Thermodynamics: Applied 3 - Lecture Notes

Introduction

What is Thermodynamics?

Deals with interrelationship between thermal energy
and mechanical energy heat, work and the properties
of the system

Heat engine operating in a cyclic manner produces
network from a supply of heat

Laws of Thermo - natural hypothesis based on
observation

Basis of first law is heat and work is mutually
convertible forms of energy - conservation of energy
- introduces the concept of internal energy.

second law dictates limits on the conversion of heat
into work - measures performance feasibility of a
particular process and specifies direction in which a
process will proceed - introduces entropy.


Laws of Thermodynamics in Lay Terminology

First Law: impossible to obtain something from
nothing, but may break even
Second Law: may break even but only at the lowest
possible temperature
Third Law: cannot reach the lowest possible temp

Concepts and Definitions

Pressure

Definition
Area
Force
Pressure=

Units
2
m
N
p
Derived unit, Pascal, Pa
2
1 1
m
N
Pa
1 kPa = 10
3
N/m
2
; 1 MPa = 10
6
N/m
2

1 bar = 10
5
N/m
2

1 atm (standard atmosphere) = 101.325 kPa

Other: mm HG, torr (1 mmHG), m H
2
O, lb
f
/in.
2
(psi)
1 Atm = 14.696 psi


Types of Pressure

- Absolute pressure, p (or p
abs
)
- Gage pressure, p
gage

- Atmospheric pressure, p
atm
(also termed ambient
pressure or barometric pressure)
- Vacuum pressure, p
vac



absolute pressure (kPa); pressure measured relative to
a perfect vacuum - MUST be used in thermo relations.

gauge pressure (kPa,g). measured relative to
atmospheric pressure (100 kPa) - almost all pressure
gauges register zero when open to the atmosphere -
measure the difference between the pressure of fluid to
which connected and the surrounding air.

system pressure > atmospheric pressure - gage pressure
p
gage
= p p
atm

atm pressure > system pressure - vacuum pressure
p
vac
= p
atm
p

Specific volume (v)

of a substance is the total volume (V) divided by total
mass (m) of that substance (volume per unit mass) -
units cubic meter per kilogram (

).

Specific volume is preferred for thermo analysis when
working with gases - small density values


Heat, Work and the System

Energy
capacity of a system to perform work or produce heat


energy can be stored within systems in three
macroscopic forms: internal energy, kinetic energy, and
gravitational potential energy.
Energy also can be transferred to and from systems -
transferred to and from closed systems by two means
only: work and heat transfer. Work and heat transfer
are identified at the system boundary and are not
properties.

Heat

Energy transfer by heat to or from a system is due to
temp difference bet the system and its surroundings -
occurs in the direction of decreasing temp.
Heat cannot be contained in or possessed by a system
Thermodynamic Systems and Processes

Defining an appropriate system can greatly simplify a
thermodynamic analysis.
A thermo system is any 3-d region of space bounded by
one or more surfaces - bounding surfaces may be real
or imaginary, at rest or in motion, may change its size
or shape.
The region of physical space that lies outside the
selected boundaries of the system is called the
surroundings or the environment

Determining the boundary to solve a thermo problem
for a system depends on what information is known
and what question is asked about the system

Types of Thermodynamic Systems

isolated, closed, or open based on possible transfer of
mass and energy across the system boundaries.

isolated system not influenced in any way by the
surroundings - no energy in the form of heat or work
may cross the boundary of the system. In addition, no
mass may cross the boundary of the system.
closed system - always contains the same matter (same
mass) - no transfer of mass with surroundings, may
have a transfer of energy (either heat or work)

open system - may have a transfer of both mass and
energy with its surroundings.


Work

Work is defined for mechanical systems as the action
of a force on an object through a distance - equals the
product of the force (F) times the displacement (d).
W = Fd
units Nm
Thermo definition of work extends notion of work
from mechanics to include other types of work.

boundary of closed system moves in direction of force
acting on it surroundings do work on the system
boundary moves outward work done by the system on
surroundings

Kinetic, potential, internal, and P-V energy are forms
of energy that are properties of a system. Work is a
form of energy, but it is energy in transit. Work is not a
property of a system. Work is a process done by or on a
system, but a system contains no work.

distinction bet forms of energy that are properties of a
system and forms of energy that are transferred to and
from a system is important to the understanding of
energy transfer systems.

Sign conventions for work and heat transfer:

all external inputs to a system are positive
Heat supplied to a system, Q, is positive
Work input to a system,W, is positive


State
condition of a system as described by its properties.

state of a system described by pressure, temperature,
specific volume, specific internal energy, specific
enthalpy, specific entropy
state specified by providing values of a subset of its
properties (any 2 for a pure fluid). All other properties
can be determined in terms of these few.

Thermodynamic Processes
A transformation from one state to another.

any property of a system changes - state changes -
system has undergone a process

for a pure fluid

other diagrams temp vs entropy, enthalpy vs entropy,
press vs enthalpy
Reversible Process

A series of infinitesimal changes of state with
equilibrium established after each change - can be
represented by a line on a state diagram

Irreversible (Non-Equilibrium) Process

A finite change of state without equilibrium except at
end states.
It should not be represented by a line


Reversible v. Irreversible

reversible thermo process could be made to occur in
precisely reverse order, so that the system and all
associated systems would be returned from their final
condition to the conditions that existed before the
process started
could return all energy that was transformed or
redistributed during the process from its final to its
original form, amount and location

ALL REAL PROCESSES ARE IRREVERSIBLE TO
SOME DEGREE

for analysis purposes use reversible to make the
analysis simpler, and to determine maximum
theoretical efficiencies - reversible process starting
point on which to base eng study and calculation.

Reversible Work

under ideal conditions ideal fluid, no friction
piston moves to the left

work done on the fluid by the surroundings
dv mp dV p dl pA dW = = = |
.
|

\
|
done, Work
for reversible process state points joined to form line on
p-v diagram
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}
= figure on area shaded
2
1
m dv p m W

when reversible expansion takes place
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}
= figure on area shaded
2
1
m dv p m W
process from right to left on p-v diagram (contraction)
work done on fluid - work input to the fluid W is
+ve

process from left to right on p-v diagram (expansion)
work done by fluid - work output to the fluid W is
ve




Cyclic Process

When a system in a given initial state goes through a
no. of different changes in state (going through various
processes) and finally returns to its initial values, the
system has undergone a cyclic process or cycle at
conclusion of a cycle, all properties have the same
value they had at the beginning.

a reversible cycle plotted on a p-v diagram forms a
closed figure the area of which represents the net work
of the cycle
cycle 1 2 3 4 1 net work input is shaded area
cycle 1 4 3 2 1 (reverse direction) shaded area is net
work output

Rule: enclosed area of a reversible cycle represents net
work input (net work done on the system) when the
cycle is anti-clockwise.