The Four Standard Categorical Propositions 1.

Universal Affirmative (A proposition) Every member of the first class is also a member of the second class All S is P All politicians are liar 2. Universal Negative (E proposition) The first class is wholly excluded in the second class No P is S No politicians are liar. 3. Particular Affirmative (I Proposition) At least one member of the first class is a member of the second class Some S is P Some politicians are liar 4. Particular Negative (O proposition) At least one member of the first class is excluded in the second class Some S is not P Some politicians are not liar The Traditional Square of Oppositions Opposition is having the same subject and predicate terms which may differ from each other in quality or quantity or in both 1. Contradictory Opposition Two propositions are contradictories if one is the denial or negations of the other It is a kind of opposition that exists between two propositions which differ both in quality and quantity Rule governing contradictory opposition 1. If one is true the other one is false 2. If one is false the other one is true Examples 1. If it is true that All dolphins are mammals then Some dolphins are not mammals is false. (A to O) 2. If it is false that Some criminals are not bad then it is true that All criminals are bad. (O to A) 3. If it is true that Some cats are three legged then No cats are three legged is false. (I to E) 4. If it is false that No man is an animal then it is true that Some men are animals. 2. Contrary Opposition It is a kind of opposition that exists between two propositions which differ in quality Both of these propositions are considered universals but they differ entirely in quality It is the opposition between A and E Rules governing the Contrary Opposition 1. If one is true, the other must be false 2. If one is false, the other must be undetermined Examples 1. If it is false that All men are heroes then it is undetermined to say that No man is a hero. (A to E) 2. If it is true that All successful students are hardworking then No students are hardworking is false. (A to E) 3. If it is true that No student is lazy then it is false to say that All students are lazy. (E to A) 3. Subcontrary Opposition It exists between two particular propositions which differ in quality It is the opposition between I and O

Rules governing subcontrary opposition 1. If one is false, the other must be true 2. If one is true, the other must be undetermined Examples 1. If it is true to say that, Some families are traditionalists then it is undetermined that Some families are not traditionalists. (I to O) 2. If it is false to say that, Some Chinese are Westerners then Some Chinese are not Westerners is true.(I to O) 3. If it is true that, Some men are not survivor after World War III, then it is undetermined to say that Some men are survivor after World War III. (O to I) 4. If it is false to say that, Some police are not women, then it is true that Some police are women. (0 to I) 4. Subaltern Opposition Whenever two propositions have the same subject and predicate terms agree in quality but differ in quantity It is the opposition between the universal proposition and its particular Rules governing subaltern opposition 1. If the superaltern is true, the subaltern must be true 2. If the superaltern is false, the subaltern must be undetermined 3. If the subaltern is true, the superaltern must be undetermined 4. If the subaltern is false, the superaltern must be false *Superaltern is the universal proposition (A and E) *Subaltern is the particular proposition (I and O) Examples: 1. If it is true that All men are thinkers, then it is also true that Some men are thinkers. (A to I) 2. If it is true that No lions are ape then it is also true that Some lions are not ape (E to O) 3. If it is false that All UPians are lazy then it is undetermined that Some Upians are lazy. (A to I) 4. If it is false that No water is solid, then it is undetermined that Some waters are not solid. (E to O) 5. If it is true that Some educators are scholars then it is undetermined to say that All educators are scholars. (I to A) 6. If Some men are not drug users is true then it is undetermined to say that No man is a drug user. (O to E) 7. If it is false that Some single parents are depressed then it is also false to say that All single parents are depressed 8. If it is false that Some soldiers are not coward then it is also false to say that No soldiers are coward. Other examples 1. If A is true then E is false a. Opposition: A and E are contrary b. Rule: If one is true the other must be false I is true a. Opposition: A and I are subaltern b. Rule: If the superaltern is true the subaltern must be true O is false a. Opposition: A and O are contradictory b. Rule: If one is true the other must be false 2. If E is true then I is false a. Opposition: E and I are contradictory b. Rule: If one is true the other must be false O is true a. Opposition: E and O are subaltern b. Rule: If the superaltern is true the subaltern must be true

A is false a. Opposition: E and A are contrary b. Rule: If one is true the other must be false 3. If I is true then O is undetermined a. Opposition: I and O are subcontrary b. Rule: If one is true, the other must be undetermined A is undetermined a. Opposition: I and A are subaltern b. Rule: If the subaltern is true, the superaltern is undetermined E is false a. Opposition: I and E are contradictory b. Rule: If one is true the other must be false 4. If O is true A is false a. Opposition: O and A are contradictory b. Rule: If one is true, the other must be false E is undetermined a. Opposition: O and E are subaltern b. Rule: If the subaltern is true, the superaltern is undetermined 5. If A is false E is undetermined a. Opposition: A and E are contrary b. Rule: If one is false the other must be undetermined I is undetermined a. Opposition: A and I are subaltern b. Rule: If the superaltern is false, the subaltern is undetermined O is true a. Opposition: A and O are contradictory b. Rule: If one is false the other must be true 6. If E is false I is true a. Opposition: E and I are contradictory b. Rule: If one is false the other must be true O is undetermined a. Opposition: E and O are subaltern b. Rule: If the superaltern is false, the subaltern is undetermined A is undetermined a. Opposition: E and A are contrary b. Rule: If one is false the other must be undetermined 7. If I is false O is true a. Opposition: I and O are subcontrary b. Rule: If one is false the other must be true A is false a. Opposition: I and A are subaltern b. Rule: If the subaltern is false, the superaltern must be false E is true a. Opposition: I and E are contradictory b. Rule: If one is false the other must be true 8. If O is false A is true a. Opposition: O and A are contradictory b. Rule: If one is false the other must be true E is false a. Opposition: O and E are subaltern b. Rule: If the subaltern is false, the superaltern must be false

The Immediate Inferences 1. Conversion interchanging the subject and the predicate Types of conversion 1. Simple Conversion simply done by interchanging the subject and the predicate without affecting the quantity of both and the meaning of the both proposition It is only applicable to I and E proposition How to do simple conversion a. Interchange the subject and the predicate b. Retain the original quality Examples a. Some writers are women Some women are writers. (I to I) b. No male is a female No female is a male (E to E) 2. Partial Conversion or Conversion by limitation Proceeds by interchanging the subject and the predicate and changing the quantity of the proposition from universal to particular. Applicable only to A proposition How to do simple conversion a. Interchange the subject and the predicate b. Retain the original quality c. Change the quantity from universal to particular Examples: a. All Filipinos are Asians Some Asians are Filipinos Convertend A: All S is P E: No S is P I: Some S is P O: Some S is not P Converse I:Some P is S E:No P is S I: Some P is S Invalid

2. Obversion Done when only the quality of the original proposition is changed without affecting without affecting its quantity How to do the obversion 1. Retain the subject and the quantity of the original proposition 2. Change the quality of the obvertend either from affirmative to negative or negative to affirmative Examples 1. No evil is good All evils are non-good (E to A) 2. All beautiful are good No beautiful is non-good. (A to E) 3. Some students are technologically inclined Some students are not nontechnologically inclined. (I to O) 4. Some military officers are not brave Some military officers are non-brave. (O to I) Obvertend A: All S is P E: No S is P I: Some S is P O: Some S is not P Obverse E: No S is non-P A: All S is non-P O: Some S is not non-P I: Some S is non-P

3. Contraposition Done by interchanging the subject and the predicate in conversion and presents the subject as the original predicate like obversion

How to do contraposition 1. Obvert 2. Convert 3. Obvert Examples: 1. All men are rational beings Obvert: No men are non-rational beings Convert: No non-rational beings are men Obvert: All non-rational beings are non- men. (A to A) 2. No dog is a bird Obvert: All dogs are non-bird Convert: Some non-birds are dogs Obvert: Some non-birds are not non-dogs (E to O) 3. Some men are not good Obvert: Some men are non-good Convert: Some non-good are men Obvert: Some non-good are not non-men. (I to O) 4. Some plants are flowers Obvert: Some plants are not non-flower Convert: Conversion in an O proposition is invalid therefore contraposition in an I proposition is invalid. Contrapositive A: All non-P is non-S O: Some non-P is not non-S Invalid O: Some non-P is not non-S

A: All S is P E: No S is P I: Some S is P O: Some S is not P Philosophical Analysis (Philo 1) 1:00 2:30 (WF) Lecturer: Mr. Jonardine F. Briones nhardz _briones@yahoo.com