BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

Bio =Life, Diversity = Variety Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth and the essential interdependence of all living things

Scientists have identified more than 2 million species. Tens of millions -- remain unknown The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made possible by complex interactions among all living things including microscopic species like algae and mites.

TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY: Genetic diversity:- Diversity of genes within a species. i.e. genetic variability among the populations and the individuals of the same species. E.g.:- Chihuahuas, beagles, and Rottweilers are all dogsbut they're not the same because their genes are different.

Species diversity:- Diversity among species in an ecosystem. Biodiversity hotspot is best example of species diversity. E.g.:- monkeys, dragonflies, and meadow beauties are
all different species.

Ecosystem diversity:- Diversity at a higher level of organization, the ecosystem. To do with the variety of ecosystems on Earth. E.g.:- Prairies, Ponds, and tropical rain forests are all ecosystems. Each one is different, with its own set of species living in it.

Summary of Evolution of Life:-

Factors determining Degree of Diversity:

Habitat stress Geographical isolation Dominance by one species Availability of ecological resources Outskirts effect Geological history

The Value of Biodiversity: Biodiversity Has Intrinsic Value:

Something that has value in and of itself The value of something independent of its value to anyone or anything else

Biodiversity also has utilitarian Value:

The value something has as a means to anothers end. Utilitarian values include: Goods, Services, Information DirectUse Value(Goods) Food, medicine, building material, fiber, fuel Indirect Use Value (Services) Atmospheric and climate regulation, nutrient recycling

Cultural, Spiritual and Aesthetic

What do we get from biodiversity?

Oxygen, Food, Clean Water, Medicine, Aesthetics, Ideas

Important Role of Biodiversity:1. Ecological Role of Biodiversity:- All species provide at least one function in an
ecosystem. Each function is an integral part of regulating the species balance, species diversity and species health: all aspects which are intrinsic for the ecosystem as a whole to survive and prosper

2. Economic Role of Biodiversity :Food: Crop Biodiversity or agro biodiversity. Goods: Various things like timber, paper, medicines. Recreation: Wildlife tourism, trekking nature photography,birdwatching.

3. Scientific Role of Biodiversity:Genetic resources: Biotechnology and genetic enginnering use the genes of organisms to make new crops and medicines. Each species can give scientist some clue as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve.

Should we be concerned about biodiversity? What we know: The Earth is losing species at an alarming rate

Some scientists estimate that as many as 3 species per hour are going wiped out and 20,000 extinctions occur each year. when species of plants and animals go extinct, many other species are affected.

Threats to biodiversity:

Habitat destruction Pollution Species Introductions Global Climate Change Exploitation Construction of large dams. Commercial hunting.

Impact of loss of Biodiversity:

Increased exposure of species destruction Ecological imbalance Reduced sources of food, structural materials, medicinal and genetic resources Cost increase to the society

ECOSYSTEM
Species:- a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Habitat:- the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism. Population:- a group of organisms of the same species which live in the same area at the same time. Community:- a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area. Ecosystem:- a community and its abiotic environment. Ecology:- the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment E.g.:- The deserts of Africa, The rain forest of Brazil, The saltwater oceans. Biotic Factors

The living parts of an ecosystem. They include animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Abiotic Factors The nonliving parts of an ecosystem. They include water, minerals, sunlight, air, climate, and soil. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:A gradual process of change and replacement of some or all of the species in a community. Succession may take 100s to 1000s of years

Change of environment involving a series of species replacements in a community.

Primary Succession

occurs where there is no soil, e.g. after a volcanic explosion or a glacial retreat Dune grassescottonwoods+ shrubsevergreensoaksbeeches maples

Secondary Succession begins in an area where soil is already present, (e.g. a once cultivated field or after a forest fire.) Pondmarshdry land/grasses shrubsforest Pioneer speciesfirst species to begin a succession. Climax communitythe final stage in a succession. Primary vs. Secondary Primary Succession No soil Pioneer species Weathering & decomposition Humus and sand increase over time End = climax community Secondary Succession Soil already exists Seeds have suitable soil conditions. Occurs much faster Climax community.

Animal Adaptation:All living things have to be suited to their environment if they have to survive. Examples: Fish, Squirrels

FOOD CHAIN: Order in which animals eat plants and other animals. Each part of a food chain is a link connected to other links. Herbivores:- Herbivores are animals that only eat plants. Carnivores:- Carnivores are animals that eat meat. Carnivores will also eat animals that eat plants.
Omnivores:- Omnivores will eat both plants and animals. Some animals eat both plants and meat. People are omnivores

Insects eat plants:- Insects eat plants. Fish, frogs, and birds eat the insects that eat the plants. This begins the food chain. Birds, Animals and People Eat Fish The fish eat the plants and insects. People eat fish too. All food begins with the sun.

FOOD CHAIN:Producer (green plant) Primary Consumer (herbivore) Secondary Consumer (carnivore) Tertiary Consumer (carnivore)

Transfer of Energy: When a zebra eats the grass, it does not obtain all of the energy the grass has. When a lion eats a zebra, it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat) The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate. Only 10% of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next this is called the 10% law Energy moves from one organism to another when it is eaten. Each step in this transfer of energy is known as a tropic level. The main tropic levels are producers, consumers, and decomposers

Ecological Pyramids: Ecological pyramids show the relative amount of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a given food chain or food web. There are three different types of ecological pyramids: pyramids of energy, pyramids of biomass, and pyramids of numbers.

Pyramids of energy show the relative amount of energy available at each trophic level.

Organisms expend much of the energy they acquire on life processes, such as respiration, movement, growth, and reproduction. Most of the remaining energy is released into the environment as heata byproduct of these activities. The total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level is called its biomass. The amount of biomass a given trophic level can support is determined, in part, by the amount of energy available

Pyramids of Biomass and Numbers:

A pyramid of biomass illustrates the relative amount of living organic matter at each trophic level. Typically, the greatest biomass is at the base of the pyramid, as is seen in the field ecosystem modeled here. A pyramid of numbers shows the relative number of individual organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem. In most ecosystems, the shape of the pyramid of numbers is similar to the shape of the pyramid of biomass for the same ecosystem, with the numbers of individuals on each level decreasing from the level below it. Pyramid if numbers is generally an erect pyramid. But in seas & oceans it is an inverted pyramid. This is due to the fact that the number of producers are less than the number of consumers. It is major structural and functional unit of ecology Its structure is related with to its specie diversity. Its function is related to energy flow and material cycling through and within the ecosystem The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.

Characteristics of Ecosystem:

Types of ecosystem
Natural Ecosystem
Terrestrial: Forest, Grassland, Desert etc. These operate under conditions without any major inference by man. Aquatic Fresh water Lotic: running water as spring, stream or rivers. Lentic: standing water as lake, pond etc. Marine water: deep bodies as ocean or shallow ones as seas.

Artificial Ecosystem

Man-engineering ecosystem, Cropland, Urban.

Ecology concept:1. Structural ecology concept: Environment is a complex of several inter-related and dynamic factors. Organisms are not only independent and mutually reactive but also react with environment Organism having uniformity in structure and functions with sufficient plasticity. Activities of organism, they modify their environment to make it more congenial for their growth, development and reproduction. An ecosystem is a segment of nature consisting of a community of living being and the physical environment both are interacting and exchanging materials between them. Each population occupies a specific volume of habitat circumscribed by the interaction. The flow of energy in ecosystem is unidirectional or non-cyclic. Biogeochemical cycle. Human beings exploit the ecosphere for their own benefits.

2. Functional ecology concept:

Industrial Ecology:It is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems It is a systems-based, multidisciplinary field that seeks to understand behavior of complex integrated human/natural systems It is a young but growing multidisciplinary field of research which combines aspects of engineering, economics, sociology, toxicology and the natural sciences. Waste inputs new processes sustainability Industrial Ecology focuses on:

technological change and the environment life-cycle planning, design and assessment design for the environment ("eco-design") eco-industrial parks product-oriented environmental policy

ENERGY MANAGEMENT Nature of Energy: Energy is all around you!

You can hear energy as sound. You can see energy as light. And you can feel it as wind. You use energy when you: hit a softball, lift your book bag, compress a spring. Living organisms need energy for growth and movement.

Energy is involved when: o A bird flies. o A bomb explodes. o Rain falls from the sky. o Electricity flows in a wire. Definition: - Energy can be defined as the ability to do work. If an object or organism does work (exerts a force over a distance to move an object) the object or organism uses energy.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT:- "Energy management" is a term that has a number of meanings, but
we're mainly concerned with the one that relates to saving energy in businesses, public sector/government organizations, and homes.

The energy-saving meaning:- When it comes to energy saving, energy management is the process of
monitoring, controlling, and conserving energy in a building or organization.

Typically this involves:

Metering your energy consumption and collecting the data. Finding opportunities to save energy, and estimating how much energy each opportunity could save. Taking action to target the opportunities to save energy. Tracking your progress by analyzing your meter data to see how well your energy-saving efforts have worked. ENERGY RESOURCES Energy resources can be classified into two groups. Renewable Renewable energy resources can be replaced or regenerated and will never run out (at least not for a very long time). Examples: wind and solar. Non-renewable Non-renewable energy resources will eventually run out once used they cannot be used again. Examples: coal and oil.

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:-

Coal:

Coal is the plants that grew in swampy areas about 300 millions ago, died to form layers of decaying material. Heat, pressure and the action of bacteria changed the decaying plants into coal.

 Petroleum: Petroleum was formed from small sea animals and plants that lived millions of years ago. After they died, heat; pressure; and the action of bacteria changed the remains into oil. The oil formed was then trapped as small drops inside the pores of rocks.

Natural Gas:-

Natural gas is found together with oil and sometimes with coal. The gas consists mainly of methane CH4.

Advantages: Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal, fairly cheaply. Transporting oil and gas to the power stations is easy. Gas-fired power stations are very efficient. A fossil-fuelled power station can be built almost anywhere

Nuclear Energy: Nuclear power is generated using Uranium, which is a metal mined in various parts of the world. Nuclear power produces around 11% of the world's energy needs, and produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel, without the pollution that you get from burning fossil fuels. Advantages: Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it's not expensive to make. Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not contribute to the pollution. Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel. Produces small amounts of waste. Disadvantages: It is very, very dangerous. It must be sealed up and buried for many years to allow the radioactivity to die away. It is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety - if it does go wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:1. Wind: We've used the wind as an energy source for a long time. Wind power was used in the middle Ages, in Europe, to grind corn, which is where the term "windmill" comes from. The wind blows the propeller round, which turns a generator to produce electricity. The more towers, the more wind, and the larger the propellers, the more electricity we can make. It's only worth building wind farms in places that have strong, steady winds.

Advantages: Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel. Produces no waste or greenhouse gases. The land can usually still be used for farming. Wind farms can be tourist attractions. A good method of supplying energy to remote areas. Disadvantages: The wind is not always predictable - some days have no wind. Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive. Some people feel that covering the landscape with these towers is unsightly. Can kill birds - migrating flocks tend to like strong winds. Can affect television reception if you live nearby. Can be noisy. 2. Solar Power; Just the tiny fraction of the Sun's energy that hits the Earth is enough to meet all our power needs many times over. In fact, every minute, enough energy arrives at the Earth to meet our demands for a whole year - if only we could harness it properly. How it works There are two main ways that we use the Sun's energy:1. Solar Cells-that convert light directly into electricity. 2. Solar water heating,-where heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels on your roof. Advantages: Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution. In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get electricity to a remote place. Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery chargers

Disadvantages; Doesn't work at night. Very expensive to build solar power stations. Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate.

3. Tidal Power: The tide moves a huge amount of water each day. Although the energy supply is reliable and plentiful, converting it into useful electrical power is not easy How it works: Tidal Barrages These work rather like a Hydro-electric scheme, Except that the dam Is much bigger. A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a river estuary. When the tide goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels in the dam. Advantages: Once you've built it, tidal power is free. It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste. It needs no fuel. It produces electricity reliably. Not expensive to maintain. Tides are totally predictable. Disadvantages: A barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very wide area. Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in or out.

4. Hydropower: We have used running water as an energy source for thousands of years, mainly to grind corn. The first use of water to generate electricity was in 1882 on the Fox river, in the USA, which produced enough power to light two paper mills and a house. Nowadays there are many hydro-electric power stations, providing around 20% of the world's electricity. The name comes from "hydro", the Greek word for water. How it works A dam is built to trap water, usually in a valley where there is an existing lake. Water is allowed to flow through tunnels in the dam, to turn turbines and thus drive generators. Notice that the dam is much thicker at the bottom than at the top, because the pressure of the water increases with depth. Advantages:Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free. No waste or pollution produced. Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power. Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand. Electricity can be generated constantly. Disadvantages:The dams are very expensive to build. Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing problems for animals that used to live there. Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and the environment may be unacceptable. Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an impact on plant life 5. Geothermal:The centre of the Earth is around 6000 degress Celsius - hot enough to melt rock. Even a few kilometres down, the temperature can be over 250 degrees Celsius. In general, the temperature rises one degree Celsius for every 36 metres you go down. Geothermal energy has been used for thousands of years in some countries for cooking and heating. The name "geothermal" comes from two Greek words: "geo" means "Earth" and "thermal" means "heat". How it works Hot rocks undergoes heat water to produce steam. We drill holes down to the hot region, steam comes up, is purified and used to drive turbines, which drive electric generators.

There may be natural "groundwater" in the hot rocks anyway, or we may need to drill more holes and pump water down to them. Advantages:Geothermal energy does not produce any pollution, and does not contribute to the pollution. The power stations do not take up much space, so there is not much impact on the environment. No fuel is needed. Once you've built a geothermal power station, the energy is almost free. It may need a little energy to run a pump, but this can be taken from the energy being generated Disadvantages:The big problem is that there are not many places where you can build a geothermal power station. Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam", perhaps for decades. Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground, and can be difficult to safely dispose of.

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
Ignorance of law is not excusable INTRODUCTION: UN Conference on Human env. In Stockholm (1972)/Stockholm conference Gen. sec. U Thant First major conference Declaration of 26 principles Stockholm conference 1992 (Brazil) OBJECTIVES OF CONFERENCE: Defense & improvement of human env. Plan,manage & control env. Resources Ensure international co-ordination for env. Protection UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme

 MISSION: To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations EARTH SUMMIT - RIO DECLARATION: Held in Rio De Janeiro 20 yrs after first conference AGENDA 21 (sustainable energy) Key concerns:

Economic development Stop destruction of natural resources Scarcity of water Public transportation Alternative sources of energy Patterns of prod.

ENV. GOVERNANCE IN INDIA; Rise in modern industrial development 1970 National Committee on Env. Planning & Co-ordination 1972(Indira Gandhi) Issues/problems related with developmental activities Preservation of ecosystems 1980s Public awareness ENV. PROTECTION & FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS: Right to wholesome env. CASE: Dehradun Quarrying case, Ganga pollution Right to livelihood CASE: Olga Tellis vs BMC Right to Equality ENV. PROTECTION ACTS:-

 Water (prevention & control of pollution) Act 1974 Air (prevention & control of pollution) Act 1981 Forest Conservation Act 1980 Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 ARTICLE 51 A (g):It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife & to have compassion for living creatures

ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING
Environmental accounting, also called social accounting, is a type of accounting that measure both the social and environmental impacts of business decisions. It is the identification, collection and analysis of information related with environmental costs. Also called as Green Accounting

Environmental Costs: Regulatory: pollution control, waste mgt., taxes, penalties/fines, recordkeeping, inspection, compliance costs etc. Voluntary: Recycling, Environmental studies, R & D, Habitat protection, Financial support to environmental groups

Need for Environmental Accounting: Reducing costs Greener investment Proper utilization of waste Proper housekeeping Improved env. performance Accurate costing of products Competitive advantage Help in getting overall EMS (ISO)

Benefits: Reduce energy bills Sell or reuse byproducts Pricing decisions Managing natural resources Forecasting

 Conclusion: EA is gaining more importance & have a huge scope in coming years. Therefore, it should be integrated with financial / management accounting

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste- Definition & Classification:Any material which is not needed by the owner, producer or processor. Classification: Domestic waste Factory waste Waste from oil factory E-waste Construction waste Agricultural waste Food processing waste Bio-medical waste Nuclear waste

Kinds of Wastes: Solid wastes: domestic, commercial and industrial wastes in hard form. Examples: plastics, bottles, cans, papers, scrap iron, and other trash Liquid Wastes: wastes in fluid form Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste water from ponds, manufacturing industries and other sources Classification of Wastes: Solid waste- vegetable waste, kitchen waste, household waste etc. E-waste- discarded electronic devices like computer, TV, music systems etc. Liquid waste- water used for different industries e.g. distilleries, thermal power plants

Plastic waste- plastic bags, bottles, bucket etc. Metal waste- unused metal sheet, metal scraps etc. Nuclear waste- unused materials from nuclear power plants

Solid Waste in India: 7.2 million tonnes of hazardous waste One Sq km of additional landfill area every-year Rs 1600 crore for treatment & disposal of these wastes In addition to this industries discharge about 150 million tonnes of high volume low hazard waste every year, which is mostly dumped on open low lying land areas.

Waste Collection in India: Primarily by the city municipality -No gradation of waste product e.g. bio-degradable, glasses, polybags, paper shreds etc -Dumps these wastes to the city outskirts Local raddiwala / kabadiwala (Rag pickers) -Collecting small iron pieces by magnets -Collecting glass bottles -Collecting paper for recycling

How solid waste affected us in recent years?

Rainstorm in Mumbai (2005) clogged the sewage line due to large no. of plastic bags Blast in the Bhusan Steel factory at Noida, caused due to imported scrap from Iran Reduction in the number of migratory birds due to consumption of contaminated foods Stray animals dying on streets and farmland due to consumption of plastic bags, which blocks the food movement in their stomach

Hazardous / Toxic Waste & Dumping Site

Industrialised countries have waste management problems Developed countries have strict environment regulation norms Most attractive option for them- to dump into developing countries

Managing Waste:Recycling: Processing of a waste item into usable forms. Benefits of recycling: -Reduce environmental degradation -Making money out of waste -Save energy that would have gone into waste handling & product manufacture Saving through recycling: -When All is remolded- considerable saving in cost -Making paper from waste saves 50% energy -Every tone of recycled glass saves energy equivalent to 100 liters of oil. Recycling not a solution to all problems! Recycling is not a solution to managing every kind of waste material For many items recycling technologies are unavailable or unsafe In some cases, cost of recycling is too high.

Solution: More Profit With Zero Waste Exchanging output that are considered waste Waste of one could be input or raw material for others Evolving a closed system- matter & energy circulate within system.

Problems in Dealing With Waste: Education & voluntary compliance Collection of waste Technological interventions Institutions & regulatory framework

Absence of mandatory standards for waste reduction Market action for waste reduction

REASONS FOR IMPROPER MANAGEMENT OF WASTE Lack of planning for waste management while planning townships Lack of proper institutional set up for waste management, planning and designing in urban local bodies Lack of technically trained manpower Lack of community involvement Lack of expertise and exposure to city waste management using modern techniques / best practices Lack of awareness creation mechanism Lack of Management Information Systems

RECOMMENDED APPROACHES TO WASTE MANAGEMENT 1. Possible Waste Management Options : (a) Waste Minimisation (b) Material Recycling (c) Waste Processing (Resource Recovery) (d) Waste Transformation (e) Sanitary Land filling Limited land availability is a constraint in Metro cities. 2. Processing / Treatment should be : (a) Technically sound (b) Financially possible (c) Eco-friendly / Environmental friendly (d) Easy to operate & maintain by local community (e) Long term sustainability WHAT SHOULD BE DONE Conduct outreach program adopting an ecologically sound waste management system which includes:

waste reduction segregation at source recycling and re-use more efficient collection more environmentally sound disposal

EFFECTS OF WASTE IF NOT MANAGED WISELY Affects our health Affects our socio-economic conditions Affects our coastal and marine environment Affects our climate

Residents are organized into small groups to carry out the following:
construction of backyard compost pit construction of storage bins where recyclable and reusable materials are stored by each household construction of storage centers where recyclable and reusable materials collected by the street sweepers are stored prior to selling to junk dealers maintenance of cleanliness in yards and streets greening of their respective areas encouraging others to join

WATER POLLUTION ACT, 1974

An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring of Wholesomeness of water

Definition:
Means contamination of water or altering the physical, chemical or biological properties of water or any discharge of any sewage or any other liquid, gaseous or solid substances into water.

 State & central boards Meetings of the boards (once in 3 months) POWERS OF CENTRAL & STATE BOARDS: investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention Laying down standards Organizing various programs to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works and plants for the treatment Setting up labs Power to take samples Power to inspect any plant/factory penalties

WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

OVERVIEW: The Act provides for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants; and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. Short title, extent and commencement. (1) This Act may be called Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. (2) It extends to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir (3) It shall come into force in a State or Union Territory on such date as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act or for different States or Union territories.

Definitions :(1) "animal" includes amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and their young, and also includes, in the cases of birds and reptiles, their eggs; (2) "animal article" means an article made from any captive animal or wild animal, other than vermin, and includes an article or object in which the whole or any part of such animal (3) "Captive animal" means any animal, which is captured or kept or bred in captive (4) "Closed area" means the area which is declared under section 37 to be closed to hunting

Hunting of wild animals Grant of permit for special purposes Prohibition of picking, uprooting of specified plants Declaration of sanctuaries & national parks Declaration of closed areas Trade & commerce related to animals Dealings in animal articles Rights of scheduled tribes Transaction & taxidermy

NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATION Introduction: The term originated from the United Nations (UN). Non-governmental organization, or NGO, is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. CHARACTERISTICS: Normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are not conventional for-profit business. Funded totally or partially by governments. Applied only to organizations that pursue some wider social aim that has political aspects. Non-profit organization (NPO) and private voluntary organization (PVO) are the most used terms and are used interchangeably. CLASSIFICATION OF NGOS:To attempt a classification of NGOs requires a framework; The orientation: An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities an organization takes on. These activities might include environmental, development, or advocacy work. The operation: An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works on. Like the difference in work between an international NGO and community or national NGO