Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Also known as cell relay Operates at high data rates Resembles packet switching

Communication Networks (Contd.)

Involves transfer of data in discrete chunks, like packet switching Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed over a single physical interface

Minimal error and flow control capabilities reduces overhead processing and size Fixed-size cells simplify processing at ATM nodes

ATM Terminology
Virtual channel connection (VCC)
Logical connection in ATM Basic unit of switching in ATM network Analogous to a virtual circuit in packet switching networks Exchanges variable-rate, full-duplex flow of fixed-size cells

Advantages of Virtual Paths

Simplified network architecture Increased network performance and reliability Reduced processing and short connection setup time Enhanced network services

Virtual path connection (VPC)

Bundle of VCCs that have the same end points

Call Establishment

Virtual Channel Connection Uses

Between end users
Can carry end-to-end user data or control signaling between two users

Between an end user and a network entity

Used for user-to-network control signaling

Between two network entities

Used for network traffic management and routing functions

Virtual Path/Virtual Channel Characteristics

Quality of service
Specified by parameters such as cell loss ratio and cell delay variation

ATM Cell Header Format

Generic flow control (GFC) 4 bits, used only in user-network interface
Used to alleviate short-term overload conditions in network

Switched and semi-permanent virtual channel connections Cell sequence integrity Traffic parameter negotiation and usage monitoring Virtual channel identifier restriction within a VPC

Virtual path identifier (VPI) 8 bits at the usernetwork interface, 12 bits at network-network interface
Routing field

Virtual channel identifier (VCI) 8 bits

Used for routing to and from end user

ATM Cell Header Format

Payload type (PT) 3 bits
Indicates type of information in information field

ATM Service Categories

Real-time service
Constant bit rate (CBR) Real-time variable bit rate (rt-VBR)

Cell loss priority (CLP) 1 bit

Provides guidance to network in the event of congestion

Non-real-time service
Non-real-time variable bit rate (nrt-VBR) Available bit rate (ABR) Unspecified bit rate (UBR)

Header error control (HEC) 8 bit

Error code

Examples of CBR Applications

Videoconferencing Interactive audio (e.g., telephony) Audio/video distribution (e.g., television, distance learning, pay-per-view) Audio/video retrieval (e.g., video-ondemand, audio library)

Examples of UBR applications

Text/data/image transfer, messaging, distribution, retrieval Remote terminal (e.g., telecommuting)

Key Features of a Protocol

Syntax

Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite

Concerns the format of the data blocks

Semantics
Includes control information for coordination and error handling

Timing
Includes speed matching and sequencing

Agents Involved in Communication

Applications
Exchange data between computers (e.g., electronic mail)

TCP/IP Layers
Physical layer Network access layer Internet layer Host-to-host, or transport layer Application layer

Computers
Connected to networks

Networks
Transfers data from one computer to another

TCP/IP Physical Layer

Covers the physical interface between a data transmission device and a transmission medium or network Physical layer specifies:
Characteristics of the transmission medium The nature of the signals The data rate Other related matters

TCP/IP Network Access Layer

Concerned with the exchange of data between an end system and the network to which it's attached Software used depends on type of network
Circuit switching Packet switching (e.g., X.25) LANs (e.g., Ethernet) Others

T:TCP/IP Internet Layer

Uses internet protocol (IP) Provides routing functions to allow data to traverse multiple interconnected networks Implemented in end systems and routers

TCP/IP Host-to-Host, or Transport Layer

Commonly uses transmission control protocol (tcp) Provides reliability during data exchange
Completeness Order

TCP/IP Application Layer

Logic supports user applications Uses separate modules that are peculiar to each different type of application

Protocol Data Units (PDUs)

Common TCP/IP Applications

Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
Provides a basic electronic mail facility

Layers of the OSI Model

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Allows files to be sent from one system to another

TELNET
Provides a remote logon capability

OSI Application Layer

Provides access to the OSI environment for users Provides distributed information services

OSI Presentation Layer

Provides independence to the application processes from differences in data representation (syntax)

OSI Session Layer

Provides the control structure for communication between applications Establishes, manages, and terminates connections (sessions) between cooperating applications

OSI Transport Layer

Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data between end points Provides end-to-end error recovery and flow control

OSI Network Layer

Provides upper layers with independence from the data transmission and switching technologies used to connect systems Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections

OSI Data link Layer

Provides for the reliable transfer of information across the physical link Sends blocks (frames) with the necessary synchronization, error control, and flow control

OSI Physical Layer

Concerned with transmission of unstructured bit stream over physical medium Deals with accessing the physical medium
Mechanical characteristics Electrical characteristics Functional characteristics Procedural characteristics

Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

TCP/IP Architecture Dominance

TCP/IP protocols matured quicker than similar OSI protocols
When the need for interoperability across networks was recognized, only TCP/IP was available and ready to go

Elements of Standardization within OSI Framework

Protocol Specification
Format of protocol data units (PDUs) exchanged Semantics of all fields Allowable sequence of PDUs

Service Definition
Functional description that defines what services are provided, but not how the services are to be provided

OSI model is unnecessarily complex

Accomplishes in seven layers what TCP/IP does with fewer layers

Addressing
Entities are referenced by means of a service access point (SAP)

Internetworking Terms
Communication network facility that provides a data transfer service among devices attached to the network Internet collection of communication networks, interconnected by bridges/routers Intranet internet used by an organization for internal purposes
Provides key Internet applications Can exist as an isolated, self-contained internet

Internetworking Terms
End System (ES) device used to support end-user applications or services Intermediate System (IS) device used to connect two networks Bridge an IS used to connect two LANs that use similar LAN protocols Router - an IS used to connect two networks that may or may not be similar

Functions of a Router
Provide a link between networks Provide for the routing and delivery of data between processes on end systems attached to different networks Provide these functions in such a way as not to require modifications of the networking architecture of any of the attached subnetworks

Network Differences Routers Must Accommodate

Addressing schemes
Different schemes for assigning addresses

Maximum packet sizes

Different maximum packet sizes requires segmentation

Interfaces
Differing hardware and software interfaces

Reliability
Network may provide unreliable service

Introduction Antennas and Propagation

An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space

In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and reception

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Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna Depicted as two-dimensional cross section

Types of Antennas
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all directions

Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna) Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)

Beam width (or half-power beam width)

Measure of directivity of antenna

Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation pattern

Parabolic Reflective Antenna

Antenna Gain
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in any direction by a perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna)

Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective area

G=

4Ae

4f 2 Ae c2

Effective area
Related to physical size and shape of antenna

G = antenna gain Ae = effective area f = carrier frequency c = speed of light ( 3 108 m/s) = carrier wavelength

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Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation Sky-wave propagation Line-of-sight propagation

Ground Wave Propagation

Ground Wave Propagation

Follows contour of the earth Can Propagate considerable distances Frequencies up to 2 MHz Example
AM radio

Sky Wave Propagation

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Sky Wave Propagation

Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and earths surface Reflection effect caused by refraction Examples
Amateur radio CB radio

Line-of-Sight Propagation

Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not reflected by ionosphere Ground communication antennas within effective line of site due to refraction

Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight

d = 3.57 h d = 3.57 h

Effective, or radio, line of sight

Refraction bending of microwaves by the atmosphere

Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the medium When wave changes medium, speed changes Wave bends at the boundary between mediums

d = distance between antenna and horizon (km) h = antenna height (m) K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3

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Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two antennas for LOS propagation:

LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments

Attenuation and attenuation distortion Free space loss Noise Atmospheric absorption Multipath Refraction Thermal noise

3.57 h1 + h2
h1 = height of antenna one h2 = height of antenna two

Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission medium Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion

Free Space Loss

Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna

(4fd ) Pt (4d ) = = 2 Pr c2
2

Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna Pr = signal power at receiving antenna = carrier wavelength d = propagation distance between antennas c = speed of light ( 3 10 8 m/s) where d and are in the same units (e.g., meters)

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Free Space Loss

Free space loss equation can be recast:
LdB = 10 log Pt 4d = 20 log Pr

Free Space Loss

Free space loss accounting for gain of other antennas
2 2 2

= 20 log( ) + 20 log(d ) + 21.98 dB 4fd = 20 log = 20 log ( f ) + 20 log (d ) 147.56 dB c

(d ) = (cd ) Pt (4 ) (d ) = = 2 Pr Gr Gt Ar At f 2 Ar At
2
Gt = gain of transmitting antenna Gr = gain of receiving antenna At = effective area of transmitting antenna Ar = effective area of receiving antenna

Free Space Loss

Free space loss accounting for gain of other antennas can be recast as
LdB = 20 log ( ) + 20 log (d ) 10 log ( At Ar ) = 20 log( f ) + 20 log (d ) 10 log ( At Ar ) + 169.54dB

Categories of Noise
Thermal Noise Intermodulation noise Crosstalk Impulse Noise

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Thermal Noise
Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons Present in all electronic devices and transmission media Cannot be eliminated Function of temperature Particularly significant for satellite communication

Thermal Noise
Amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or conductor is:

N 0 = kT (W/Hz )

N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 10-23 J/K T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)

Thermal Noise
Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz (in watts):

Noise Terminology
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with different frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies

N = kTB
or, in decibel-watts

Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal paths Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or faults and flaws in the communications system

N = 10 log k + 10 log T + 10 log B = 228.6 dBW + 10 log T + 10 log B

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Expression Eb/N0
Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power density per Hertz

Other Impairments
Atmospheric absorption water vapor and oxygen contribute to attenuation Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that multiple copies with varying delays are received Refraction bending of radio waves as they propagate through the atmosphere

The bit error rate for digital data is a function of Eb/N0

Given a value for Eb/N0 to achieve a desired error rate, parameters of this formula can be selected As bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must increase to maintain required Eb/N0

Eb S / R S = = N0 N0 kTR

Multipath Propagation

Multipath Propagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the signal Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to wavelength of radio wave Scattering occurs when incoming signal hits an object whose size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or less

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The Effects of Multipath Propagation

Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, making detection more difficult

Intersymbol interference (ISI)

One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit

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