
C,
D, E,
F, G, H, are equal since their face angles are Therefore -4G^ is a regular hexahedron.
all equal.
541
314
3.
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
edge
and
construct the square CD, through its centre pass a J. to its

this JL take the points
AB
Construction of the Eegular Octahedron.
AM
Upon
the given
plane.
On
to
U and i^
y^ y^
JE
such that
AU and AF are
/[\p \.
each equal
C'^r~--f67^
AB.
Join
of the
ând i^to each of the vertices square ABCD. The polyhedron

a regular octahedron.
Since all the lines from
\^B\^7^/^
>v\i'/
y^
C,
NJjp/^
E-ABQD-Fi^
Proof.
E and F to A, B,
ABCD,
and
are equal ( 480), and each equal to AB, the eight triangles which form the faces are equal and equilateral.
Since
O is
the centre of the square
the diagonal of
^(7 will pass through 0, and the which intersect in are in the same plane. and A are in one plane.
this square
lines
îând
AC
F,
Hence E,
is
C,
In the
all
A AEC, ABQ AFC, the

Z ABC
is
side
AC
common, and
the other sides equal.
( 160); and since are right angles.
Therefore these triangles are equal is a and right angle,
AEC
AFC
Therefore
AECF
Hence the pyramid
B-AECF has
a square equal to the square ABCD. its four faces and its base
AECFqc^wsX
pyramid
angle
to the four faces
and the base
ABCD
of the
E-ABCD.
Therefore the two pyramids are equal, and the tetrahedral is equal to the tetrahedral angle E. In like manner it can be shown that any other two polyhe-
dral angles are equal. octahedron.

4.
nlaff
Therefore the polyhedron
is
a regular
pentagon
Oonstmction of the Eegular Dodecahedron. Construct a regwith its sides equal each to the given edge,
to each of its sides the side of an equal pentagon so as to form trihedral angles at its to the plane of inclined
and join
REGULAR POLYHEDRONS.
vertices.
315
each of
its
Construct a regular pentagon IP M, and join to sides the side of an equal pentagon so inclined
to the plane of
M'
as
to form trihedral angles at its vertices.
We
now have two
equal convex surfaces composed each of six
equal regular pentagons.
The
trihedral
and M' are equal, each to angles formed at the vertices of each ( 541) therefore the dihedral angles are all equal, and the two surfaces can be combined so as to form a single convex
;
surface.
Proof.
Put the two surfaces together with their convexities
turned in opposite directions, so that the vertex a and the side and the side ab shall coincide with the vertex respecThen two consecutive face angles of one surface will tively.
BA
unite with a single face angle of the other, and form a trihedral angle, since any two consecutive faces contain a dihedral
tices of
angle of one of the trihedral angles already formed at the verJf and M'. The trihedral angles, therefore, are all equal, and the polyhedron is a regular dodecahedron.
5.
lar
Oonstruction of the Eegular Icosahedron. with its sides equal pentagon
Construct a regu-
ABODE,
each to the given edge. At its centre erect a to its plane, and in this perpendicular take a point such that AB. Join
E^-
PA =
with each of the vertices of the pentagon, forming a regular pentagonal pyramid, whose vertex is P, and whose dihedral
angles formed oj^ the edges PA, PB, etc., are all equal. 542 Complete the pentahedral angles at A, B, C, etc., adding
to each three equilateral triangles each equal to
PAB,
and
making the dihedral angles about A, B, 0,
etc., all equal.
316
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Construct a regular pentagonal pyramid equal to P-ABCDE. This can be joined

to the convex surface already formed, so as to form a single convex surface.
Proof.
P-A}B^QÛE^
Two
consecutive
face
angles of
one surface will unite with three consecutive face angles of the other, and form a regular pentahedral angle, since they have
together three dihedral angles of such a pentahedral angle. The pentahedral angles are therefore all equal, and the
polyhedron
626.
is
a regular icosahedron.
Scholium.
:
The regular polyhearons may be con-
structed as follows
Draw the diagrams given below on cardboard. Cut through the full lines and half through the dotted lines. Bring the so as to form the respective polyhedrons, and edges together keep the edges in contact by pasting along them strips of
strong paper.
Tetrahedron.
Hexahedron.
Octahedron.
Dodecahedron,
Icosahedron,
POLYHEDRONS.
317
General Theorems of Polyhedrons.

Proposition XXVIII.
627.
Theorem.
(Euler's.)
In any -polyhedron the number of edges

is
in-
creased hy two increased hy the
equal to the nurnber of vertices number of faces.

s
Let E denote the number of edges, V the number of vertices, F the number of faces, of S-ABCDE.
To prove
Proof.
E-\-2^V-\-F.
Beginning with one face ABODE, we have E=V. Annex a second face SAB, by applying one of its edges to a corresponding edge of the first face, and there is formed a
surface having one edge mon to the two faces.
AB and two vertices A
and
coTn-
Annex
C, in
Therefore, for two faces V-\- 1. a third face 8BC, adjoining each of the first two faces
E=
this face will
have two edges, SB, BC, and three vertices S, B,

the surface already formed.
for four faces
common with
Therefore, for three faces
In like manner, And so on
E= V-\E V-{-
2.
3.
for
jP-1)
faces
But
E~l
E=V-\- (E- 2).

when
is
the
number
of faces of the polyhedron
only one face is lacking, and the addition of this face will not increase the number of edges or vertices. faces Hence, for
E=V-i-F-2,
or
E+2 = V+F,
Q.E.ft.
318
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
628.
XXIX.
Theorem.
The sum of the face angles of any polyhedron equal to four right angles tahen as many times, less two, as the polyhedron has vertices*
is
B c Let E denote the number of edges, V the number oi vertices, F the number of faces, and S the sum of the
face angles, of the polyhedron 8-ABCDE, 8 -= (F 2) 4 rt. A. To prove
Proof.
Since
the
number
denotes the number of edges, 2 will denote of sides of the faces, considered as independent
is
polygons, for each edge

If
common
to
two polygons.'
formed at each vertex of every polythe sum of the interior and exterior angles at each vertex gon, is 2 rt. ^ and since there are 2 vertices, the sum of the
an exterior angle
is
;
interior
and exterior angles of
all
the faces
is
2^x2rt. ^,
or
^x4rt.
But the sum of the ext. A of each face is 4 rt. A ( 207), and the number of faces is F] therefore the sum of all the
ext. 2^ is
i^X 4 sum
rt.
A.
is
Therefore S, the
of the int. A,
rt.
{E- F) 4
But
A.
is,
^+ - r+ i^ (
2
627)
that
E-F=V-
2.
Therefore
8==
(Y 2) 4 rt. A.
aB.D
CYLINDERS.
319
The Cylinder.
629. cylindrical surface is a curved surface generated by a moving straight line AB, called the generatrix, which moves parallel to itself and constantly touches a
fixed curve
BODE,
in
called the directrix.
any position is called One element, an element of the surface. and only one, can be drawn through a
given point of a cylindrical surface.
630.
The generatrix
cylinder
is
a solid bounded by
a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes which cut all the elements. The two plane surfaces are called the bases, and the
cylindrical surface
is
called the lateral surface.
631. The altitude of a cylinder is the length of the perpendicular between the planes of its bases. The elements of a cylinder are all equal. 632.
A A
plane perpendicular to
633.
right section of a cylinder is a section its elements.
made by a
cylinder is a right cylinder if its elements are perpendicular to its bases otherwise it is zn oblique cylinder.
;
634.
A circular
cylinder
is
a cylinder whose base
is
a circle.
635. A cylinder of revolution is a cylinder generated revolution of a rectangle about one side as an
axis.
by the
636. Similar cylinders of revolution are cylinders generated by similar rectangles revolv-
ing about homologous sides.

637. tangent line to a cylinder is a straight line, not an element, which touches the surface of the cylinder but does not intersect it.
320
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VII.
638. plane whicli contains an element of the cylinder and does not cut the surface, is called a tangent plane. The element contained by the plane is called the element of contact
639.
A
A
prism
is
edges are elements of the cylinder in the bases of the cylinder.

640.
inscribed in a cylinder when its lateral and its bases are inscribed
prism
is
circumscribed about a cylinder
when
and
its
its
lateral edges are parallel to elements of the cylinder
bases are circumscribed about the bases of the cylinder.
Proposition
641.
XXX.
Theorem.
Every section of a cylinder made hy a plane passing through an element is a parallelogram.
Let
a,
plane pass through the element

section
AD
of the
cylinder AC.
To prove the
Proof.
A BCD
o.
parallelogram.
plane passing through the element the circumference of the base in a second point B.
AD will cut
The
( 98)
;
straight line
BC drawn
II
to
AD lies in the plane DAB

629
and
it is
an element of the cylinder.

Also
Hence
BO
is
the intersection of the plane and the surface
of the cylinder.
Therefore
642.
DO ABOD
is is
II
to
is
AB.
a parallelogram.
492
168
Cor. Every
section of a right cylinder
made by a plane
passing through an element
rectangle.
CYLINDERS.
321
Proposition
\,
XXXL
Theorem.
The bases of a cylinder are equal.
Let ABE and

To prove
Proof.
DCG
be the bases of the cylinder AC,
ABE=DCQ.
Join
the lower base, and
Let A^ B^ E, be any three points in the perimeter of ADy BC^ EG, be elements of the surface.
.%
AE=
AE, AB, EB, DG, DC, GO. Then AC, AG, EC are [EJ. DG, AB = DC, and EB = GC.
182
179
.\AABE=ABCG.
fall
160
shall
Apply the upper base to the lower base so that DC, upon AB. Then G will fall upon E. But G is any point in the perimeter of the upper
base,
therefore every point in the perimeter of the upper base will fall upon the perimeter of the lower base.
Therefore the bases coincide and are equal.644.
aE.D.
Cor.
1.
Ani/ two parallel sections
ABO and A'B'C\

For these
cutting all the elements of a cylinder EF, are equal. sections are the bases of the cylinder C\
645.
Cor.
to
2.
Any
section of a cylinder parallel to the base is
equal
the base.
322
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition XXXII.
646.
Theorem.
The lateral area of a cylinder is equal to the product of the perimeter of a right section of the
cylinder by
an element of the
surface*
Let S denote the lateral area, P the perimeter of a right section, and E an element of the surface of AC\
To prove
Proof.
8=PxE.
ABODE,
and the perimeter of the right Then s=pxE.
section ahcde
the
Inscribe in the cylinder a prism having for its base and denote the lateral area of this polygon
s,
prism by
by p.
561
Let the number of
lateral faces of the inscribed prism be
indefinitely increased, the new edges continually dividing the Then the perimeters of the arcs in the bases of the cylinder.
bases of the prism will approach the perimeters of the bases of the cylinder as limits, and the lateral area of the prism
will approach the lateral area of the cylinder as a limit. Hence the perimeter of the right section of the prism will approach
the perimeter of the right section of the cylinder as a limit. E. But, however great the number of faces,
s=pX
,\S=FxE.
647.
260
Q. E. D.
Cor.
1.
The
the product of the
a cylinder of revolution its base by its altitude. circumference of

lateral area of
is
CYLINDERS.
648. Cor. 2.
323
If 8 denotes the
lateral area,
T the total area, B.
the altitude,
and
R the radius,
of a cylinder of revolution,
8=2'rrExII.
T= 27rR X ir+ 2TrR' = 2TrR{H-\- R).

Proposition XXXIII.
649.
Theorem.
is
The volume of a cylinder

its
equal to the prod-
uct of
base hy its altitude.
Let V denote the volume, B the base, and

altitude, of the cylinder AG.
the
To prove
Proof.
V= BxH.
AO,
and
-B'
Let F' denote the volume of the inscribed prism The altitude of this prism will be H. its base.
Then
If the
W^B'xE:.
number
of lateral faces of the inscribed prism
581
is
in-
definitely increased, the new edges continually dividing the arcs of the bases, B* approaches -S as a limit, and V* approaches
Fas its limit. But however great the number of the
lateral faces,
V'^B'xH. .\y = BxH.

650.
260
ae.0.
Cor. If
denotes the volume,
the radiums,
the
altitude, of
is ttR",
a cylinder of
revolution, then the area of the base
and
V^ttR'xH.
324
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
651.
XXXIV.
Theorem.
The
lateral areas, or the total areas, of similar
each other as the squares of their altitudes, or of their radii; and their volumes are to each other as the cubes of their altitudes, or
eylinclers of revolution are to
of their radii.
denote the lateral areas, T, T' the total the volumes, II, H* the altitudes, R* R' the radii, of two similar cylinders of revolution.
Let
S, S*
V,
areas,
To prove
S' =^
T'
and
Proof.
V:V' = ir':
W
B}
= IP H" = B' = R'' B'\

:
:
B'\
Since the generating rectangles are similar,
H'
^^
'
W-\-B!
Therefore, by 648, 650,
jS'
I-kR'W
R'
R''
H^''
T^
T'
2'jrR(II+R)
27rR'(II'+R')
^R fE+R \ ^^. R"

r\iI'+R'J
m
j^n
R'll
ttR^H'.
^\K=K^^ ^'' R" M'

R''
CONES.
325
The Cone.
conical surface is the surface generated by a moving 652. straight line called the generatrix, passing through a fixed point called the vertex, and constantly touching a fixed curve
called the directrix.
653.
The generatrix
in
called
an element of the
any position is If the surface.
generatrix is of indefinite length, the surface consists of two portions, one above and the
other below the vertex, which are called the upper and lower nappes, respectively.
Through a given point in a conical surface one element, and only one, can be drawn.
654.
If the directrix is a closed curve, the
solid
its
bounded by the
is
conical surface
and a plane cutting

is
all
elements
called a cone.
The
conical surface
called the
lateral surface,
and the plane surface the
hose, of the cone.
The length
of the perpendicular from the vertex to the plane of the base is called the altitude of the cone.
655.
A circular cone
is
is
a cone whose base
is
circle.
The
is
straight line joining the vertex called the axis of the cone.
If the axis
and the centre
of the base
right cone
656.
perpendicular to the base, the cone is called a otherwise, the cone is called an oblique cone.
a cone whose axis
is
A right circular cone is

its base,
it
perpen-
dicular to
tion,
and
because
may
called a cone of revolube generated by the revoluis
tion of a right triangle about one of its legs as an axis. The hypotenuse in any position is an
element of the surface, and

height of the cone.
is
called the slant
326
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
657. Similar cones of revolution are cones generated by the revolution of similar right triangles about homologous legs. 658.
A A
which touches the surface
tangent line to a cone is a line, not an element, of the cone and does not cut it.
659. plane which contains an element of the cone and The eledoes not cut the surface, is called a tangent plane. ment contained by the plane is called the element of contact. 660.
A pyramid is inscribed in
and
its
a cone
base
when
its lateral
edges
are elements of the cone

of the cone.
661.
is
inscribed in the base
pyramid
is
circumscribed about a cone
when
its
its
base
is
circumscribed about the base of the cone and
vertex
coincides with the vertex of the cone.

662. A frustum of a cone is the portion of a cone included between the base and a section parallel to the base and cut-
ting all the elements.

663.
The base
of the cone
is
called the lower base of the
frustum, and the parallel section the upper

base.
664.
The
altitude of a frustum of a cone
is
the length of the perpendicular between the
planes of
665.
its bases.
lateral surface of a frustum of a cone is the portion of the lateral surface of the cone included between the
The
bases of the frustum.

666. The slant height of a frustum of a cone of revolution is the portion of any element of the cone included between the
CONES.
Proposition
667.
XXXV.
The
ing through
Every section of a cone made hy a plane passits vertex is a triangle.
Let a plane pass through the vertex S and cut the base in BD.
To prove the
Proof.
section
8BD a triangle.
SB and
SD.
Draw
the straight lines
Then SB and SD are elements and they lie in the cutting plane,
of the surface of the cone,
since they
have each two
Hence they are the interpoints in common with the plane. sections of the conical surface with the cutting plane.
And
BB
is
a straight line.
471
Therefore the section
SBI)
is
a triangle.
Q.E.D
Ex. 510. Show that any

a cone
is
lateral face of a
pyramid circumscribed about
tangent to the cone.
Ex. 511. The diagonals of a parallelepiped bisect each other.
Ex. 512. The square of a diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped

equal to the
is
sum
of the squares of
its
three dimensions.
328
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
668.
XXXVI.
Theorem.
Every section of a circular cone made hy a plane parallel to the base is a circle*
Let the section abc of the circular cone S-ABC be parallel to the base.
To prove that abc
Proof. in
is
circle.
Let be the centre of the base, and let a be the point which the axis SO pierces the plane of the parallel section. Through SO and the elements SA, SB, etc., pass planes
cutting the base in the radii OA, OB, etc., and the section ahc in the straight lines oa, oh, etc. Since ahc is to ABC, oa and ob are respectively to
II II
OA
492
and OB.
Therefore the
A SOA and SOB.

But
A Soa and Sob are similar respectively to the

106, 321
" _oa_ _ fSo\ _

,
oh
OA~\SOJ~ OB
OA =
.*.
OB.
drawn from o
a O.
211
to the perimeter
oa = oh.
That is, all the straight lines of the section are equal.
.'.
the section ahc
is
q. c. o.
669.
Cor.
centres of all the sections
The axis of a circular cone passes through which are parallel to the base.
the
CONES.
329
Proposition
670.
XXXVII.
Theorem.
The lateral area of a cone of revolution is equal one-half the product of the slant height hy the circumference of the base.
to
Let S denote the lateral area, C the circumference of the base, and L the slant height, of the cone.
To prove
Proof.
8=^CxL.
S-ABCD
circumscribed about the cone.
ABCD,
lar
Circumscribe about the base any regular polygon and upon this polygon as a base construct the regu-
pyramid
If the lateral area of this
pyramid
is s,
the perimeter p, the
slant height
L,s=^^pX
L.
596
Let the number of the lateral faces of the circumscribed

indefinitely increased, the new edges continually Then p and s approach C and bisecting the arcs of the base. respectively as their limits.
pyramid be
But however great the number

pyramid,
s
of lateral
faces
of the
= ^pxL.
260
.'.S=iCxL.
671.
a E. D.
Cor. Since
C=27rR,
419
The
total area
T=7rRL-\-7rR''
=7rRiL+E).
330
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition
672.
XXXVIII.
is
Theorem.
The volume of any cone

its
of one-third of
hase hy its altitude.
Let V denote the volume, altitude of the cone.

To prove
Proof.
the base, and
the
V=\BxII.
A-CDEFO
by H.
Let the volume of an inscribed pyramid
be denoted by
V\
its
base by B' and
its
altitude
Then
V'=^\B'XII.
604
Let the number of lateral faces of the inscribed pyramid

be indefinitely increased, the new edges continually dividing the arcs in the base of the cone. Then "F' approaches "Fas its
limit,
and B^ approaches B as its limit. But however great the number of lateral face^ of the pyramid,
V^
.'.V
= ^B^XH.
=\B
is
xH.
revolution,
260
Q. E. D.
673.
Cor. If the cone
radius of the hase,
^ ~ ^7^2 /g 425),
V=\7rR'xH.
a cone of
and
is
the
and
CONES.
331
Proposition
XXXIX.
Theorem.
674. The lateral areas, or the total areas, of two similar cones of revolution are to each other as the squares of their altitudes, or of their radii; and their volumes are to each other as the cubes of their altitudes, or of their radii.
total areas,
denote the lateral areas, T and T' the the volumes, II and H' the altitudes, R and R' the radii, L and L' the slant heights, of two similar cones of revolution.
Let S and
S'
V and V
To prove
S'
and
Proof.
V:
= IT' V'= IP IT" = E'

:
=T
T'
JB^"
R^'
= B' M'' = B V\
: :
B'.B\
Since the generating triangles are similar,
H _R _L _ L-\-R
H'
Therefore,
R'
IJ
319, 303
n-\-R}'
by
671, 673,
8 _ tvRL __R
jS'
ttR'B' RB'
R'
L _R'
R''
^B ^B''
B'
R'
B"
B' B_ B'
r
and
-R{L-\-R)
'7rR'(B
+ R')
=4.x L + R
R'
B-i-R'
R"
_B
^ttR'^B'
\^R'B _R^ R"
H
B'
R"
B\
B"
332
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Proposition XL.
675.
Theorem.
The
lateral area of the

is
frustum of a eone of
revolution
equal
to
ferences of
its bases
of the circumthe slant height. multiplied hy
one-half the
sum
Let S denote the lateral area, C and c the circumferences of its bases, R and r their radii, and L the slant height. ^ To prove S=^{C+c)xL.
Circumscribe about the frustum of the eone the frustum of
the regular pyramid ABCD-A^B^C'D\ and denote the lateral area of this frustum by s, the perimeters of its lower and upper and p respectively, and its slant height by L. bases by
Then
= \{P-{-p)xL.
597
Let the number of lateral faces be indefinitely increased, the new elements constantly bisecting the arcs of the bases. Then
P and p approach
5
C and
c,
But, however great the tum of the pyramid,
number
respectively, as their limits. of lateral faces of the frus-
= |(P+j9)xi;.
:.8=\{C-\-c)xL.
260
aE.
D.
Cor. The lateral area of a frustum of a cone of revolution is equal to the circumference of a section equidistant from
676.
its
bases multiplied hy
its
slant height.
CONES.
333
Proposition XLI.
677.
Theorem.
is
The volume of a frustum of a cone
equiva-
lent to the sum, of the volumes of three cones whose common altitude is the altitude of the frustum and
whose bases are the lower
mean
base, the upper base, and a between the bases of the frustum. proportional
base, h its
Let V denote the volume of the frustum, B upper base, and H its altitude.
To prove
its
lower
V= J ir(B + h + V^ X
b).
Let V* denote the volume, ' and h* the lower and upper bases, and -S"the altitude, of an inscribed frustum of a
Proof.
pyramid.
Then
V' = iir(B' + b' +
VWxV).
610
Let the number of lateral faces of the inscribed frustum be

indefinitely increased, the new edges continually dividing the arcs in the bases of the frustum of the cone. Then, however
great the
number
of lateral
faces
of the
frustum of the
pyramid,
yf^^ ^^^r _^ j, _^ VBxI'). :.V =^B:{B '\-h~\-VBxb).

is
260
a E. D.
678.
R and r are the radii of bases, we have B = icB^^ b = wr^, and VB Xb~ trRr. F= I ',rII{R'' + r' + Rr).
its
.-.
Cor. If the frustum
that of
a cone of revolution, and
H
334
SOLID GEOMEl'RY.
Find the volume
513.
'^^^
BOOK
VII.
The Pyramid.
in cubie feet of a regular
is
pyramid
When
height
its
is
base
feet.
a square, each side measuring 3
feet
4 inches,
and
4
its
514.
feet,
When
and
its
its
base
is
is
an equilateral triangle, each side measuring

feet.
height
its
is
15
is
515.
When
height
base
a regular hexagon, each side measuring 6
feet,
and
its
30
feet.
Find the
^
total surface in square feet of a regular
516.
When When
is
each side of
its
square base
is
8 feet,
pyramid and the slant height

:
is
20
feet.
517.
each side of
its
triangular base
is
feet,
and the slant
height
518.
18
feet.
When
is
each side of
84
feet.
its
square base
is
26
feet,
and the perpendic-
jularheight
519.
Find the height in feet of a pyramid when The volume is 26 cubic feet 936 cubic
is
inches,
and each
side of
its
square base
520.
3 feet 6 inches.
feet,
are 5
feet,
The volume is 20 cubic 4 feet, and 3 feet. The base edge
and the
sides of its trls-ngular base
521.
ures 40
522.
feet,
feet,
of a regular pyramid with a square base measthe lateral edge 101 feet find its volume in cubic feet.
;
Find the volume of a regular pyramid whose slant height is 12 and whose base is an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle
feet.
having a radius of 10
523.
Having given the base edge
a,
and the
total surface
T, of
regular pyramid with a square base, find the volume V.

524. The base edge of a regular pyramid whose base the total surface T; find the height of the pyramid.
is
a square
is
a,
525. The eight edges of a regular pyramid with a square base are equal in length, and the total surface is T; find the length of one edge.
526. Find the base edge a of a regular pyramid with a square base, having given the height h and the total surface T.
NUMERICAL EXERCISES.
335
Cylinders and Cones.

627.
If the total surface of a right circular cylinder closed at
o,
both
ends
is
and the radius
of tlie base
is
r,
what
is
the height of the
cylinder ?
---
528.
volume
c
is h,
If the lateral surface of a right circular cylinder find the radius of the base and the height.
is
a,
and the
529. How many cubic yards of earth must be removed in constructing a tunnel 100 yards long, whose section is a semicircle with a radius of 10 feet ?
530.
If the diameter of a well
how many
foot?
'^
is 7 feet, and the water is 10 feet deep, gallons of water are there, reckoning 7J gallons to the cubic
531.
"When a body
is
60 centimeters
find the
in diameter, the level of the
placed under water in a right circular cylinder water rises 30 centimeters ;
volume
of the body.
is
"^532. If the circumference of the base of a right circular cylinder c, and the height Ti, find the volume V.
533.
in
Having given the

is
total surface
of a right circular cylinder,
which the height volume V.

^
equal
to
the
diameter of the base, find the
534.
c,
'
and thedotal surface

535.
If the circumference of the base of a right circular cylinder is T, find the volume V.
is
distance
The slant height of a right circular cone is 2 feet. At what from the vertex must the slant height be cut by a plane
parallel to the base, in order that the lateral surface into two equivalent parts ?
may
be divided
y^
its
636.
The height of a
;
base
right circular cone is equal to the diameter of find the ratio of the area of the base to the lateral surface.
is
>>*^ 5S.7.
conical tent 12 feet in diameter

'^
"What length of canvas f of a yard wide and 8 feet high ?
required to
make a
and
538.
The circumference of the base of a

;
circular cone
is
12^
feet,
its
height 8^ feet
find its volume.

total surface
;
/^ ^39.
Given the
2'
of a right circular
V.
cone,
and the
radius r of the base
find the
volume
of 0. Given the total surface /^1-i. lateral surface 8; find the volume V.
a right circular cone, and the
''j
336
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VII.
Frustums of Pyramids and Cones.

^,,.^^541.
if
How many square feet of tin will be required to make a funnel the diameters of the top and bottom are to be 28 inches and 14 inches respectively, and the height 24 inches ?
542.
Find the expense of polishing the curved surface of a marble
column
is
in the shape of the frustum of a right cone whose slant height 12 feet, and the radii of the circular ends are 3 feet 6 inches and 2
feet
4 inches respectively, at 60 cents a square

the length of each side of
;
foot.
is
~S43.
The slant height of the frustum of a regular square pyramid

its
20
^
feet,
base 40
feet,
of each side of
its
top
16 feet
544.
find its volume.
If the bases of the frustum of a
pyramid are two regular hexa-
gons whose sides are 1 foot and 2 feet respectively, and the volume of the frustum is 12 cubic feet find its height.
:
The frustum of a right circular cone is 14 feet high, and has a volume of 924 cubic feet. Find the radii of its bases if their sum is 9 feet.
545.
whose slant height is 30 feet, and there is cut off by a plane parallel to the base a cone whose slant height is 6 feet. Find the convex surface and the volume of the frustum.
546.
From a
right circular cone

is
circumference of whose base
10
feet,
Find the difference between the volume of the frustum of a ,\ 547. pyramid whose bases are squares, measuring 8 feet and 6 feet respectively on a side, and the volume of a prism of the same altitude whose base is a section of the frustum parallel to its bases and equidistant from
them.
548. A Dutch windmill in the shape of the frustum of a right cone is 12 meters high. The outer diameters at the bottom and the top are 16 meters and 12 meters, the inner diameters 12 meters and 10 meters, How many cubic meters of stone were required to respectively.
^
build it?
The chimney of a factory has the shape of a frustum of a reguIts height is 180 feet, and its upper and lower bases are squares whose sides are 10 feet and 16 feet respectively. The flue is How many cubic feet of throughout a square whose side is 7 feet.
549.
lar
pyramid.
material does the chimney contain

;>*^
the frustum of a cone of revolution, and the convex surface 8. having given the slant height a, the height
550.
Find the volume
V of
NUMEEICAL EXERCISES.
337
Equivalent
551.
Solids.
prism whose base
cube whose edge is 12 inches long is transformed into a right is a rectangle 16 inches long and 12 inches wide.
the difference between
its
Find the height of the prism, and and the surface of the cube.
^
total surface
552.
Find
(i.)
The dimensions of a rectangular parallelopiped are a, b, c the height of an equivalent right circular cylinder having a
;
for the radius of its base
(ii.)
the height of an equivalent right circular
cone having a
*^
for the radius of its base.
553.
prism with an equivalent base
regular pyramid 12 feet high is transformed into a regular what is the height of the prism ?
;
554.
The diameter of a cylinder
is
14
feet,
and
its
height
is
8 feet;
is
find the height of an equivalent right prism, the base of square with a side 4 feet long.
^
which
555.
If one edge of a cube
is a,
what
is
is
the height h of an equivalent

?
right circular cylinder

556.
whose diameter
9.
The heights of two equivalent right circular cylinders are as The diameter of the first is 6 feet what is the diameter of the
;
other?
^
557.
right circular cylinder 6 feet in diameter is equivalent to a If the height of the cone is 8 circular cone 7 feet in diameter. right
feet,
what
is
the height of the cylinder
The frustum of a regular four-sided pyramid is 6 feet high, and What is the its bases are 5 feet and 8 feet respectively. of an equivalent regular pyramid whose base is a square with a height
"^558.
the sides of
side 12 feet long
diameters of
The frustum of a cone of revolution is 5 feet high, and the find the height its bases are 2 feet and 3 feet respectively of an equivalent right circular cylinder whose base is equal in area to the section of the frustum made by a plane parallel to its bases, and
;
^ 559.
equidistant from the bases.

560. Find the edge of a cube equivalent whose edge measures 3 inches.
- 561. Find the edge of a cube equivalent whose edge measures 3 inches.
to
a regular tetrahedron
to a
regular octahedron
838
SOLID aEOMETRY.
BOOK
3
VII.
Similar Solids.
^ 562. The dimensions of a trunk are 4
563.
feet, feet,
feet.
What are
the
dimensions of a trunk similar in shape that will hold four times as

-
much ?
By what number must the dimensions of a cylinder

(i.)
be multiplied
in order to obtain a similar cylinder
that of the
564.
first;
(ii.)
whose surface shall be n times whose volume shall be n times that of the first?
is cut by a plane which passes midway between the vertex and the plane of the base. Compare the volumes of the entire pyramid and the pyramid cut off.
pyramid
^ 565.
The height
is
side of the base
of a regular hexagonal pyramid is 36 feet, feet. What are the dimensions of a similar
and one
pyramid
4 meters.
whose volume
566.
is
^^g-
that of the
first ?
The length of one of the

from the vertex will
lateral edges of a
pyramid
is
How
base,
far
this
edge be cut by a plane parallel to the
which divides the pyramid into two equivalent parts ? The length of a lateral edge of a pyramid is a. At what distances from the vertex will this edge be cut by two planes parallel to the base, which divide the pyramid into three equivalent parts ?
^ 567.
^ 568. The length of a lateral edge of a pyramid is a. At what distance from the vertex will this edge be cut by a plane parallel to the base, and dividing the pyramid into two parts which are to each other as 3: 4?
569.
feet.
'
The volumes of two similar cones are 54 cubic feet and 432 cubic The height of the first is 6 feet what is the height of the other ?
;
In each of two right circular cylinders the diameter is equal to the height. The volume of one is f that of the other. What is the
570.
ratio of their heights
?
Find the dimensions of a right circular cylinder |f as large as a similar cylinder whose height is 20 feet, and diameter 10 feet.
571.
572.
The height of a cone of revolution

r.
is
A,
and the radius of
its
base
large
is ?
What
are the dimensions of a similar cone three times as
The height of the frustum of a right cone is | the height of the Compare the volumes of the frustum and the entire cone. 574. The frustum of a pyramid is 8 feet high, and two homologous edges of its bases are 4 feet and 3 feet respectively. Compare the vol- / ume of the frustum and that of the entire pyramid.
"^573.
entire cone.
'^
BOOK
VIII.
THE SPHERE.
Plane Sections and Tangent Planes.
679.
A
A
sphere
of which
680.
is
a solid bounded by a surface every point distant from a point called the centre. equally
is
semicircle
ACB about its diameter AB as an axis.
sphere
may
be generated by the revolution of a
681.
A radius A
of a sphere
i
is
a straight line
drawn from
its
centre to
682.
its surface,
diameter of a sphere is a straight line passing the centre and limited by the surface. through Since all the radii of a sphere are equal, and a diameter is equal to two radii, all the diameters of a sphere are equal.
683.
A line
Two
or plane
is
and only
684.
one, point in
common with
tangent to a sphere when it has one, the surface of the sphere.
spheres are tangent to each other
when
their
surfaces have one,
and only
one, point in
common.
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition
685.
I.
Theorem.
is
Every section of a sphere made hy a plane
circle.
Let
tion
be the centre of a sphere, and

plane.
section
ABD any
sec-
made by a
Draw
rt.
To prove that the

Proof.
ABD
is
a
to
circle.
the radii
OA, OB,
the boundary of the section, d,nd
any two points A, B/\n draw OQ 1. to the section.
In the
OAC, OBC, OCia common.
Also
OA =
CA =
OB,
(being radii of the sphere).
.'.AOAO=AOBC,
.-.
161
sec-
CB.
tion
In like manner any two points in the boundary of the may be proved to be equally distant from O.
Hence the
686.
section
1.
ABB
is
a circle whose centre
is C.
.q. e. d.
Cor.
The
line joining the centre of

is_
centre of a circle of the sphere the circle.

687.
perpendicular
a sphere to the to the plane of

dis-
OoR.
2.
Circles of
a sphere made hy planes equally
AO
fore
For tant from the centre are equal. and OCare the same for all equally distant circles
AC = AO ~ OC
;
and
there-
AC
IB
the same.
THE SPHERE.
688.
341
COE.
3.
Of two
circles
made hy planes unequally distant

For, in the expression
from
AG = AO 00 ,as OC decreases, ^(7 increases. A great circle of a sphere a section made by a plane
is
the centre, the nearer is the larger.
which passes through the centre of the sphere.

690. A small circle of a sphere is a section made by a plane which does not pass through the centre of the sphere.
j691
The axis
is
sphere which
of a circle of a sphere is the diameter of the perpendicular to the plane of the circle. The
.
ends of the axis are tailed the poles.

692.
693.
Parallel circles have the same axis
and the same
poles.
All great
circles
of a sphere are equal.
694.
Every great circle bisects the sphere.

is
;
For the two parts
into
which the sphere
will coincide
divided can be so placed that they otherwise there would be points on the surface
unequally distant from the centre.

695.
Two
great circles bisect each other.
tion of their planes passes through the centre, of each circle.

696.
For the intersecand is a diameter
great circles whose planes are perpendicular pass each other s poles; and conversely. through
697. Through two given points on the surface of a sphere an arc of a great circle Tnay always be drawn. For the two given points together with the centre of the sphere determine the
Two
plane of a great circle whose circumference passes through the two given points.
If the
two given points are the ends of a diameter, the

;
posi-
tion of the circle is not determined
for
through a diameter
an indefinite number of planes

698.
may
be passed.
Through three given points on the surface of a sphere one circle may be drawn, and only one. For the three points
determine one, and only one, plane.
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition
II.
Theorem.
?99P The shortest distance on the surface of a sphere between any two points on that surface is the arc, not greater than a semi-circumference, of the great circle which joins them.
Let AB be the arc of a great circle which Joins any two points A and B on the surface of a sphere ; and let ACPQB be any other line on the surface between A and B.
To prove
Proof.
Let
ACFQB > AB. P be any point in A CFQB.
Let arcs of great circles pass through A, P, and P, B. 697 Join A, P, and with the centre of the sphere 0. of the triheThe A AOB, AOP, and POB are the face
dral angle whose vertex is at 0. The arcs AB, AP, and are measures of these A. 262
'
PB
Now Z
AOP+Z POB
.-.
is
greater than
Z AOB,
639
PB > arc AB. AP-\In like manner, joining any point in ACP With. A and P, and any point in PQB with P and P, by arcs of great (D, the sum of these arcs will be greater than arc AP-\- arc PB
arc arc
;
and therefore greater than arc AB.

If this process be indefinitely repeated, the sum of the arcs of the great will increase and always be greater than AB. Therefore which is the limit of the sum of these
ACPQB,
than
arcs, is greater
AB.
q.e.d.
THE SPHERE.
700.
343
of
By
is
a sphere
the distance between two points on the surface meant the arc of a great circle joining them.
Proposition
701.
III.
Theorem.
ence of
The distances of all points in the circumfera circle of a sphere from its poles are equal.
Let
P,
any points on
Proof.
be the poles of the circle ABC, and A, B, its circumference.

circle arcs
C,
To prove that the great
PA, PB,
PC are equal.
The
straight lines
PA, PB,
PA,
Therefore the arcs
PC are equal, PB, PC are equal.

PA, PB,
478
230
In like manner, the great be proved equal.

702.
circle arcs
PC may
q, e. d.
The
distance from the nearer pole of a circle to any
point in the circumference of the circle is called the polar distance of the circle.
703.
Cor.
1.
rant-arc.
is
For
it is
The polar distance of a great circle is a quadthe measure of a right angle whose vertex
at the centre of the sphere.

704.
Scholium. The distances of
all
ference of a circle of a sphere from

equal.
any point in
points in the -circumits axis are
344
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition IV.
Theorem.
705. A point on the surface of a sphere, which is at the distance of a quadrant from each of two other points, not the extremities of a diameter, is a pole of
the great circle passing through these points*
Let the distances PA and PB be quadrants.

To prove A and B.
Proof.
P a pole
The
.'.
of the great circle which passes through
A FOA
is
and
FOB are
rt.
to
A,
a quadrant).

{because each
measured by an arc equal
FO is X to
Hence
the plane of the
O ABC,
to
472
691
is
a pole of the
O ABO.
aE.D.
706.
Cor. The above theorem enables us
describe with the
compasses an arc of a great circle through two given points and as and For, if with of the surface of a sphere.
centres,
and an opening of the compasses equal to the chord of a quadrant of a great circle, we describe arcs, these arcs will cut at a point P, which will be the pole of the great circle Then with as centre, the arc passing through A and B. A and may be described. passing through
In order to make the opening of the compasses equal to the chord of a quadrant of a great circle, the radius or the diameter of the sphere must be given.
THE SPHERE.
345
Proposition V.
Problem.
to
Given a material sphere
find
its
radius.
Let PBP'C represent a material sphere.

It is required to find
Oonstraction.
its
diameter,
From any
point
of the given surface, with
of the compasses, describe the circumference is known. on the surface. Then the straight line
any opening
ABC
PB
Take any three points A, B, and C in this circumference, and with the compasses measure the chord distancea-4^, BC, and CA.
Construct the
A
rt.
A*B'C\ with
sides equal respectively to
AB, BC, and CA, and circumscribe a O about the A A'B'C. is The radius B'B' of this equal to the radius of O ^^C.
Construct the
and one
side
Draw
Proof,
hp'
hd = B^jy. to hp, and meeting pd produced
bdp, having the hypotenuse bp

in
= BP,
p\
Then pp^
drawn.
is
equal to the diameter of the given sphere.
Suppose the diameter

^j^^
PP and the straight line PB

^
Hence the
^ ^^p ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^1^ A PBP andpJp' are equal.

Therefore j9p' = PP'.
is
^g^
149
And ^pp^
equal to the radius.
q. e.f.
346
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition VI.
708.
Theorem.
its ex-
tremity
is
plane perpendicular to a radius at tangent to the sphere.
he the centre of a sphere, and MN a plane perpendicular to the radius OP, at its extremity P
Let
To prove
Proof.
MN tangent
is
to
the sphere.
From
draw any other
straight line
OA
to the
plane
MN.
OF<OA,
(a A.
the shortest distance from
477
a point
to
a plane).
Therefore the point

Similarly
is
without the sphere.
we may prove
that every point, except P, in the
plane
MNis
without the sphere,
Therefore
MN
is
tangent to the sphere at P.

to
683
Q.E. D.
709.
to the
Cor.
1.
A plane tangent
to the
a sphere
is
perpendicular
radius drawn
point of contact.
lies
Cor. 2. straight line taîgent to a circle of a sphere in a plane tangent to the sphere at the point of contact.^ 4:7 S 711. Cor. 3. Any straight line in a tangent plane through
710.
the point of contact is tangent to the sphere at that point

712.
Cor.
at the
4.
The plane of
is
sphere
same point
straight lines tangent to tangent sphere at that point.

tivo
to the
THE SPHERE.
713.
all
347
sphere is said to be inscribed in a polyhedron when the faces of the polyhedron are tangent to the sphere.
714.
dron when
sphere is said to be circumscrihed about a polyheall the vertices of the polyhedron lie in the surface
of the sphere.
Proposition VII.
715.
Theorem.
sphere
may
he inscribed in
any given
tetra-
hedron.
B
Let ABCD he the given tetrahedron.
To prove that a sphere
Proof.
may
be inscribed in
ABCD.
AB, BC, and
Bisect the dihedral
A at the
edges
AC
by the planes GAB, OBC, and OAC, respectively. Every point in the plane GAB is equally distant from the ^ and ABD. faces 525 For a like reason, every point in the plane OBC is equally distant from the faces d^nd. DBC\ and every point in the
ABC
ABC
plane GACi?, equally distant from the

Therefore 0, the
is
faces
^jSCand ADC.
common
intersection of these three planes,
equally distant from the four faces of the tetrahedron.^^** as a centre, and with the Hence a sphere described with
to each face,
radius equal to the distance from to any face, will be tangent and will be inscribed in the tetrahedron, 713
aE.D.
716.
Cor.
The six planes which
bisect the six
dihedral angles
of a tetrahedron intersect in the
same
point.
348
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition VIII.
Theorem.
717. A sphere inay he cireuTnscribed about any given tetrahedron.
Let ABCD be the given tetrahedron.

Proof.
To prove that a sphere may he circumscrihed about ABCD. Let M, N, respectively be the centres of the circles
circumscribed about the faces
ABC, ACD.
Let also
MR be to face ABC, WS to face ACJ).

is
MR
and
if
the locus of points equidistant from A, B, C,

C,
N8 is the locus of points equidistant from A,

Also
D.^ 480
'middle
MR and JVS
X
to
lie in
the same plane.

its
For,
a plane
AC
he passed through
point, this plane will contain all points equidistant
from
and
a
.*.
MR and NS must
is
482
can-
lie in this
plane.
II,
Also
not be
MR
II,
to planes which are not and iV/S', being and must therefore meet at some point 0.
.'.
D, and a spherical surface whose centre is 0, and radius OA. will pass through the points A, B, C, and D. ae. d
718.
equidistant from A, B, C, and
Cor.
1.
of the faces of
719.
The four perpendiculars erected at the centres a tetrahedron meet at the same point.
Cor.
2.
The
six
planes perpendicular
to
the edges of a
tetrahedron at their middle points intersect at the
same point
THE SPHERE.
349
Proposition IX.
Theorem.
720. The intersection of two spherical surfaces is the circumference of a circle whose plane is perpendicular to the line joining the centres of the surfa^ces and whose centre is in that line.
Let 0, 0' be the centres of the spherical surfaces, and let a plane passing through 0, 0' cut the sphere in great circles whose circumferences intersect each other in the points A and B.
To prove that the spherical surfaces intersect in the circumference of a circle whose plane is perpendicular to 00', and whose cent^t is the point C where meets OO.
Proof.
The common chord
AB AB X
is
to
at
(7,
00' and bisected 249
{yolien
two circumferences intersect each other, the line joining their centres is 1. to the common chord at its middle point).
If the plane of the two great circles revolve about 00', their circumferences will generate the two spherical surfaces, and the point will describe the line of intersection of the surfaces.
But during the revolution to 00'. and
^C will remain constant in length

A
will be the circumference of a circle
Therefore the line of intersection described by the point whose centre is C and
is
whose plane
to
00',
473
Q.E.D.
350
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Figures on the Surface of a Sphere.

721, The angle of two curves passing through the same point the angle formed by the two straight lines tangent to the If the two curves are arcs of great circurves at that point.
is
cles,
tha angle
is
called a spherical angle.
Proposition X.
(723/
Theorem.
spherical angle is
its sides
a great
circle described
measured by the arc of from its vertex as a pole and

(produced if necessary).
included between
Let AB, AC be arcs of great circles intersecting at A; AB' and AC, the tangents to these arcs at A; BC an arc of a great circle described from A as a pole and included between AB and AC.
To prove that the spherical
Proof.
Z.
BACis
measured hy arc BC.
Draw
the radii
is
In the plane
AOB, AB'
and
.-.
OB
is
to to
II II
Similarly,
.-.
AB' is AQ' is to OC. Z B'AC'=Z. BOC.

is
OA, OB, OC. AO, ^0. to OB.
240
100
498
But
.. .'.
Z BOC Z B'AC Z BAC
723.
Cor.
measured by arc BC. 262 is measured arc BC. by q. e. d. is measured by arc ^(7. has the same measure as the spherical angle
circles.
dihedral angle formed hy the planes of the two
THE SPHERE.
351
Proposition
724.
XL
Problem.
given point perpendicular

circle.
To describe an arc of a great circle through a to a given arc of a great
Let A be a point on the surface of a sphere, CHD an arc of a great circle, P its pole.
To describe an arc of a great
to
circle
through
perpendicular
CHD.
Oonstmction.
From
as a pole describe an arc of a great
circle cutting
CHD at
E.
From
-E*
as a pole describe the arc
AB through
A.
Then ^J5
The arc by construction. pole
Proof.
is
the arc required.
AB
is
the arc of a great circle, and
is its
703
The point
is
at the distance of a quadrant from P. 703
AB produced will pass through P. And since the spherical Z. PBE measured by an arc of a 722 great circle extending from B to E, a right angle. the Z ABD J. to the arc CHD. Therefore the arc AB o n
Therefore the arc
is
is
is
Ex. 575. Every point in a great circle which bisects a given arc of a great circle at right angles, is equidistant from the extremities of the
given
arc.
352
"^725.
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
spherical polygon
is
a portion of the surface of a
sphere bounded by three or more arcs of great circles. The bounding arcs are the sides of the polygon the angles which they form are the angles of the polygon their points^
; ;
of intersection are the vertices of the polygon. The values of the sides of a spherical polygon are usually expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
726. The planes of the sides of a spherical polygon form a polyhedral angle whose vertex is the centre of the sphere, whose face angles are measured by the sides of the polygon,
and whose dihedral angles have the same numerical measure

as the angles of the polygon. Thus, the planes of the sides of the polygon the polyhedral angle 0-ABCD. The face
ABOD form
angles AOB, BOC, etc., are measured by the sides AB, BC, etc., of the polygon. The dihedral angle whose edge is OA
has the same measure as the spherical

angle
BAD,
etc.
Hence, /rom any property of polyhedral angles we may infer an analogous property of spherical polygons; and conversely.
727.
spherical polygon
is
is
convex
if
the corresponding
Every spherical polygon ( 534). polyhedral angle is to be assumed convex unless otherwise stated.
728.
convex
A diagonal of
A
circle connecting
any two
a spherical polygon is an arc of a great vertices which are not adjacent.

is it
729.
sides
spherical triangle like a plane triangle,
a spherical polygon of three may be right or oblique, equi-
lateral, isosceles, or scalene.
730. Two spherical polygons are equal if they can be applied, the one to the other, so as to coincide.
THE SPHERE.
353
Proposition XII.
Theorem.
is less
731 Each side of a spJiericaZ triangle * the sum of the other two sides.
than
Let ABO be a spherical

To prove
Proof.
triangle,
AB
the largest side.
AB < AQ-{- BC,

0-ABC,
In the corresponding trihedral angle
^ AOB
is less
than
A AOC+ Z. BOC.
539
:.AB<AC-\-BC.
Proposition XIII.
732.
726
Theorem.
is
less
The sum of the sides of a spherical polygon than 36(P,
Let ABCD be a spherical polygont

To prove
Proof.
AB
-\-
B0-{-
CD
-\-
DA <
360.
sum
In the corresponding polyhedral angle of all the face angles is less than 360.
.-.
0-ABCD,
the
540
AB + B0-\- CD+DA< 360.
aE.a
354"
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
733. If, from the vertices of a spherical triangle as poles, arcs of great circles are described, a spherical triangle is formed, which is called the jpolar triangle
Thus, if ^, ^, C are the poles of the arcs of the great circles B^C\ A'C\
of the
first.
respectively, then A^BW^ is the polar triangle of ABC. &s poles, entire great If, with A^ B^
A^B\
-^
^
^^C
^
BC
circles instead of arcs are described, these circles will divide
the surface of the sphere into eight spherical triangles. whose Of these eight triangles, that one is the polar of vertex A\ corresponding to A, lies on the same side oi &sj the vertex and similarly with the other vertices.
Proposition XIV.
734.
Theorem.
If A'B'C
is
reciprocally,
ABC
is
the polar triangle of ABC, then, the polar triangle of A^B'C\

a'
u/
To prove that
Proof.
.*.
Let AfB'C be the polar triangle of ABC. ABC is the polar triangle of A}B^C\
Since
is
the pole of
B'C\
A.
733
B^
is
at a quadrant's distance from
703
Similarly, since
,',
B^
is
at
Cis the pole of A'B', a quadrant's distance from C.

the pole of the arc
.'.
B'
is
AC.
705
Similarly,
-
A^
is
the pole of
is
BC, and C^ the pole of AB.
.-.
ABC
the polar triangle of
A'B'C
733 aE. D.
THE SPHERE.
355
Proposition
T35
is
XV.
Theorem.
In two polar triangles eaxih angle of the one the supplement of the opposite side in the other.
Let ABCy A'B' O be two polar triangles; then let the letter at the vertex of each angle denote its value in angle- degrees, and the corresponding small letters the values of the opposite sides in arc-degrees.
To prove
Proof.
= 180, B + b' = 180, C +c' = 180. ^' + a = 180, B' + b = 180, C'+c = 180. Produce the arcs AB, AC until they meet B'C at
A
-{-a!
I),
the points
E, respectively.
is
is
Since B^
the pole of
the pole of
Since C"
AE, AB,
B'E= 90.
C"X)-= 90.
Adding, we have
B'E+
C^D =
180.
That
is,
B'D +DE-\^C'D=
Z)^+^'e' =
But
Also
.-.
180.
Or
180.
^'(7'
-a'.
BE measures Z. A,
A-\-a' = 180.
the other relations are proved.
722
In a similar
736.
way
all
q. e. q.
Scholium. Two polar triangles are sometimes called
suppl&tnental triangles.
356
SeLTD GEOMETEY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition XVI.
J7?.7C
Theorem.
is
The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle greater than 18(P and less than 540^,
a'
and let A, B, C denote the values of its angles, and a', b', c', respectively, the values of the opposite sides in the polar triangle A'B'CK
triangle,
Let ABC be a spherical
To prove
Proof.
A-\-B-\-
C> 180 and <

A'^C\
B-i-b'=
180,
c'
540.
Since the
A ABC,
are polar
A,
A-{-a^=
180,
(?+
c'
= 180.
735
By addition, A-^ B+O+a^+b^ + = 540. ^ + ^+(7=540-(a'+^>' + c'). less than 360, Now a' + J' + - some number less than .\A + B-\-0= 540 .\A + B+C>1S0.
.-.
c' is
732
360.
And
738.
since a'
Z>' -{-
c^ is
greater than
0,
.'.A
+ B+0<5W,
Q.E,D.
Cor.
right angles ;
739.
spherical triangle tnay have two, or even three, and it may have two, or even three, obtuse angles.
spherical triangle having

;
a bi-rectangular triangle
three right angles
740.
is
two right angles is called and a spherical triangle having
called a tri-rectangular triangle.
The
difference
between the sum of the angles of a

is
spherical triangle and 180 the triangle.
called the spherical excess of
THE SPHERE.
357
Proposition XVII.
Theorem.
741. In a hi-rectangular sphericaZ triangle the sides opposite the right angles are quadrants, and the side opposite the third angle measures that angle.
Let ABC be a bi-rectangnlar spherical triangle, with the angles at B and C right angles. To prove that and AC are qiuadrants, and that A A is measured hy BC.
AB
Proof.
Since the
the arcs
.'.
AB,
A B and C are right angles, the AC axe 1. to the plane of the arc BC.
pass
planes of
723
AB and ^(7 must each pass through the pole of BC,

.'.
696
{two great circles whose flanes are
through each other's poles).
A
is
is
the pole of
BC.
AB and ^Care quadrants, and Z ^ measured by the arc BC

.'.
703
722
D.
aE.
742. If two sides of a spherical triangle are quadthe third side measures the opposite angle. rants,
Cor.
1.
743.
is
Cor.
2.
Uach
side of
a tri-rectangular spherical triangle
a quadrant.
744.
Cor.
centre of
3. Three planes passed through the a sphere, each perpendicular to the other
two planes, divide the surface of the sphere into

eight tri-rectangular triangles.
358
745.
SOLID GEOMETKY.
If
BOOK
VIII.
A A', BB\
by
of a sphere three diameters through the centre CC^ are drawn, and the points A, B, Care joined
arcs of great circles,
and
also the
points A\ B\ Q\ the two spherical triangles ^^Cand A^B^C^ are called
symmetrical spherical triangles.
The corresponding
trihedral angles
are also symmetrical. In the same way we
638
may
form two
symmetrical polygons of any number of sides. And after they are formed they
may
be placed in
any positions upon the surface of the sphere.

746.
Two
and equiangular yet cide by superposition.

;
symmetrical triangles are mutually equilateral in general they cannot be made to coinIf in the
above
figure, the
circle
hemisphere below the great BCB^C^ be revolved about its
axis through half a revolution, the triA^B^C will take the position A"BC, and it will now be quite evident that the triangles cannot be made to coincide. If the triangles are placed so that
angle
BÔ* coincides with CB, and

of
it
and A'
lie
on the same side
BO, will be seen that the equal parts of the occur in reverse order.
747.
two triangles
the
If, however, AC, and A'B^ = A^ 0^ two symmetrical triangles are
AB =
th&t
is,
if
isosceles,
then,
because
AB, AC,
A^B\ A^C, are all equal, and the and A' are equal, being angles dihedral angles ( 745), the opposite
two
cide
triangles can be in other words.
made
to coin-
C B
isosceles,
If two symmetrical spherical triangles are

superposable,
they are
and
therefore equal.
THE SPHERE.
359
Proposition XVIII.
748.
Theorem.
equiv-
Two symmetrical spherical triangles are
alent.
Let ABC, A'&CF he two symmetrical spherical triangles with their homologous vertices diametrically
opposite to each other.
To prove thai the triangles
ABC, A'B'C
are equivalent.
Proof. Let be the pole of a small circle passing through the points A, B, C, and let FOB' be a diameter.
Draw
the great circle arcs
BA, BB, BC, PA',
B'B',
FC\
BA= BB= BC.

And
since
701
PA'=^BA, FB' = BB, PA^ = PB'=PC\

.-.
PC'=--BC, 746
isosceles.
The two symmetrical
A BAC,
B'A'C* are
.\ABAC=APA'C'. 747 A BAB = A B'A'B\ Similarly, ABBC=AB'B'C'. and A ABC=o= A BAG + A BAB + A BBC, Now A A'B'C ^ A B'A'C + A P'^'P' + A B'B'C and
\AABC=o-AA^B'C'.
If the pole
fall
aE.a
B should fall without the A ABC, then P would

;
each triangle would be equivalent of tAô isosceles triangles diminished by the third so that the result would be the same as before.
without
A A'B'C, and
to the
sum
860
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition XIX.
749.
Theorem.
triangles on the same sphere, or equal are equal or equivalent, if two sides and the spheres, included angle of the one are respectively equal to two sides and the included angle of the other.
Two
I. In the triangles ABC and DEF let angle A equal angle D, and the sides AB and AC equal respectively the sides DE and DF; and let the parts of the two triangles he arranged in the same order.
To prove triangles
Proof.
ABC and DEF equal. A ABC can be applied to A DEF,
as in the corre
sponding case of plane A, and will coincide with it. II. In the triangles ABO and D'E'F' let angle
150
A equal
angle D', and the sides AB and AG equal respectively the sides DÊ' and D^P ; and let the parts of the two triangles be arranged in reverse order.
ABC and DÊF^ equivalent. A DEF upon the same or an equal sphere be symmetrical with respect to the A DÊF^. Then A DEF has its A and sides equal respectively to those of the A D'E^FK
Proof.
To prove triangles Let the
Also in the
A ^^(7 and DEF

in the
AA^/.D, AB = DE, AC=DF,

and the parts are arranged
.-.
same order.
Case
I.
But
A ABC = A DEF. A D'E'F' ^ A DEF,
748
.'.AABCÂD'E^FK
Q.E.a
'
'
'
THE SPHERE.
361
Proposition XX.
750.
Theorem.
triangles on the same sphere, or equal are equal or equivalent, if a side and two spheres, adjacent angles of the one are equal respectively to a side and two adjacent angles of the other.
Two
Proof.
One
of the
A may be applied to
the other, or to
its
symmetrical A,
as in the corresponding case of plane
A.
147
aE.a
Proposition XXI.
751.
Theorem,
Two mutually equilateral triangles on the sphere, or equal spheres, are mutually equiangular, and are equal or equivalent.
same
Proof.
The
face ^4 of the corresponding trihedral
A at
the
centre of the sphere are equal respectively, {mice, they are measured hy equal sides of the ^).
Therefore the corresponding dihedral
A are
equal.
542
Hence the
A of
the spherical
A are respectively equal.

arranged in the same
Therefore the
A are either equal, or symmetrical and equiva e. a

is
alent, according as their equal sides are
or reverse order.
Ex. 576. The radius of a sphere
4 inches.
From any
point on the
surface as a pole a circle is described upon the sphere with an opening of the compasses equal to 3 inches. Find the area of this circle, y^
362
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition XXII.
752,
Theorem.
triangles, on the or equal spheres, are mutually equilatsphere, eral, and are either equal or equivalent.
Two mutually equiangular
same
Let the spherical triangles T and T' be mutually equiangular. To prove triangles T and mutually equilateral, and equal
or equivalent.
Proof.
Let
A P and P be the
is
polar
A of the A T and
T\
A P and P' are mutually equilateral, because in two A each side of the one the supplement of the angle polar
The
lying opposite to it in the other.
.'.
respectively.
735
A P and
.-.
P'
angular.
mutually equiangular, because two on equal spheres are mutually equi 751 J' and T' are mutually equilateral.
are
Hence and T^ are either equal, or symmetrical and on equal equivalent, because two mutually equilateral spheres are either equal, or symmetrical and equivalent. 751
AT
Q. E. D.
Remark. The statement that mutually equiangular spherical triangles are mutually equilateral, and equal, or equivalent, is true only when But when the spheres are limited to the same sphere, or equal spheres. and the ratio of their unequal, the spherical triangles are unequal
;
homologous sides is equal to the which they are situated. (^ 427.)
ratio of the radii of the spheres on
THE SPHERE.
363
Proposition XXIII.
Theorem.
/7d^. In an isosceles spherical triangle, the angli 763. opposite the equal sides are equal.
D
In the spherical triangle ABC, let AB. equal AC.
To prove
Proof.
A B = /.
arc
C.
Draw
AD of
a great
circle,
from the vertex
to the
middle of the base BC.
Then
.*.
A ABD and ACD are mutually equilateral. A ABD and ACD are mutually equiangular,
A on
the
751
{pu)o
same sphere are mutually equiangular).
.\ZB = ZC,
{since they are
homologous
of symmetrical A).
QLE.D.
754.
Cor. The arc of a great
circle
drawn from
the vertex
bisects
of an isosceles spherical triangle
to the
middle of the base
the vertical angle, is perpendicular to the base, triangle into two symmetrical triangles.
and
divides the
Ex. 577. At a given point Ex. 578. To inscribe a

>
in a given arc of a great circle, to con-
struct a spherical angle equal to a given spherical angle.

circle in
a given spherical triangle.
Ex. 579. To circumscribe a
circle
about a given spherical triangle.
364
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition
XXIV. Theorem.
angles of a spherical triangle are equal, the sides opposite these angles are equal, and the triangle is isosceles.
^5^ If two
^\
In the spherical triangle ABC, let angle angle C.

To prove
Proof.
equal
AC AB.
A
A^B'C^ be the polar
hypothesis
Let the
A of the A
C,
ABC.
By
Z B = Z.
.\A'Cf
in two polar ^, each side of one
= A'B',
of the
735
is the supplement supple'i to it in the other). ther).
lying opposite
.\ZB' = ZC'.
753
735
aE.0.
.\AC=AB.
Ex. 580. Given a spherical triangle find the angles of its polar triangle.
whose
sides are 60, 80,
and
100;
Ex. 581. Given a spherical triangle whose angles are

95
;
70, 75,
and
find the sides of its polar triangle.
/'
radii are 12 inches
Ex. 582. Given two mutually equiangular triangles on spheres whose and 20 inches respectively; find the ratio of two
sides of these triangles.
homologous
(See note, page 362.)
THE SPHERE.
365
/^
Proposition
XXV.
Theorem.
756. If two angles of a spherical triangle are unequal, the sides opposite are unequal, and the greater side is opposite the greater angle ; conversely, if two
sides are unequal, the angles opposite are unequal,
and
the greater angle is opposite the greater side.
L In the triangle ABC, let the angle
ABC he
greater
than the angle ACB,

To prove
Proof.
AC^ AB. Draw the arc BD of a great circle, making Z CBD

I)C= DB,
equal
Z ACB.
755
Then
Now
,':AI)
AD-\-DB> AB,
731
+ I)0>
AB,
or
AC >
AB.
IL
Let
AC
be greater than AB.
To prove
Proof.
Z ABO greater
than
/I
ACB.
than the
If
and
if
The Z ABC must be equal to, less than, or greater Z ^05. Z ABC= Z C, then AC=: AB, 755 Z ^^(7 is less than Z then ^(7< ^^. Case I.
(7,
But both of these conclusions are contrary

.*.
to the hypothesis.
q.z.d.
Z ABO'vA greater than Z O.
366
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII,
Measurement of Spherical Surfaces.

757.
zone
is
a portion of the surface of a sphere included

of the sections
between two parallel planes.
The circumferences
planes
is its altitude.
called the bases of the zone,
made by the planes are and the distance between the
758. zone of one base is a zone one of whose bounding planes is tangent to the sphere. If a circle (Fig. 1) be revolved about a diameter FQ, the
arc
AD will
its
generate a zone, the points
erate
bases,
and
CF
is
its
altitude.
and The arc
D will
genwill
FA
generate a zone of one base.
A lune is a portion of the surface of a sphere bounded two semi-circumferences of great circles. by 760. The angle of a lune is the angle between the semicircumferences which form its boundaries. Thus (Fig. 2),
759.
ABEQA
761.
is
a lune,
BA
is its
angle.
it
As
in Plane
Geometry
is
convenient to divide a
quadrant of a circle into 90 equal parts, called degrees, so in Solid Geometry it is convenient to divide each of the eight equal tri-rectangular triangles of which the surface of a sphere these is ( 744) into 90 equal parts, and to call
composed
parts spherical degrees. The surface of every sphere therefore contains 720 spherical degrees.
THE SPHERE.
Proposition
762.
367
XXVI.
Theorem.
The area of the surface generated hy a straight
an axis in its plane is equal to the product of the projection of the line on the axis hy the circumference whose radius is a perpendicular erected at the middle point of the line and terminated hy the axis.
line revolving about
J.
368
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIIIv
Proposition XXVII.
Theorem.
/v765^ The area of the surface of a sphere is equal to the product of its diameter by the circumference of
a great
circle.
ABODE
Let the sphere be generated by the semicircle be revolving: about the diameter AE, and let the centre, and B the radius.
To prove that the area of the surface
Proof.
= AU X Stt^.
AB, BC,
etc.
having an even number of
Inscribe in the semicircle half of a regular polygon sides, as
ABCDE.
From
the centre
draw
Js to the chords (
232) and are equal ( 236). Let a denote the length of each of these -k. to AE. From and drop the Js îând
These Js bisect the chords
BO
When
the semicircle revolves about
AE,
the sides of the

:
polygon generate surfaces whose areas are as follows

area
area
AB = AFx îra. BO = FO X
762
2'ira.
area area
CD =00 X 27ra. BE = OE X 2
ira.
Adding,
area
^-50/)^=
^^X
27ra.
Now suppose the number of sides of the semi-polygon to be is then the limit of the area indefinitely increased
;
ABCBE
the area of the surface of the sphere, and the limit of a is R. ^ttR. ? 260 Hence the area of the surface of the sphere aE.o.
= AEx
THE SPHERE.
764.
369
Cor.
1.
If
/S'
denotes the area of the surface of a
sphere, then by
763,
But
^
via^
is
the area of a great circle

is
therefore,
The surface of a sphere

765.
equivalent
to four
great
circles.
Cor.
2.
Let
R and
R^ denote the
radii,
D and jy the
diameters,
then,
and
/S'and 8' the areas of the surfaces of two spheres;
by
764,
/S'=47ri^,
,
8'
= ^7rR'\
"8'
8 _ ^7rR' _i^ ^ (jDy ^D' ^ttR'^ R^' HB'y D"'
Therefore, the areas of the surfaces of two spheres are as the squares of their radii, or as the squares of their diameters.
766.
Cor.
3.
generated by the result,
If we apply the reasoning of 763 to the zone the revolution of the arc BCD, we obtain for
area of zone
BCD = FGx27rR.
;
Now FO
is
the altitude of the zone
therefore,
its
The area of a zone is equ^tl to the product of the cio'cuviference of a great circle.
767.
to
altitude
hy
Cor.
4.
Zones on the same sphere, or equal spheres, are
each other as their altitudes.

768.
Cor.
5.
The
arc
AB
and zone
That
radium
AB = AFx
generates a zone of one base;
2TrR
irAF X
AFx AF= AB" (

is,
337), the zone

is
AB = 7rAB\
to
AK
Now
circle
since
a zone of one hase
equivalent
whose
is the
chord of the generating arc.

6
inches.
Ex. 583. Find the area of the surface of a sphere whose radius -' 1 y
.'
is
Ex. 584. Find the area of a zone

radius of the sphere
is
if its
altitude
is
3 inches, and the

;y*j
6 inches.
O^
V
370
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition XXVIII.
769. The area of a lune face of the sphere as the angle is to 360, is to
Theorem.
the area of the surdegrees in its
number of
Let ABEO be a. lune, BCDF the great circle whose pole is A; also let A denote the number of degrees in the angle of the lune, L the area of the lune, and S the area of the surface of the sphere.
To prove that
Proof.
L:
S= A:
360.
The
are
^(7 measures the
ZA
of the lune.
:
722
Hence, arc
(1) If
0:
circumference
CDF= A
^C, and
:
360.
BO and BCBF are

be contained
commensurable,
times in
let their
7i
com-
mon measure
times in
BODF.
Then
arc -S(7: circumference
.'.
BOBF= m
n.
A:S60 =m:n.
262
the Pass arcs of great through the diameter of the division of These arc^ ^111 divide the points
all
AF
^.
and
BCBF
:
entire surface into

will contain
7)1.
n equal
.'.
lunes, of
which th
n.
lune
ABEG
L 8=m
,'.L:j3=A:dQ0.
and are incommensurable^ the theorem (2) If a e. a can be proved by the method of limits as in 261.
BO
BCBF
THE SPHERE.
770.
371
degrees
Cor.
1.
If Jj
( 761), then since
and S are expressed as spherical S contains 720 spherical degrees,
L:720 = A: 360^
Whence
L = 2A.
That is, The numerical value of a lune expressed in spherical degrees is twice the numerical value of its angle expressed in angle-degrees.
Ill,
Cor.
2.
If
and
S are
expressed in ordinary units of
area (as square inches,
etc.),
then, since
8-
iirB^^
L:^7rR'=-A
Whence
772.
:360.
X = ''^.
90
3.
Cor.
If
is constant or equal spheres, A' their angles, lunes. A,
we compare two lunes on the same

;
hence,
if
X,
V denote
sphere, the
^''^~
90
90^~^-^-
That
is.
Two
same
Junes on the
same
sphere, or equal sphenês, have the
ratio as their angles.
T7Z.
Cor.
the same
radii are
4. If we compare two lunes L, L\ which have A, but are situated on unequal spheres whose and R\ then
90
90
the same angle
Two lunes on unequal spheres which have may be called similar lunes. Therefore,
*
Sl^nilar lunes have the
same
ratio as the squares of the radii

situated.
y
of the spheres on
which they are
Ex. 585. Given the radius of a sphere 10 inches

lune whose angle
is
find the area of a
30.
;
>'./-/ ^
find the area of
Ex. 586. Given the diameter of a sphere 16 inches a lune whose angle is 75.
'-^'
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition
XXIX.
Theorem.
774. The area of a spherical triangle, expressed \in spherical degrees, is numerically equal to the spherical excess of th& triangle.
Let A, B, C denote the values of the angles of the spherical triangle ABC, and E the spherical excess. To prove that the number of spherical degrees in A E.
ABC=
Proof.
Produce the sides of
A ABCio
complete
circles.
sphere into eight spherical triangles, of which any four having a common vertex, as A, form the surface of a hemisphere, and therefore contain
These
circles divide the surface of the
360 spherical degrees.
Also
Now A .1Z?C+ A y1'/?(7=olune ^^^'C. And the A A^BC, AB'C are symmetrical. .-.AA'BCoÂAB'C. A ABC+ A AB'C =0= lune ABA'C. A ABC+ A AB'O =0= lune BAB'C. .-.
748
'
,And
AABO-f-AABC
-luno CAC'B.
,_
^
Add and
observe that in spherical degrees
A ABO-\- AB'Q^ + AB'C^ ABC =360,

and lunes ABA'0-{- BABÔ-}- CAC'B are numerically equal to 2 (^ + ^ + O), and we have 770
2A^7?(7+360-2(^ + 7?-f-r)Whence
A A BO^- A
|-
B + C- 180 ^ U.
q. e.
THE SPHERE.
776. Cor. 1. Since in spherical degrees the entire surface of the sphere 720, therefore,
373
A ABC= E,
720.
and
A ABO:
That
is,
entire surface
=E
The area of a spherical i7'iangle is to the area of the surface of the sphere as the number which expresses its spherical excess
is to
720.
776.
Cor.
A ABC
Then
2. Hence we may easily express the value in ordinary units of area (as square inches, etc.).
of
For, let
S denote
the area of the surface of the sphere.

720.
A ABO: 8= E:
.'.AAB0=:4^. 720
ButA8'=47ri?'(764).
.
ATtn^^'^B'E_'rrB:'E
Ex. 587. What part of the surface of a sphere is a triangle whose angles are 120, 100, and 95 ? What is its area in square inches, if the radius of the sphere is 6 inches ?
Ex. 588. Find the area of a spherical triangle whose angles are 100,
120, 140,
if
the diameter of the sphere

radii of
is
16 inches.
Ex. 589. If the

tively,
two spheres are 6 inches and 4 inches respecand the distance between their centres is 5 inches, what is the
area of the circle of intersection of these spheres ?
inches diameter
Ex. 590. Find the radius of the circle determined in a sphere of 5 by a plane 1 inch from the centre.
Ex, 591. If the radii of two concentric spheres are
R and
a plane
section
drawn tangent to the interior sphere, what made in the other sphere ?
is
is
R^, and if the area of the
Ex. 592. TKmoints

space of a
and
B are
8 inches apart.
Find the locus
in
poiur^nches from A and 7 inches from B. Ex. 593. The radii of two parallel sections of the same sphere
is
are a
and h respectively, and the disiance between these sections

the radius of the sphere.
d\ find
374
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition
XXX.
Theorem.
777. If T denotes the sum of the angles of a spherical polygon of n sides, the area of the polygon expressed in spherical degrees is numerically
equal to T-(n-2)18(P,
Let ABODE be a polygon of

To prove that the area of
n sides.
is
ABODE
numerically equal
to
T-{n-2)l%Qi\
Divide tlie polygon into spherical triangles by drawdiagonals from any vertex, as A. ing 2 spherical These diagonals will divide the polygon into n
Proof,
and the area of each triangle in spherical degrees is numerically equal to the sum of its angles minus 180. 774 Hence the sum of the areas of all the n 2 triangles is nutriangles,
2) 180. merically equal to the sum of all their angles minus (n Now the sum of the areas of the triangles is the area of the
polygon, and the sum of their angles of the polygon, that is, T.
is
the
sum
of the angles
Therefore the area of the polygon
is
numerically equal to
r-(w-2)180.
170, 139, 126,
Ex. 594. Find the area of a spherical quadrangle whose angles are and 141, if the radius of the sphere is 10 inches. Ex. 595. Find the area of a spherical pentagon whose angles are 122
is
128, 131, 160, 161, if the surface of the sphere
150 square
feet.
Ex. 696. Find the area of a spherical hexagon whose angles are
110, 128, 136, 140, 150,
if
96,
the circumference of a great
cir.le
of tho
sphere
is
10 inches.
THE SPHERE.
375
The Volume of a Sphere.

778.
A spherical pyramid is the portion of a sphere bounded

^<^^^^^^^^
of the sphere is the vertex
by a spherical polygon and the planes of

its sides.
The centre
of the
pyramid.
spherical polygon
is its
The
base.
Thus,
779.
0-ABCD is
a spherical pyramid.
sphen'ical sector is the portion of
a sphere generated by the revolution of a circular sector about any diameter of the circle of which the sector is a part.
The base of a spherical sector is the zone generated arc of the circular sector. Thus, the
circular sector
by the
AOB
the line
tor
JOT generates
revolving about a spherical sec-
whose base is the zone generated by the arc AB\ the other bounding
surfaces are the conical surfaces generated by the radii and OB. The sector generated by bounded by a conical surface and a zone of one base
OA
AOIfh If 00 is
is
perpendicular to
OM,
the sector generated
bounded by a
conical surface, a plane surface,
by AOC and a zone.
780. A spherical segment is a portion of a sphere contained between two parallel planes.
bases of a spherical segment are the sections made and the altitude of a spherical segment is the distance between its bases.
781.
The
by the
782.
parallel planes,
the segment
If one of the parallel planes is tangent to the sphere, is called a segment of one base.
783. spherical wedge is a portion of a sphere bounded by a lune and two great semicircles.
376
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
Proposition
784.
XXXI.
Theorem.
The volume of a sphere

its
of the area of
is equal to the product surface hy one-third of its radius.
iS
its surface,
Let R be the radius of a sphere whose centre is and V its volume.
0,
To prove V==SxiB. Conceive a cube to be circumscribed about the sphere. Its volume will be greater than that of the sphere, because it
Proof.
contains the sphere. From O, the centre of the sphere, conceive lines to be to the vertices of the cube.
drawn
These lines are the edges of six quadrangular pyramids, whose bases are the faces of the cubê, and whose common altitude
is
the radius of the sphere.
of each pyramid is equal to the product of its Hence the volume of the six pyramids, base by ^ its altitude. that is, the volume of the circumscribed cube, is equal to the
The volume
area of the surface of the cube multiplied by J i?. Now conceive planes drawn tangent to the sphere, at the We points where the edges of the pyramids cut its surface.
shall then
have a circumscribed
solid
whose volume
will be
nearer that of the sphere than is the volume of the circumscribed cube, because each tangent plane cuts away a portion of the cube.
THE SPHERE.
From
cjiiceive lines to be
377
to each of the polyhe-
drawn
dral angles of the solid thus formed, a, h, c, etc. These lines will form the edges of a series of pyramids, whose bases are the surface of the solid, and whose common
altitude
is
pyramid thus formed

its
the radius of the sphere and the volume of each is equal to the product of its base by \
;
altitude.
is,
Hence the sum of the volumes of these pyramids, that the volume of this new solid, is again equal to the area of
surface multiplied
its
by ^
i?.
drawing tangent planes may be considered as continued indefinitely, and, however far this process is carried, the volume of the solid will always be equal to the
this process of
Now
area of
its
But the volume nearer and nearer
surface multiplied by ^ R. of the circumscribed solid will approach to that of the sphere and as the volumes
;
approach coincidence, the surfaces also approach coincidence. and 8 are the limits of the volume and the surHence,
face respectively, of the circumscribed solid.

.'.
V=SX\R.
260
Q. E. D.
785.
Cor.
1.
Since 8--=^'kR' ( 764), and
R = ^D,
we
obtain by substitution the formulas
V=\7rR\
786.
and
V=îrD\
tiuo
Cor.
2.
The volumes of
radii,
spho-es are
to
each other
as the cubes of their radii For,

if
R, R' denote the
Tând
V the volumes,
:
V= |7^^^
.-.
and
:
=--
1 7rR'\
V: V'=i7rR' ^ttR" = R'
R'\
787.
Cor.
3.
the product of its base
The volume of a spheincal pyramid is equal to by one-third of the radius of the sphere.
For, it is obvious that the reasoning employed in 784 applies equally well to a spherical pyramid.
378
788.
SOLID GEOMETRY.
Cor.
4.
BOOK!
VIII.
'product of the zone
The volume of a spheiicol sector is equal to the which forms its base by one-third of the
radius of the sphere.

789.
Cor.
5.
If
R denotes the radius of a sphere,

and
the
cir-
cumference of a great
surface of the zone,
sector
;
circle, -S'the altitude of the zone, ^^the
then, since
C 2itR,
Y the volume of the corresponding and Z 'IttRH, we have
Proposition XXXII.
790.
Problem.
To
fiTid
the volume of a spherical segment.
B
the diameter
M
to
Let AC and BD be two semi- chords perpendicular MN of the semicircle NGDM. Let OM=R, AM=a, BM^b, AD=a-b = h, AC^r, BD^t.
Case I. To find the volume of the segment of one base generated by the circular semi-segment ACM, as the semicircle revolves about as an axis.
NM
The
sector generated
by OCM=-- ^^rR'a.
789
The cone generated by OCA = ^TrrîJi - a). Hence segment ACM= îrRâ îrr"^ {R a)
672
Now
r^
= a{2R a)
337)
therefore
by
substitution,
the segment
ACM=
ira'
(^
1)-
(1)
THE SPHERE.
If
379
find the value of It,
in terms of the
from the relation
r^
a{2R~ a) we
and substitute it in (i), we obtain the volume altitude and the radius of the base.
The segment
ACM= îtr'a + J
Tra'.
(2)
Case II. To find the volume of the segment of two bases geyierated by the circular seTni-segment ABDC, as the semicircle revolves about as an axis.
NM
Since the volume
is
umes
of the segments of one base generated
obviously the difference of the volby the circular

(1),
semi-segments ^CJ[f and
segment
BDM^ therefore by formula ABDC - ira^ (r - -^ - (r - -^

-jrb''
=^-irR{a^
-b^)-\{a^ -b^) o
o
(3;
= 'KRh{a-\-b)-'^{a^-\-ab-\-b'')
= irh [(i?a -\-Rb)~\ (a' + aZ> 4- b%
Since
therefore
also since
a-b = h,
a^
-2ab -{-h" =
Z>'
h^
a' -f aZ>
+ = A' + 3 a6
and
{2R-a)a = r\
(2R~b)b = r",
2
Ra + Rb=^^ll+^^.
2
Hence
L
^^
^7^(
380
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOH:
VIII.
^
597.
Find the surface of a sphere

(iii.)
if
;
the diameter 7 feet

;
is (i.)
10 inches
;
(ii.)
1 foot
feet.
"^
9 inchefc
2 feet 4 inches
(iv.)
(v.) 4.2 feet
(vi.) 10.5
698.
;
Find the diameter

(ii.)
oi
;
u.
ophere
if
the surface
feet.
is (i.)
616 squari.
66
inches
882 square feet
(iii.)
9856 square
V 599.
feet
;
The circumference of a dome

maijy square
in the shape of a hemisphere
is
how
feet of lead are required to
cover
it ?
600.
in diameter,
"^
If the ball on the top of St. Paul's Cathedral in London is 6 feet what would it cost to gild it at 7 cents per square inch ?
601.
What
is
face has the N.602.
same numerical value
the numerical value of the radius of a sphere if its suras the circumference of a great circle ?
if its
face of the sphere

"^
Find the surface of a lune is 4 square feet.
angle
is
30,
and the
total sur-
603.
What
ical triangle
fractional part of the whole surface of a sphere whose angles are 43 27^ 81 57^ and 114 36^?
is
a spher
604. The angles of a spherical triangle are 60, 70, and 80. The radius Find the area of the triangle in square feet of the sphere is 14 feet.
^
605.
The
feet.
sides of a spherical triangle are 38, 74.

is
radius of the sphere
14
feet.
and 128. The Find the area of the polar triangle in
square
608.
IS
10^
feet, if its
Find the area of a spherical polygon on a sphere whose radius angles are 100, 120, 140, and 160.
make with each

square
608.
feet.
faces of a quadrangular spherical pyramid other angles of 80, 100, 120, and 150 and the length of a lateral edge of the pyramid is 42 feet. Find the area of its base in
^607.
The planes of the
The planes of the faces of a triangular spherical pyramid make with each other angles of 40, 60, and 100, and the area of the base of the pyramid is 4ir square feet. Find the radius of the sphere.
609.
The diameter of a sphere

is
21
feet.
Find the curved surface of a
segment whose height

-610.
feet.
What
?
is
the radius of the base r
the area of a zone of one base whose height is h, and What would be the area if the height were
'1
twice as great
NUMERICAL
611.
f^XERCISES.
find the height of a zone
381
whose
area
^
is
In a sphere whose radius is equal to that of a great circle.
r,
612.
The
altitude of the torrid zone
is
about 3200 miles.
Find
its
area in square miles, assuming the earth to be a sphere with a radius of
4000 miles.
"^613.
plane divides the surface of a sphere of radius r into two
zones, such that the surface of the greater is a mean proportional between the entire surface and the surface of the smaller. Find the distance of
the plane from the centre of the sphere.

614. If a sphere of radius r is cut by two planes equally distant from the centre, so that the area of the zone comprised between the planes is equal to the sura of the areas of its bases, find the distance of either plane
^
from the centre.

615. Find the area of the zone generated by an arc of 30, of which is r, and which turns around a diameter passing through one
extremities.
r,
the radius
of
its
the area of the zone of a sphere of radius a lamp placed at the distance h from the sphere. ^
617.
^616. Find
illuminated by
How much
of the earth's surface would a
man
see if
he were
raised to the height of the radius
above
it?
^618.
that he
To what height must a man be
raised above the earth in order
may see one-sixth of its surface ? ^19. Two cities are 200 miles apart. To what height must a man ascend from one city in order that he may see the other, supposing the
circumference of the earth to be 25,000 miles
?
620.
Find the volume of a sphere

(iii.)
if
the diameter
;
is (i.)
13 inches
(ti.)
3 feet 6 inches;
feet
;
10 feet 6 inches
(iv.)
17 feet 6 inches;
(v.) 14.7
(vi.)
42
feet.
Find the diameter of a sphere if the volume is (i.) 75 cubic feet 1377 cubic inches; (ii.) 179 cubic feet 1152 cubic inches (iii.) 1047.816
621.
;
cubic feet ^
622.
(iv.)
38.808 cubic yards.

is
Find the volume of a sphere whose circumference
45
feet.
623.
Find the volume
F of a sphere in
terms of the circumference
of a great circle.
^624. Find the

->^625.
radius r of a sphere, having given the volume V.

if its
Find the radius r of a sphere, have the same numerical value.
circumference and
its
volume
382
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VIII.
626. If an iron ball 4 inches in diameter weighs 9 pounds, what is the weight of a hollow iron shell 2 inches thick, whose external diameter is 20 inches ?
627.
The radius of a sphere

is
is
7 feet
what
is
the volume of a wedge
whose angle
^
36
is
? is
628.
What
foot,
"
and the volume of the
the angle of a spherical wedge, if its volume entire sphere is 6 cubic feet ?
one cubic
629.
What
is
which forms
foot?
its
the volume of a spherical sector, if the area of the zone base is 3 square feet, and the radius of the sphere is 1
" 630. The radius of the base of the segment of a sphere and the radius of the sphere is 20 inches find its volume.
;
is
16 inches,
631. The inside of a wash-basin is in the shape of the segment of a sphere the distance across the top is 16 inches, and its greatest depth is 6 inches find how many pints of water it will hold, reckoning 7j gal;
;
lons to the cubic foot.

632.
What
The
its
is
the height of a zone,

it
if its
area
is S,
and the volume of
the sphere to which

"
belongs
is
F?
segment are 6
feet
633,
radii of the bases of a spherical
and 8
feet,
and
height
is
3 feet
find its volume.
634. Find the volume of a triangular spherical pyramid if the angles of the spherical triangle which forms its base are each 100, and the radius of the sphere is 7 feet.
635. The circumference of a sphere is 28 tt feet: find the volume of that part of the sphere included by the faces of a trihedral angle at the centre, the dihedral angles of which are 80, 105, and 140.
636.
The planes
of the faces of a quadrangular spherical
pyramid
other angles of 80, 100, 120, and 150, and a lateral edge of the pyramid is 3J feet find the volume of the pyramid.
;
make with each
^ 637. The radius of the base of the segment of a sphere

its
is
40
feet,
and
height
638.
is
20
feet
find its volume.

h,
the volume V, and the height of one base, find th^ radius r of the sphere. segment
Having given
of a spherical
639. Find the weight of a sphere of radius r, which floats in a liquid of specific gravity s, with one-fourth of its surface above the surface of the liquid. The weight of a floating body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
>v<>-^^
.,<i^>
383
Miscellaneous Exercises.
640.
its
distances from
Determine a point in a given plane such that the difference of two given points on opposite sides of the plane shall
In any warped quadrilateral, that is, one whose sides do not all same plane, the middle points of the sides are the vertices of a
be a
maximum.
641.
lie
in the
parallelogram.
G42. In any trihedral angle, the three planes bisecting the three dihedral angles intersect in the same straight line.
-
643.
To draw a
line
through the vertex of any trihedral angle, makedges.
ing equal angles with
its
In any trihedral angle, the three planes passed through the edges and the respective bisectors of the opposite face angles intersect in the same straight line.
644.
645. In any trihedral angle, the three planes passed through the bisectors of the face angles, and perpendicular to these faces respectively, intersect in the
"
same straight
line.
646. In any trihedral angle, the three planes passed through the edges, perpendicular to the opposite faces respectively, intersect in the
same straight
647.
line.
In a tetrahedron, the planes passed through the three lateral edges and the middle points of the sides of the base intersect in a
straight line.
^648. The
lines joining each vertex of a tetrahedron with tlie point of
intersection of the medial lines of the opposite face all meet in a point called the centre of gravity, which divides each line so that the shorter
segment
649.
is
to the
whole
line in the ratio 1
4.
straight lines joining the middle points of the opposite edges of a tetrahedron all pass through the centre of gravity of the tetrahedron, and are bisected by the centre of gravity.
""
The
650. The plane which bisects a dihedral angle of a tetrahedron divides the opposite edges into segments proportional to the areas of the faces including the dihedral angle.
^651. The altitude of a regular tetrahedron is equal to the sum of the four perpendiculars let fall from any point within it upon the four
faces.
384
SOLID GEOMETEY.
BOOK:
VIII.
652. "Within a given tetrahedron, to find a point such that the planes passed through this point and the edges of the tetrahedron shall divide the tetrahedron into four equivalent tetrahedrons.
653.
To cut a cube by a plane
so that the section shall be a regular
aexagon.
'
654.
To cut a tetrahedral angle
so
that the section
shall
be a
parallelogram.
655,
fac
is
The portion of a tetrahedron cut off by a plane parallel to any a tetrahedron similar to the given tetrahedron.
656. Two tetrahedrons, having a dihedral angle of one equal to a dihedral angle of the other, and the faces including these angles respectively similar, and similarly placed, are similar.
657,
Two
polyhedrons composed of the same number of tetrahedrons,
similar each to each

658.
If the
and similarly
placed, are similar.
homologous
faces of
tively parallel, the straight lines the pyramids meet in a point.
two similar pyramids are respecwhich join the homologous vertices of
^^659.
660.
Two Two
Two
symmetrical tetrahedrons are equivalent. symmetrical polyhedrons
may
be decomposed into the same
number
661.
of tetrahedrons symmetrical each to each.
symmetrical polyhedrons are equivalent.
662.
If a solid has
other, the intersection of these planes
two planes of symmetry perpendicular to each is an axis of symmetry of the solid.
663.
If a solid has three planes of
symmetry perpendicular
to each
other, the three intersections of these planes are three axes of symmetry of the solid and the common intersection of these axes is the centre of
;
symmetry of the
664.
solid.
The volume
of the lateral area
by half the
of a right circular cylinder radius.
is
665. The volume of a right circular cylinder is equal to the product of the area of the rectangle which generates it, by the length of the circumference generated by the point of intersection of the diagonals of the
rectangle.
666.
eter of the base, the
If the altitude of a right circular cylinder is equal to the diamvolume is equal to the total area muUiplied by a
third of the radius.
Construct a spherical surface with given radius
667. Passing through three given points. 668.
669.
:
385
Passing through two given points and tangent to a given plane.
Passing through two given points and tangent to a given
sphere.
670.
-
Passing through a given point and tangent to two given planes. Passing through
671.
a given point and tangent to
two given
spheres.
672.
Passing through a given point and tangent to a given
phme
and a given sphere.

673. Tangent to three given planes.
674.
675. 676.
'
Tangent
to three given spheres.
Tangent
Tangent
to
to
two given planes and a given sphere.
two given spheres and a given plane.
Find the area of a solid generated by an equilateral triangle turning about one of its sides, if the length of the side is a.
677.
678.
three given points,

679.
planes,
Find the centre of a sphere whose surface shall pass through and shall touch a given plane.
Find the centre of a sphere whose surface shall touch two given and also pass through two given points which lie between the
planes.
680.
to pass a
plane tangent to a given
cir-
cular cylinder.
681.
to pass
a plane tangent
to a
given
cir-
cular cone.
682. Through a given straight line without a given sphere, to pass a plane tangent to the sphere.
683.
scribing cylinder,
cylinder.
The volume of a sphere is two-thirds of the volume of a circumand its surface is two-thirds of the total surface of the
684. Given a sphere, a cylinder circumscribed about the sphere, and a cone of two nappes inscribed in the cylinder ; if any two planes are drawn perpendicular to the axis of the three figures, the spherical seg-
ment between
the planes is equivalent to the difference between the corresponding cylindrical and conic segments.
bS6
685.
SOLID GEOMETRY.
Compare the volumes
b.
BOOK
VIII.
turning successively about two adjacent
of the solids generated by a rectangle sides, the lengths of these sides
being a and
686.
An
Compare the convex

triangle.
equilateral triangle revolves about one of its altitudes. surface of the cone generated by the triangle and
the surface of the sphere generated
by the
circle
inscribed in the
687.
An
equilateral triangle revolves
about one of
its
altitudes.
Compare the volumes of the solids generated by the inscribed circle, and the circumscribed circle.
triangle, the
688. The perpendicular let fall from the point of intersection of the medial lines of a given triangle upon any plane not cutting the triangle is equal to one-third the sum of the perpendiculars from the vertices of
the triangle upon the same plane.

689. The perpendicular from the centre of gravity of a tetrahedron upon any plane not cutting the tetrahedron is equal to one-fourth the sum of the perpendiculars from the vertices of the tetrahedron upon the same plane.
690. The volume of any polyhedron having for its bases any two polygons whose planes are parallel, and for lateral faces trapezoids, is the product of one-sixth the distance between the bases into the sum of
the two bases plus four times a section midway between the bases that and b, and B^ a section denotes the distance between the bases is, if
;
midway between
the bases,
V=^H{B + b + 4:B').
Note. From any point
in the section
midway between
the bases,
draw
lines to the vertices of the solid angles of the polyhedron, thus dividand b as bases, eviing the solid into pyramids. The pyramids having ÎI{B + b). It remains to be proved that the volume of dently equal
each pyramid having a lateral face as

that portion of the section
pyramid.
into four times its base equals ^ between the bases intercepted by thie midway This theorem is much used in earth-work.
BOOK
IX.
CONIC SECTIONS.
The Parabola.
(\791y The curve traced by a point whicli moves so that its distance from a fixed point is always equal to its distance from a fixed line is called a parabola. The curve lies in the
plane of the fixed point and

792.
line.
The
fixed point is called the /o<?t^;
and the
fixed line,
the directrix.
793.
parabola
may be
:
described by the continuous motion
of a point, as tollows
wmE
Place a ruler so that one of

the directrix
its
edges shall coincide with
right triangle with its base edge in contact with the edge of the ruler. Fasten one end of a string, whose length is equal to the other edge BC, to the
DE.
Then place a
point B, and the other end to a pin fixed at the focus F. Then slide the triangle along the directrix, keeping the the ruler by the point of a penstring tightly pressed against
BCE
cil
P.
The point
motion we always have
P will describe a PF= PC.
parabola
for
during the
388
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
IX.
Proposition
Peoblem.
points,
$Qp To
îven
its
construct
a parabola hy
its directji.v.
having
focus and
c
THE PARABOLA.
795. line
axis.
389 The
DF produced
The
is
The point
is
called the vertex of the curve.

is
indefinitely in both directions
called the
796.
line I'F, joining the focus to
any point
on
the curve,
797.
called the focal radius of P.
The
distance
AM
ia
called the abscissa,
and the
dis-
tance
798.
PMthe
ordinate, of the point P.

focus, is called
The double ordinate LR, through the

Cor.
1.
the latus rectum or parameter.

799.
Since
PP- FQ (Cons.), MP= MQ ( 121)

is
hence, the
( 63).
parabola
symmetrical with respect
to
its
axis
800.
Cor.
2.
to
pendicular
The curve lies entirely on one side of the perthe axis erected at the vertex; namely, on the
is
same
side as the focus.
For, any point on the other side of this perpendicular obviously nearer to the directrix than to the focus.
801.
Cor.
3.
The parabola
is
not
a closed
curve.
For any point on the axis of the curve to the right of is Hence evidently nearer to the focus than to the directrix. the parabola cannot cross the axis to the right of F.
QAF
802.
Cor.
4.
The
latus
rectum
is
equal
to
4:AF.
For,
Then,
draw LG to CDF. LF= LG, and LG ='FF,
..LF=FF=2AF.
Similarly,
FF= DF^ 2AF.

LR = 4:AF.
Therefore
803. Kemaek. In the following propositions, the focus will be denoted by F, the vertex by A, and the point where the axis meets the
directrix
by D.
390
GEOMETKY.
BOOK
II.
IX.
Proposition
804.
Theorem.
mean
The ordinate of any point of a parabola is a proportional between the latus rectum and the
abscissa.
Let P be any point,

To prove
Proof.
AM its abscissa, PM its ordinate. =4:AFxAM. FM' - FF ~FM' = Dit - fW 791 = {DM- FM) {DM+ FM) = DF{DF-\- FM-\- FM)
FM
-2
-=^2AF{2AF-\-2FM)
Hence
^2AF{2AM). FM' = 4:AFxAM.
(1)
Q. E. D.
805. Cor. 1. The greater the abscissa of a point, the greater in equation (1). For PJf increases with the ordinate.
AM
806.
Cor.
2.
If
P and
are any
two points of the curve,
FM' _ 4:AFx
Q^'
AM _AM
an'
abscissas.
4:AFxAN
Hence, the squares of any two ordinatcs are as the
THE PARABOLA.
391
PRorosiTioN
III.
Theorem.
807. Every poUtt within the parabola is nearer to the focus than to the directrix; and every point without the parabola is farther from the focus than from the directrix.
1. Let Q be a point within the parabola. Draw QC perpendicular to the directrix, cutting the curve at
P,
Draw
To prove
Proof.
QF, PF.
In the
QF < QC. A QPF, QF<QF-\- PF.
137
791
But
PF= PC.
.:QF< QP+PC, .'.QF<QC

2.
Let
Q'
be a point without the curve.
Draw
Q'F.
To prove
Proof. In the
or
A Q'FP, Q'F > PF- PQ\ Q'F> PC~PQ\

Q'F>Q'C.
is less
Q'F>
Q'C.
137
That
808.
is,
ae-o.
Cor.
A 2'>oint is within or without a parabola according

than, or greater than,
its
as
its
distance from, the focus
distance from the directrix.

809.
A
it
parabola,
is
straight line which touches, but does not cut, a called a tangent to the parabola. The point
is
where
touches the parabola
called the point of contact.
392
GEOMETEY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition IV.
Theorem.
810. If a line is drawn from any point P of the curve, bisecting the angle between and the to the directrix, every point of perpendicular from the line PT, except P, is without the curve, j^
PT
PF
II
Let PG be the perpendicular from P to the directrix, the angle FPT equal the angle CPT, and let X he anyother point in PT except P.
To prove that
Proof.
is
without the curve.

to the directrix,
Draw XPJ
isos.
and
join
OX, FX, CF,

Ex. 14
and
let
OF meet Pât
P.
In the
A PCF,
OP = PF
Hence But
Therefore
CX= FX
122 114
FX<
Xis
1.
ex.
FX<FX
That
811.
812. 813.
is,
without the curve.

tangent at the point
is
808
Cor.
Cor.
Cor.
PTis the
P ( 809).
to
Q. E. D.
2.
3.
PT bisects FC, and perpendicular FC. Since the angles FPT and FTP are equal,
FT equals FP{%lb^).
THE PARABOLA.
814.
393
to
Cor.
it
4.
The tangent
at
A
A
is
perpendicular
the axis.
For
315.
bisects the straight angle

5.
FAD.
is
Cor.
The tangent and
at
the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular dropped from

Since
816.
the focus to
any
in
tangent.
FR = RC,
The
line
FA = AD, R is
normal
through at P.
^^( 311).
PN drawn
P
Pmeet
P perpendicular to the
tangent
817.
PT'm
called the
If the ordinate of at
gent and normal
the axis in
meet the axis in M, and the tanT and iV respectively,
then MT'iQ the suhtangent and JfiV the subnormal.

V 818. Cor. 6.
The suhtangent
is
bisected
by the
vertex.
For,
and
Hence
Therefore
or
V
FT= FP, FP^DM. FT= DM] also AF^ AD. FT- AF= DM- AD,
TA = AM.
7.
813
791
819.
Cor.
The subnormal
is
equal
to
half the latus
rectum.
For
CP = FN,
and
Hence
or
FJSr=^-
CP = DM. DM,
ISO
FM-\- JSr=
Therefore
820.
DF+ FM.
^^
MI^= DF.
8.
Cor.
The normal
is,
bisects the
angle between
FP and
CP produced; that bisects the angle FPO. For Z NPT= A NPK, and Z FPT= Z TPC= Z GPK. Hence Z NPF= Z NPQ,
821.
Cor.
9.
The
circle
iV.
with
F as centre and FP as radius

/
passes through
Tand
394
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition V.
822.
Problem.
to
To draw a tangent
a parabola from an
exterior point.
Let B be any ôint exterior

To draw a tangent Jtotyi
Construction.
to the parabola,
QAP.
draw
to
QAP.
and
With
as centre
RF as
RP
radius,
and arcs cutting the directrix at the points B, C. Through to the axis, and meeting the parabola in draw lines parallel and are P, Q, respectively. Join RP, RQ. Then
RQ
tangents to the curve.

Proof.
Hence
Therefore
RB = RF, PB = PF. Z RPB - Z RPF RP the tangent at P.

is
Cons.
791
160
811
For
823.
like reason,
RQis
the tangent at Q.
o. e. f.
it is
Cor. Since
is
without the curve,
nearer
to the
as centre
directrix than to the focus ( 807); therefore, the circle with as radius, must always cut the directrix in and
R
a
RF
two points
therefore,
two tangents can always he
drawn
is
to
parabola from an exterior point.
and Q 824. The line joining the points of contact the chord of contact for the tangents drawn from R.
called
THE PARABOLA.
395
Proposition VI.
Theorem.
825. The line joining the focus to the intersection of two tangents makes equal angles with the focal radii drawn to the points of contact.
Let the tangents drawn at P and Q meet
in R.
396
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition VII.
827.
Theorem.
R
ko
to
If a pair of tangents are drawn from a point a parabola, the line drawn through R parallel
the axis will hiseet the chord of contact.
Let the tangents drawn from E meet the curve in and let the line through R parallel to the axis meet the directrix in H, the curve in 8, and the chord
P, Q,
of contact in M.
To prove
Proof.
FM=QM.
Drop the
Js
PB, QC io the and join RB, RC.
directrix,
RJIis
Hence
Since
therefore
to
BO,
.
RB = Ra
BII=
CH.
II,
102 823
121
PB, QC, and i?if are PM= QM.
100
187
D
Q. E.
THE PARABOLA.
Proposition VIII.
828.
397
Theorem.
// a pair of tangents RP, RQ are drawn from a -point R to a parabola, and through R a line parallel to the axis is drawn, meeting the curve in 8,
the tangent at
tact.
8 will
he parallel to the chord of con-
Let the tangent at S meet the tangents PR, QR in

T, V,
respectively.
To prove
Proof.
TV
II
to
FQ.
let it
Draw TJV
to
8M, and
FJSr^
meet
8F m
N.
Then Hence
Similarly,
N8
TR. VR.
827
188
189
FT=
is
II
Therefore
QV= TV to
FQ.
Q. E. D.
^ 829.
TV,
Cor. 1. If we suppose to move along R3f towards the curve, then since the point and the direction of the tanremain fixed, the chord will remain parallel to gent
TF
FQ
middle point 3f will move along i^Jf towards finally, R, M, F, and Q will all coincide at 8. Hence, the line RMis the locus of the middle points of all
while
its
chords
830.
drawn parallel
The
to
the tangent at 8.
chords in a parabola
831.
locus of the middle points of a system of parallel is called a diameter. The parallel chords
are called the ordinates of the diameter.
Cor.
2.
The diameters of a parabola are parallel
to its
axis
conversely, every straight line parallel to the axis is diameter ; that is, bisects a system of parallel chords.
;
and
832. Cor. 3. Tangents drawn through the ends of an ordinate intersect in the diameter corresponding to that ordinate. 833.
Cor.
4.
The point
xS'
is
the middle point of i2if( 188);
therefore, the portion of a diameter contained between any ordinate and the intersection of the tangents drawn through the ends of the ordinate is bisected by the curve.
398
834.
GEOMETRY.
Cor.
5.
BOOK
IX.
The point S is also the middle point of the tangent TV; therefore, the part of a tangent parallel to a chord contained between the two tangents drawn through the ends of the chord is bisected by the diameter of the chord at
the point of contact.
Proposition IX.
835.
Theorem.
chord
is
The area of a parabolic segment made by a two-thirds the area of the triangle formed
hy the chord and the tangents drawn through the ends of the chord.
fM
Q
Let PQ be any chord, and Q meet in R.
To prove
segment
let the tangents at
P and
P8Q = | A PR Q.
THE PARABOLA.
Proof.
399
the curve at 8, and in V. Join
Draw the diameter EM, meeting

a tangent meeting
at
8 draw
Since
PR
in
and
QR
8P, 8Q.
FT=
TE, and
II
QV= VE,
â
828
and
.-.
FT is to FQ, FQ = 2x VT. A FQ8= 2 A TVE.
189
370
If now we draw through T, V, the diameters T8', V8", and then draw through 8', 8", the tangents T'8'V', T"8"V", we can prove in the same way that
AF88' = 2AT'V'T,
and
AQ88"=2AT"V"V.
If we continue to form new triangles by drawing diameters through the points T', V\ T'\ F", and tangents at the points where these diameters meet the curve, we can prove that each
interior triangle formed by joining a point of contact to the extremities of a chord is twice as large as the exterior triangle
'
formed by the tangents through these points. true however long the process is continued.
Therefore the
twice the
And
this is
sum of all the interior triangles is equal to sum of the corresponding exterior triangles. Now if we suppose the process to be continued indefinitely, then the limit of the sum of the interior mangles will be the
area contained between the chord
limit of the
FQ and
the curve, and the
sum
of the exterior triangles will be the area con-
tained between the curve and the tangents FE, QE. Hence segment twice the area contained by FE, and the curve, * 260 QE, FQE. |
FQ8= = A
Q. E. O.
836.
Cor. If through
meeting the tangent then^he segment i
8M,
F and Q lines are drawn parallel to TV produced in the points X and Y,
FQ8=
O FQ YX.
400
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition X.
837.
Theorem.
section of a right circular cone made hy a plane parallel to one, and only one, element of tlte
The
surface is a parabola.
Let SB be any element of the cone whose axis Is and let QAP be the section of the cone made by a plane perpendicular to the plane BSZ and parallel
SZ,
to SB.
To prove that the curve

Proof.
PAQ is a parabola.
Let
SO
BSZ cuts
H,
the cone,
be the second element in which the plane and let be the intersection of the
BAB
planes ^xS'^ and Draw the
PAQ.
tangent to the lines i^, SC,
BD, and
axis
let
G,
Revolve
plane
F be the points of contact respectively. BBQ and the O OOH about the
fixed.
SZ, the
PAQ remaining
The
which
will touch the cone in the
O O GKII, and the plane PAQ

will generate a sphere
at the point F.
THE PARABOLA.
Since
401
SO
is
to
GB',
SO
is
to the plane
GKB'.
462
518
Hence the plane
SC is
to the plane
GXIT.
Let the plane of the

curve
O GKH intersect
PAQ
the plane
B8Q
in the straight line {^ 520), and therefore
MR
then will
the plane of the be J. to
MB
to
DB.
Take any point
in the curve,
and draw
8P
Gll'm K\
join FP, and draw
PM 1. to BM.
meeting the
Pass a plane through

cut the cone in the
P J. to the axis of the cone. Let O EPLQ, and the plane of the curve
it
PAQ in the line PNQ. PJSTk to the plane PSO ( 520), and
therefore
to
PB.
Since and PIT are tangents to the sphere O, they are tangents to the circle of the sphere made by a plane passing 246 through the points P, F, K, and are therefore equal.
PP
That
is,
PF= PK.
PK=LG.
.-.
But
666
(1)
II ;
PF= LG.
is
II
Now
hence
LG and PM&re each to NB to PM. LG

The planes
485 49 L
GKH and LPF are parallel.

:.LG = PM.
we have
493
From
(1)
and the
last equation,
PF= PM.
That
is,
any point
P on the curve PAQ

a fixed line
is
equidistant from
a fixed point
Pand
BM'xn
its
plane.
Therefore the curve
PAQ
is
a parabola.
Q. E.
402
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Exercises.
691.
is
Prove that
if
the abscissa of a point
is
equal to
its
ordinate, each
equal to the latus rectum.

692.
To draw a tangent and a normal at a given point To draw a tangent
of a parabola.
693.
694.
to a parabola parallel to a given line.
Show
that the tangents at the ends of the latus rectum meet
ati).
695.
696.
Prove that the latus rectum
is
the shortest focal chord.
The tangent
at
any point meets the directrix and the latus rec-
tum produced
697.
at points equally distant from the focus.
The The
circle
whose diameter
is
FP touches
the tangent at A.
698.
directrix touches
the circle having
any
focal chord for
diameter.
699. 700. 701.
Given two points and the
directrix, to find the focus.
The
J.
i?' (7
bisects
TP.
(See figure, page 392.)

axis, to describe
Given the focus and the

line.
a parabola which shall
touch a given straight
is any normal, and 702. If equal to the latus rectum.
PN
A PNF is
equilateral, then
PF
is
703.
704.
Given a parabola,
to find the directrix, axis,
and
focus.
To
find the locus of the centre of a circle which passes through

line.
a given point and touches a given straight

705.
Given the axis, a tangent, and the point of contact, to find the
directrix.
focus, to find the directrix.
focus
and
706.
Given two points and the
THE ELLIPSE.
403
The
838.
its
Ellipse.
The locus of a point which moves so that the sum of distances from two fixed points is constant is called an
fixed points are called the foci,
ellipse.
The
radii.
and the straight

foci are called
lines
which join a point of the curve to the
focal
The constant sum

the foci by 2c.
is
denoted by 2a, and the distance between
The
ratio c
is
called the eccentricity,
and
is
denoted by
e.
Therefore c
839.
'
ae.
Cor.
less
2a must
than
1.
he greater than 2c ( 137)
hence e
must he
840.
The curve may be described by the continuous motion

:
of a point, as follows
Fasten the ends of a string, whose length is 2a, at the foci Trace a curve with the point Pof a pencil pressed the string so as to keep it stretched. The curve thus against
-Fand F'.
the constant
traced will be an ellipse whose foci are and F\ and in which sum of the focal radii is FP-{- PF\
The curve
it
is
cuts iî^' produced in and equals the length of the string.
a closed curve extending around both foci if A\ it is easy to see that AA^
;
404
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX,
Proposition XI.
841.
Problem.
To construct an
ellipse
hy points, having given

2a,
the foci
and
the constant
sum
B
Let
F and
F'
be the
ellipse.
foci,
and
CD = 2 a.
To construct the
Oonstniction.
Through the
foci
bisect
FF^
at 0.
Lay
off
OA' =0A= CD.
F, F^ draw a straight line
Then A, A* are
two points of the curve.

Proof.
From
the construction,
AA'= 2a,
and
AF= A*F\
Therefore
AF-{-
AF = A'F-i- A'F'= AA'=2a,

mark any
and
A'F+ A'F'= A'F+ AF = AA'= 2a.

locate other points,
To
F'.
Describe an arc with
F as
between and point centre and as radius
^X
SiS
also another arc with
F'
as centre
and A^JC
radius; let
these arcs cut in P, Q.
Then P,
are two points of the curve.
This follows at once from the construction and 838.
By describing the same arcs with the foci interchanged, two more points P, S may be found. and P', and proceedBy assuming other points between in the same way, any number of points may be found. ing
THE ELLIPSE.
405
The curve passing through all the points is an ellipse having Fy F^ for foci, and 2 a for the constant sum of focal radii.
aE.F.
842.
Cor.
1.
By
describing arcs from the
foci
with the
same radius OA, we obtain two points B, B'

such that they are equidistant from the
line
foci.
of the curve
Therefore the
( 123).
BB' is perpendicular to A A} and passes
through
The line AA^ is The point is called the centre. its ends A, A* are called the ve7'tices of major axis; the curve. The line BB' is called the minor axis. The length
843.
called the
of the minor axis

844.
to the
is
denoted by 2b.
is
Cor.
2.
The major aods
bisected at O,
and
is
equal
constant
sum
2a.
is also bisected at
845.
Cor.
3.
The minor axis
( 123).
Therefore
846.
OB = OB' = b.
4.
Cor.
The values of a,
a'
b, c
are so related that
= b'i- c\
For, in the
rt.
A BOF,
BF' = OB'-j-OT.
847.
Hence
848.
Cor. 5. The axis A' bisects at right angles ( 123). the ellipse is symmetrical with respect to its major axis.
FQ
The distance
of a point of the curve from the
minor
called the abscissa of the point, and its distance from the major axis is called the ordinate of the point.
axis
is
The double ordinate through the

rectuin or paraineter.
focus
is
called the latus
849.
Remark. In
its
of the ellipse,
axis.
centre,
the following propositions and F^ denote foci AA' the major axis, and BB^ the minor
406
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition XII.
850.
Theorem.
An
minor
ellipse is syrmnetrical axis,
with respect
to its
LetP be a point
to OB,
of the curve,
in D,
PDQ be perpendicular
meeting OB
and
let
DQ
equal DP.
To prove that
Proof.
is
also
a point of the curve.

F,
Join
P and Q to the foci

OB
;
F\
on P' and
Revolve
Oi)QP about
Pwill
fall
on P.
Therefore
Q,F= PF\
and
Therefore
Z PQF= Z QPF'. A FQF = A QPF\

QF' = FF.
106
and
Hence
But
Therefore Therefore
851.
is
QP+ QF' = PP+ FF'.

FF-}- FF'
= 2a. = 2a. QP+ QF'

Hyp.
is
a E. D.
of an ellipse
Every chord passing through the centre

Cor.
called a diameter.
852.
1.
From
847,
850,
it
follows that
an
consists of four
equal quadrantal arcs symmetrically placed

( 209, 64).
about
its
cehtre
2.
853.
Cor.
Every diameter
is
bisected at the centre.
THE ELLIPSE.
407
Proposition XIIL
854,
Theorem.
and
r' its
Ifd denotes the abscissa of a point of an ellipse, = focal radii, then r' a + ed, r=a ed.
Let P be any point of an ellipse, PM perpendicular to AA\ d equal OM, r equal PF, r' equal PFK
To prove
Proof.
r'
=a
r'
-{-
ed,
= a ed.
From
the
rt.
A FFM and F'FM
= PM" + 'FM\ r" = FM' + I"^'. r" - r" = F'M' - FM\ Therefore = (F'M+ F3I) (F'M- FM). Or (r' + r) (r' -r)
Now
Also,
/ + r=2a,
and
F^M-\-FM=2c.
Hence
F'M~ FM= OF' + OM- FM= 2 0M= 2d a (r' r) = 2 cd.

,^-r = ^=2ed.
= 2a, 2r'=2(a + ed), Therefore r' = a-{- ed,

From
r'-f r
and and
2ed,
and
2r = 2(a-ed). r = a ed.
i08
855.
GEOMETRY.
The
circle described
is
BOOK
IX.
upon the major
axis of an ellipse
The points where called the auxiliary circle. a line perpendicular to the major axis meets the ellipse and its auxiliary circle are called corresponding points.
as a diameter
Pkoposition XIV.
856.
Theorem.
The ordinates of two corresponding points in
an
ellipse
and
its
auxiliary circle are in the ratio
h:a.
Let P be a point of the ellipse, Q the corresponding point of the auxiliary circle, and QP meet AA' at M,
To prove
Proof.
PM: QM^h:a.
OM^d',
Let
then
QM =
'
a"-
d\
PM'' = PF'- FM" = (a-edy-(c- df = a' 2aed+e'd^ 2cdd\ c = ae and c^ & = Or, since PM'' =^b'-{l- e')d' = -^ (a' - d').
c' -f5',
854
846
Therefore
PW
PM
QM =
h'
a\
aE.
o.
Or
:QM=b:a,
THE ELLIPSE.
409
Proposition
857.
XV.
Problem.
its
To construct an two axes.
ellipse
hy points, having given
MA
the centre,
respectively,
Let OA, OB be the given semi- axes,

Oonstniction.
With
as centre,
and OA, OB,
as radii, describe circles.
From
draw any straight line meeting the larger and the smaller circle at R.
circle at
Through
line
II
Q draw
lines
a line
II
to
OB, and through
draw
to
OA.
meet at P.
will
If
Let these
Then
Proof.
P be a point of the required ellipse.

at
QPmeet A A'
M,
309
But
Therefore
PM.QM=OR:OQ. OR = b and OQ = a.
FM: QM= h
:
a.
Therefore
is
a point of the ellipse.
( 856)
By drawing other lines through 0, any number of points on the ellipse may be found a smooth curve drawn through all
;
the points will be the ellipse required.
o. e. f.
410
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition XVI.
868.
Theorem.
ellipse is to the
The square of the ordinate of a point in an product of the segments of the major
the ordinate as
IP1
axis
made hy
a^.
Let P, Q be corresponding' points in the ellipse and auxiliary circle, respectively; let PQ meet AA! in M,
To prove
THE ELLIPSE.
411
Proposition XVII.
Theorem.
860. The sum of the distanees of any point from the foci of an ellipse is greater or less than 2 a, according as the point is without or within the curve.
A>
1.
F'
Let Q be a point without the curve. To prove QF+ QF' > 2 a.

Proof.
Let
be any point on the arc of the curve between
QFand
Then But
QF'.
Draw PPand FF'. QF+ QF' > FF+ FF'.
118
FF+FF=2a.
QF-\- QF'
838
Therefore
2.
> 2 a.
<2a.
FQ' and
Let
Q'
be a point within the curve.
To prove
Proof.
Q'F+
Q'F'
Let
be any point of the curve between
F^Q' produced. Then But

Therefore
861.
Q'F+
Q'F'
< FF+ FF'.
118
FF-\-PF'=2a.
C'P+ QF'K 2 a.
is
o. e. d.
Cor. Conversely, a point
without or within an ellipse

is
according as the less than 2 a.

862.
sum
of its distances from the foci
greater or
ellipse is
straight line which touches but does not cut an The point where it called a tangent to the ellipse.
is
touches the ellipse
called the point of contact.
412
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
^
IX.
Proposition XVIII.
Theorem.
-point of an ellipse a line he the angle between one of the focal bisecting^ radii and the other produced, every point in this
(S?
If through a
drawn
line except
P is
without the curve^
Let FT bisect the angle FPG between FT and FP produced, and let Q be any point in PT except P,
To prove that
Proof.
is
without the curve.
Upon
FP produced take PG = PF'.

Join GF', QF, QF',
QG.
Then
QG+QF>
GF'.
137
Now
Therefore
A GPQ = A F'PQ. QG = QF'.

GF=2a.
QF' +QF>2a.
150
Also
Therefore
Therefore
638
Q
1.
is
without the curve.
861
D.
aE.
864. 865.
Cor.
PTis
The
the tangent at
to
P.
ellipse at
862
Cor.
2.
tangent
an
any point
bisects
the angle between one focal radius
and
the other produced.
THE ELLIPSE.
866.
413
Cor.
3.
If
OF'
to
cuts
FT at X, then
a tangent
is
GX-= F'X, and
FT
is
'perpendicular
QF\
123
867.
Cor.
4.
The
locus of the foot of

ellipse to
a perpendicular dropped
the auxiliary circle.
from
the focus of
an
For,
Since
therefore
F'X=- OX, and F'O = OF,
join
OX.
Therefore the point

'
0X= iFG=i(2a)=a, X lies in the auxiliary circle.

Problem.
ellipse
to
189
Proposition XIX.
868.
To draw a tangent
\^^
an
from an
exte-
rior -point.
To draw tangents
Oonstruction.
to
the ellipse
ORQfrom the extei'ior point F.
Describe arcs with
as centre
as radius
and
;
FF as
respec-
and with F^ as centre and 2a arcs intersect in O and 8. Join OF^ and 8F\ cutting the curve
radius,
tively.
let these
in
and
Join
QF and
FF, and
they will be the tangents required.
Proof.
FG = FF,
FQ is
is
QG = QF. = AFQF. ..AFQG ..ZFQG = ZFQF.

and
the tangent at Q. the tangent at i2.
Cons.,
838
160
Therefore
For like reason PjR

869.
ae.
f.
Cor. The
(D
GFS
and
GS
may
will
always
intersect
to
(Ex. 78).
ellipse from
Hence, two tangents
always he drawn
an
an
exterior point.
414
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition XX.
870.
Theorem.
corresponding auxiliary circle cut the
point.
The tangents drawn at

of an
ellipse
two
points
and
its
-major axis produced at the
same
Let the tangent
to
major axis produced at T, and meet the ellipse at P. Draw PT.

To prove that
Proof.
the auxiliary circle at Q cut the let the ordinate QM
FT
is
the tangent to the ellipse at P.
to
AA\
Then
except P, draw Through R, any point in cutting the tangent QT, the auxiliary circle, and the
PT
RD
321
ellipse, in
L, K, and B, respectively.
or
RD PM= DT: MT^ LB RD: LD = PM:QM.

:
QM,
208
856 856
But
Again,
.-.
But
PM: QM^b'.a. RD; LD = h:a. BD -.KD^-h a. RD: LD^8D: KD. LD > KD. RD > SD.
.'.
:
.-.
.'.
is
without the
is
ellipse.
Hence
PT
the tangent at P.
862
Q.E.
THE ELLIPSE.
871. 872.
415
Cor.
1.
OTxOM=a?
is
334
The
straight line
PN drawn through the point of concalled the
tact of a tangent, perpendicular to the tangent,
normal.
MT
873.
is
called the suhtangeni,

2.
MN the subnormal.
angle between the focal
Cor.
The normal
bisects the
radii of the point of contact.
For
Subtract
Z.
TPN^ Z GPN^- 90.
872
865
And
Z TPF-= Z GPF'. Z FPN=^ Z F'PN.
^ Hence
874.
a ray of light issuing from

Z.
F will be reflected to FK
contact,
Cor.
If d denote the abscissa of the point of

the
the distances
measured on
the
major axis
from
the centre to the
tangent
and
normal are
a^
and
^d, respectively.
(1) Since
871
334
416
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition XXI.
876.
Problem.
The tangents drawn at the ends of any diam-
eter are parallel to each other.
at
Let POQ be any diameter, PT and QT the tangents P, Q respectively, meeting the major axis at T, V,
To prove
THE ELLIPSE.
417
Proposition XXII.
877.
Theorem.
to
second
If one diameter is conjugate is conjugate to the first.
second, the
Let the diameter POP' be parallel

To prove that
Proof.
to the tangent
RT.
MOR'
is
parallel
to
the tangent
PT.
to
and RN, and produce them meet the auxiliary circle in Q and 8. Join OP, OQ, OP, 0S\ and draw the tangents QT, ST'.
Draw
the ordinates
PM
Now,
since
OP is
.-.
II
to
RX\
the
A OMP and TNR are similar.

TN: OM=JVR: MP. NR N8 = MP MQ, NR MP= N8 MQ.
: : : :
321
But.
or
.'.
870
T'JST:
OM^NS
MQ.
Hence
A TNS and OMQ are similar.

.
326
..Z.Nr8=^Z.M0Q.
:.
T'S\s
II
to
OQ.
105

Hence
Z QOS = Z
.-.
OST' = 90.
II
240
105
/S'Ois
to
Q 2:
418
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
^
IX.
h^SNO and QMT&re
similar.
= Nli MR ^ ONH and IMF are similar. to P^ OH

:
856
.-.
is a
JRH'
is
conjugate to PP'.
878.
879.
Cor.
Cor.
1.
Angle
QOS is a nght
OiV= 5
:
angle.
2.
MF
a.
For
THE ELLIPSE.
Proposition XXIII.
419
Theorem.
The area of an
ellipse is
equal to
Trob,
A'
M
Let
Let A'PRA be any semi- ellipse.

To prove that the area of twice
Proof.
A'PRA
is
equal
to irab.
PM,
i?iVbe two ordinates of the
ellipse,
and
let
Q,
8 be
Then
the corresponding points on the auxiliary circle.
Draw PV,
and
Therefore
QUW
to the
O PN== PMx 3N,

OQN^QMxMN.
major
axis,
meeting
NSm
F, U.
O PN ^ PMX MN _^PM ^h OQN QMxMN QM a

sum sum
of /l7 ip
of
856
The same
relation will be true for all the rectangles that

circle.
can be similarly inscribed in the ellipse and auxiliary
Hence
ellipse^ft^
/U
in circle
3^3
And
this is true
whatever be the number of the rectangles.
But the
limit of the
sum
of the
HI
in the ellipse is the area
of the ellipse, the O.
and the
limit of those in the
is
the area of
Therefore
area of ellipse area of circle
^ ^^
a
260
-n-a^
Therefore the area of the ellipse

i
=- X
(^
Trab.
425
D.
aE.
420
GEOMETEY.
BOOK
IX.
Peoposition
881r
XXIV.
Theorem.
The section of a right circular cone made hy a that cuts all the elements of the surface of the plane cone is an ellipse.
Let APA' be the curve traced on the surface of the cone SBC bjr a plane that cuts all the elements of the surface of the cone.
To prove thai the curve
Proof,
A PA' is
an
ellipse.
The plane passed through the
axis of the cone
and
plane AFA' cuts the surface of the cone in the elements 8B, SO, and the secant plane in the line AA\
to the secant
Describe the (D
points of contact be
and 0' tangent to SB, SO, AA\ Let the D, II, F, and B, C, F\ respectively.
Turn BSC and the 0, 0' about the axis of the cone. The lines SB, SO will generate the surface of a right circular and the cone cut by the secant plane in the curve APA*
;
(D 0,
DNH,
0' will generate spheres which touch the cone in the BN'O, and the secant plane in the points F, F'^
THE ELLIPSE.
421
Let be any point on the curve APA'. Draw PF, PF'; and draw SP, which touches the DII, PC at the points i^,
iV', respectively.
Since and PJV are tangent to the sphere 0, they are tangent to the circle of the sphere made by a plane passing through P, F, and JST. Therefore PN. 246
PF
PF^
Likewise
Hence
PF' = PN'. PF' = PN+ PF-\-
PJST'
iViV',
Therefore -4P^'
foci,
is
a constant quantity.
an
ellipse with the points
F and F' for

q, e. d.
and
A A'
as 2 a.
882,
tion is
Cor. Jf the secant plane is parallel to the base, the a circle, which is a particular case of the ellipse.
sec-
Exercises.
707.
in
Prove that the major axis
is
the longest chord that can be
drawn
an
ellipse.
708. 709.
710.
If the angle
FBF^
is
a right angle, prove that a'
26'.
To draw a tangent and a normal
at a given point of
an
ellipse.
To draw a tangent
Given the
line.
foci
;
to
an
ellipse parallel to
a given straight
line.
711.
it is
required to describe an ellipse touching a
given straight
712. 713.
714. 715.
Prove that
Prove that
W^ = OTx ON.
OM: ON=a^:
is
(See figure, page 414.) (See figure, page 414.)
c\
The minor axis
the shortest diameter of an ellipse.
points of an ellipse will the normal at the point pass through the centre of the ellipse ?
716.
foci to
At what
Prove that if FB, F^S are the perpendiculars dropped from the any tangent, then FR X F^S-= b^.
422
717.
ellipse.
GEOMETRY.
BOOTv IX.
to a
To draw a diameter conjugate

Given 2a, 2b, one
given diameter in a given
718.
focus,
and one point of the curve,
to construct
the curve.
719.
ellipse,
If
from a point
then
Pa pair of tangents FQ and FB be drawn FQ and FF will subtend equal angles at either focus.
an
ellipse,
to
an
720.
To
find the foci of
having given the major axis and
one point on the curve.

721.
To
find the foci of
an
ellipse,
having given the major axis and
a straight line which touches the curve.

722.
tact with
that
any
straight line moves so that its extremities are always in confixed straight lines perpendicular to each other. Prove point of the moving line describes an ellipse.
two
723.
To construct an
ellipse,
having given one of the
foci
and three
tangents.
724.
To construct an
ellipse,
having given one
focus,
two tangents,
and one
725.
of the points of contact.
To construct an
ellipse,
having given one
focus,
one vertex, and
one tangent.
an
to
The area of the parallelogram formed by drawing tangents to any pair of conjugate diameters is equal the rectangle contained by the axes of the ellipse.
726.
ellipse at the extremities of
THE HYPERBOLA.
423
The HyrERBOLA.
883.
The
of its distances from
locus of a point which moves so that the difference two fixed points is constant is called an
hyperbola.
The
radii.
which join a point
fixed points are called the foci, and the straight lines of the locus to the foci are called focal
The constant
between the
difference
is
denoted by 2 a, and the distance
foci
:
by
is
2c.
The
ratio c
Therefore c
884.
= ae.
1.
called the eccentricity,
and
is
denoted by
e.
Cor. 2 a must be
less
than 2 c
( 137);
hence e micst be
greater than
885. An hyperbola may be described by the continuous motion of a point, as follows

:
To one
that
it is
of the foci
F'
fasten one
end of a rigid bar
F'B
so
capable of turning freely about of the paper. plane
F* as
a centre in the
424
GEOMETEY.
BOOK
IX.
Take a string whose length is less than that of the bar by the constant difference 2a, and fasten one end of it at the other focus i^, and the other end at the extremity J5 of the bar.
is
made to revolve about I"' while the string stretched by the point of a pencil at P, in kept constantly contact with the bar, the point will trace an hyperbola.
If
now
the rod
is
are each increasFor, as the bar revolves, F'jP and ing by the same amount namely, the length of that portion of the string which is removed from the bar between any two
;
PP
positions of P; hence the difference between will remain constantly the same. The curve obtained by turning the bar about
P'P
and
PP
hand branch
the
left
may
of the hyperbola. be described in the

,
P* is the rightAnother similar branch on same manner by making the
bar revolve about

If the
Pas
a centre.
and
that
A',
two branches of the hyperbola cut the line FF' at A it is easy to see, from the symmetry of the construction,
therefore, is not a closed curve, like the
^^'=2 a.
but consists of two similar branches which are sepa-
The hyperbola,
ellipse,
recede indefinitely from the line
rated at their nearest points by the distance 2a, and which FF' and from one another.
THE HYPERBOLA.
425
Proposition
886.
XXV.
Problem.
To construct an hyperbola by points, having
given the foci
and
the constant difference 2a.
\^/^
426
887r
GEOMETKY.
Cor.
1.
BOOK
0.
IX.
perpendicular
to
is
No point of the FF^ erected at

is
curve can be situated on the
For every point of

foci.
this
perpendicular
888.
equidistant from the
The point
called the centre
A A' is
called the
transverse axis;
and A^ are
called the vertices.
In the perpendicular to
FF^
erected at 0, let B,
B^ be the
;
two points whose distance from
BB^
is
called
(or A^) the conjugate axis, and the length
is
equal to c
then
is
BB^
denoted by 2b.
If the transverse
and conjugate axes are equal, the hyper-
bola
is
said to be equilateral or rectangular.
889.
Cor.
2,
3.
Both
the axes are bisected at 0.
890.
891.
Cor. Cor.
It is evident that c^
= a^-\-
b^.
4.
The curve
is
symmetrical
ivith respect to the
transverse
892.
axis..
verse
The distances of a point of the curve from the transand conjugate axes are called respectively the ordinate and abscissa of the point. The double ordinate through the
is
focus
called the latus rectum or parameter.
893.
Remark. The
letters
to designate the
same points as
A, A^, B, B^, F, F^, and 0, will be nsea in the above figure.
THE HYPERBOLA.
427
Proposition
894.
XXVI.
Theorem.
its
Afi hyperbola conjugate axis.
is symiYbetrical
with respect
to
F' A!
Let P be a point of the curve, PDQ be perpendicular to OB, meeting OB at D, and let DQ equal DP.
To prove that
Proof;
is
also
Join
P and
OD
Q
;
to the foci F, F'.
Turn
ODQF'
about
F'
will fall on F,
and
on P.
Therefore
and
Therefore
QF' = FF, Z FQF' = Z QFF. A FQF' = A QFF,
150
and
QF=FF'.
Hence
But
Therefore Therefore
895.
QF-
QF' = FF' - FF. FF' - FF= 2a.
Hyp.
QF- QF' = 2a.

Q
is
q.
e.a
Every
Cor.
chord passing through the centre is called a
diameter.
896.
1.
An
hyperbola consists offour equal quadrantal

its
arcs symmetrically placed about

897.
centre 0.
209
Cor.
2.
Every diameter
is bisected
at 0.
428
GEOMETRY,
BOOK
IX.
Proposition XXVII.
898.
Theorem.
perhola, r
If d denote the ahseissa of a point of an hyand r' its foeal radii, then rêd a, and
a.
r'=
ed+
F'
A!
Let P be any point ot the

to AA', d
A F M curve, FM perpendicular
r'
equal OM,
equal PF,
r'
equal PF',
-\-
To prove
Proof.
r = ed a,
= ed
a.
From
the
rt.
A FFM,
F'FM,
Therefore
Or
(r'
Now
Also
FM^ + FIF = FIF + F'Jir. r" -r' = FM' - FM". + r) (/ -r) = (F'M-{- FM) (F'M~ FM). r'-r = 2a, and F^M-FM-=2c. F'M^ FM= 2 OF^ 2 FM= 2 OJf = 2d
o^"
By
Or
substituting these values,
(r'
+ ^) = 2 cd.
and
r'J[.r='?^=2ed. a
r'4- r
From
by addition,
2e(i,
2/
/ r = 2a,
;
by subtraction,
Therefore
= 2 (etf + a) = 2 {eda). 2r r=^ eda, and r' =
ec?
-}-
a.
ct e.
THE HYPERBOLAo
899,
429
is
The
circle described
circle.
upon
AA^
as a diameter
called
the auxiliary/
Proposition XXVIII.
900.
Theorem.
Any ordinate
its foot to
from
of an hyperbola is to the tangent the auxiliai^y circle as b is to a.
T/
nate, 31Q the tangent

circle.
Let P be any point of the hyperbola, PM the drdi' drawn from to the auxiliary
To prove
430
GEOMETEY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition
901.
XXIX.
Theorem.
The square of the ordinate of a jjoint in an hyperbola is to the product of the distances from the
foot of the ordinate to the vertices as
h^ is to a?-
T/
MQ
Let P be any point of the curve, PM the ordinate, the tangent drawn from M to the auxiliary circle.
To prove
Proof
PM' A3x A'M= b'

:
a'.
Now
FM QM =
:
b'
a\
But
Therefore
902.
QM' = AMxA'M.
348
Q. E. D.
FM'
AMx A'M=
is
b'
Cor. The latus rectum
a third proportional
to
the
transverse
and
conjugate axes.
For
Zf'
AFx A'F^ b'

and
a\
c
But
Therefore
AF= o a,
AF'= + a.
THE HYPERBOLA.
Proposition
903.
431
XXX.
Theorem.
The difference of the distances of any point the foci of an hyperbola is greater or less than from 2a, according as the point is on the concave or convex side of the curiae.
F'
1.
a!~
jI
Let Qbe a point on the concave side of the curve.
To prove
Proof.
QF' -~QF>2a.
Let
QF'
meet the curve at P.
Since F'Q - P'P+ FQ, and FQ < FP+ FQ, therefore F'Q - FQ > F'F - FF. But F'F-FF=2a. Therefore F'Q - FQ>2a.
2.
Let
Q'
be a point on the convex side of the curve

Q'F'
Let
To j^rove
Proof.
- Q'F< 2 a.
the curve at F.
Q'F cut
Since
therefore
F'Q'
< F'F+FQ',
and
FQ'^FF+ FQ',
F'Q' - FQ' < F'F- FF.
But
Therefore
904.
F'F-FF=2a.
F'Q'-FQ'<2a.
is
q.e.d.
Cor, Conversely, a point
on the concave or the conits dis-
vex side of the hyperbola according as the difference of tances from the foci is greater or less than 2 a.
432
905.
GEOMETEY.
BOOK
IX.
straight line which touches but does not cut the called a tangent, and the point where it touches hyperbola the hyperbola is called the point of contact.
is
Proposition
906.
XXXI. Theorem.
If through a point
P of an hyperbola
P
line he
bisecting the angle between the focal radii, is on the convex side every point in this line except of the curve.
drawn
F'
A
on the convex side of the curve.
Let PT bisect the angle FPF', and let Q be any point

in
PT
except
P.
To prove that
Proof.
is
On PF'
take
PG = PF;
draw FG, QF, QF', QG.
Then
THE HYPERBOLA.
911.
433
the focus of
The locus of the foot of the perpendicular from 5. an hyperbola to a tangent is the auxiliary circle. GX, and FO = OF', For, since
Cor.
therefore
0X= i F'G = i(FF' - FF)-^ a.
FX=
Therefore the point
189
lies in
the auxiliary circle.
Proposition XXXII.
912.
Problem.
To draw a tangent
to ait
hyperbola from a
îven exterior point.
Let P be the given point.

radius,
as centre and as Describe arcs with and with F' as centre and 2a as radius let these arcs intersect in O and R. Draw F'O and F'F, and produce them to meet the curve in Q and D, respectively. are the tangents required. Join FQ and FQ and
Construction.
;
FF
Proof.
FD FD FG = FF, QF= QF' -2a^QG.

;
.'.
.-.AFQGÂFQF. Z FQG - Z FQF. FQ is the tangent at Q.

.'.
For
913.
like reason
FF
is
the tangent at F.
Q.E.f
to
Cor.
Two
tangents
may
always he
drawn
an hyper-
bola from
an
exterior point.
434
GEOMETRY
BOOK
IX.
Proposition XXXIII.
914.
Theorem.
The tangents
to
centre meet the curve at the centre.
an hyperbola drawn from the an infinite distance from
\^
THE HYPERBOLA.
In the same
435
wav another tangent OS may be drawn, meet-
ing the other branch of the curve at an infinite distance.

915.
The hnes OB, OS.
indefinitely
produced
in
both direc-
tions, are called the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
916.
at Q.
Cor.
1.
The
line
FO
is
is
tangent
to the
auxiliary circle
For
Therefore
FG
Q
lies
\o OR.
circle.
910
911
on the auxiliary
Hence
917.
FG touches the auxiliary circle at

2.
Q.
239
Cor.
FQ is equal to the semi-conjugate axis b.
For
and
But
Therefore
F^ÔF'-O^, i = c-a*. 0F= and OQ = a.

c,
339
890
FQ = b.
3.
918.
Cor.
If the tangent
to
h.
the curve at
asymptote
OR at
R, then
AR =
meets the
For
Therefore
A OAR = A OQF.
AR-=FQ^h.
149
919. Cob. 4. The asymptotes of an hyperbola are the diagoconstructed with nals of the rectangle for its centre, and the transverse and conjugate axes for its two sides.
RSUV
920.
A
is
%
perpendicular to a tangent erected at the point called a normal.
oi
contact
The terms subtangent and subnormal are used in the hyperbola in the same sense as in the ellipse. 872
436
GEOMETRY.
BOOK
IX.
Proposition
XXXIV.
Theorem.
921. The section of a right circular cone made hy a plane that cuts both nappes of the cone is an hyper-
bola.
Let a plane cut the lower nappe of the cone in the curve PAQ, and the upper nappe in the curve FAIQ'. To prove that FAQ and F'A'Q' are the two branches of an
hyperbola.
Proof.
^
C8
(prolonged through 8), and the secant
axis of the cone perto the secant plane cuts the surface of the cone in pendicular
The plane passed through the
the elements B8, plane in the line
NN\
THE HYPERBOLA.
437
Let the Describe the (D 0, 0', tangent to S, CS, JSTN'. of contact be D, IT, F, and D', M', F\ respectively. points
and 0' about the axis of the cone. Turn B8C and the (D and C8 will generate the surfaces of the two nappes of a right circular cone and the (D 0, 0' will generate spheres which touch the cone in the (D DKH, D'KÎI\ and the
B8
secant plane in the points F, F^. Let be any point on the curve.
Draw
PF and PF^
and draw PS, which touches the points K, K'.
(D
DKH, B^K^W
at the
Now PjPand P^âre

point P. Therefore
tangents to the sphere
from the
PF= PK.
PF' = PK'. - PF^- PK' - PK PF' = KK\ a constant quantity.
is
Also
Hence
Therefore the curve
an hyperbola with the points

*
and
F'
for foci.
AUFO^S^
THIS BOOK IS
DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW

25
AN INITIAL FINE OF
CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE,
r.
MAR 14 êP
1939
939
^ ^ SEP 11
n
^f.^.
1943
iV!f.
190cf59D15 U
NOV 13
19h9
:\i
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFqfL^TIA IÎBRARY
^?^^^''

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r)

AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS

GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the

in the Oflflce of the Librarian of Congress, at

All Rights Rbsebvbd.

Prbsswork by Ginn &

depends mainly upon the form in which the subject

In compiling the present

author has kept this fact con-

All unnecessary discussions and scholia have been

and such methods have been adopted

attentive observation, combined with repeated

most readily comprehended.

attempt has been made to render

intelligible the simple notions of position,

magnitude, and direc;

few symbols, which stand

words and not

been used, but these are of so great

the demonstrations that no

apology seems necessary for

Great pains have been taken

lines of the figures are

as aids in the demonstrations are short-

resulting lines are long-dotted.

in one kind of type, of

required in another, and the demonfor

of the section, however, on

argument by referring which

the reason depends

placed at the side of the page.

parts of the propositions are carefully marked.

Moreover, each distinct

construction of the figures,

and each particular begins a new line; and

turn the page in reading a demonstration.

This arrangement presents obvious advantages.

The pupil perceives

given and what

required, readily refers to the figure

at every step, becomes perfectly familiar with the language of

and accurate expression, rapidly

Original exercises have been given, not so difficult as to discourage

beginner, but well adapted to afford an effectual test of the degree

mastering the subjects of his reading.

have been placed

the early part of the

that the student aaay discover, at the outset, that to commit to

ory a number of theorems and to reproduce them

a useless and pernicious labor

but to learn their uses and appliis

a readiness in exemplifying their utility

that mathematical training which looks not

to the attainment of information

Phillips Exeter Academy,

for the first time,

proofs on the blackboard

care being taken that his language be

the simplest possible,

that the arrangement of

vertical (without side work),

that the figures be accurately constructed.