VIBRATION

This is a branch of science of engineering that deals with repetitive motion of mechanical
system from machine parts to large structures. Sometimes these vibrations are desirable as in the
case of a string vibrating on an instrument. Sometimes vibrations are unwanted as in the case of
vibrating ground motion produced during an earthquake.

The physical explanation of the phenomena of vibration concerns the interplay between
potential (PE) and kinetic Energy (KE). A vibrating element system must have a component that
stores potential energy and releases it as kinetic energy in the form of motion (Vibrating) of a
mass.





































Note that within the elastic limit of the
spring the mass held at one end causes a
proportional elongation on the spring

Thus:
f
s
e
f
s
= K
s
e

Where:
K
s
= Spring Constant (N/m)
fs = Force from the mass (N)
e = Elongation (m)




General Assumption on the loading of the spring

1. When at rest, the system held in equilibrium because the force of the spring is equal to
the weight or load.

2. When in motion, the unbalanced force on the spring systems causes that motion.

(a) (b) (c)







x
s

-x

+x


- Situation (b) illustrates the deflection (x
s
) of a spring having a load (m)

- Situation (c) illustrates an up and down direction resulting to a simple harmonic motion.

From: FBD of (c)
f
s

Where:
w = mg....eq. 1
f
s
fs = kxseq.2
w fs = kxs kx = k (xs x) = kxseq. 3
fs = ma (unbalanced force) eq.4

Again from the illustration
-fs = -w + fs
= -w + [kxs + kx] where: w = kx
s

ma = -kx

Thus
x = -ma/k where: x is the instantaneous deflection (elongation positive; compression negative)
which is in the reverse direction of the unbalanced force.
a is the acceleration due to the unbalanced force.
Situation of spring-mass system in SHM

1. At rest (F = 0)

fs
f
s
= w = mg

w

2. Moving in downward direction








3. Moving in an upward direction






Where: X
s
= Xs + X (total instantaneous deformation)




















k
ma
x
ma ) kx kx ( kx
' f f w
s s
s s
=
= + +
= +

k
ma
x
ma kx ) kx kx (
' fs w fs
s s
=
=
=

Review of Sine & Cosine Function

Sine Function

A)



0 /2 3/2 2



sin ( + ) where: = 0




B)



0 /2 3/2 2 5/2



sin ( + ) where: = /2




C)




-/2 0 /2 3/2



sin ( + ) where: = -/2



Cosine Function

A)



0 /2 3/2 2



cos ( + ) where: = 0


B)




0 /2 3/2 2 5/2


cos ( + ) where: = /2

C)


-/2 0 /2 3/2



cos ( + ) where: = -/2


To determine () phase angle from:


( )
0 : so if
A x if see and
start to about is motion the when 0 t let
t cos A x
=
=
=
+ =
|
| e



EXAMPLE:

A block weighing 96.5 lbf is dropped from a height of 4ft upon a spring whose modulus
is 100 lb / in. What velocity will the block have at the instant if the spring is deformed by 4 in.

Given:


4 ft
k = 100 lb / in





Situation 1

sec / ft 05 . 16 ...
) ft 4 )( sec / ft 2 . 32 ( 2 gh 2 v
mv
2
1
mgh
mv
2
1
Wh
KE mgh PE
2
2
2
=
= =
=
=
= =


Situation 2

| | mgx Vo Vf m
2
1
kx
2
1
in 4 x h : where mgh ) v v ( m
2
1
PEs
2 2 2
2
o
2
f
+ =
= = + = A


from


| |
( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
sec / ft 32 . 15 Vf
lb 5 . 96
2 . 32 ) ft 12 / 4 lb 5 . 96 2 ) ft 12 / 4 12 100 (
05 . 16 Vf
V
W
g ) Wx 2 kx (
V
Vo Vf m mgx 2 kx
mg W
2
s
ft 2
ft
in
in
lb
2
s
ft
2
o
2
2
f
2 2 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
=
=




W = 96.5 lbf
EXAMPLE NO.2

At the instant shown, an external load has pushed the 500lb
f
block against the spring
thereby compressing the spring 6in. if the spring constant is 100 lb
f
/in. How far will the block be
projected along the level plane (=0.2) when the external force is released. What will be its
maximum velocity?

Figure:
W= 500lb
f

6 in

k = 100 lb
f
/ in
F

= 0.2
Solution:

lbf f
lbf f
N f
lbf f s
in x in lbf f s
kx f s
f
f
f
100
) 500 ( 2 . 0
600
6 ) / 100 (
=
=
=
=
=
=

Force Diagram:

in s
s
s kx
x f PEs
f
18
) 100 ( 2
) 6 ( 100
) ( 100
2
1
) (
2
2
=
=
=
= A












kX

-6 in -1 0 12 in

Maximum Velocity


max
V happens at a=0


sec / 6629 . 3
500
) 12 / 1 sec)( / 2 . 32 ( ) 5 ( / 100
) (
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
0
2 2
f t Vf
lbf
in f t f t in in lb
Vf
w
g kx
Vf
V Vf m kx
KE PE
=
=
=
=
A = A

























SPRING CONNECTIONS

1. Springs attached in parallel
-we usually determine first the constant k
T
of a single spring equivalent to the
two springs by finding the magnitude of the force required to cause a given
deflection ( X
T
). Since for a deflection (X
T
), the magnitude of the forces exerted
by the spring are
T
X k
1
and
T
X k
2
respectively, then:
Force ( F ) =
T
X k
1
+
T
X k
2
=
T
X k k ) (
2 1
+


thus:
2 1
k k k
T
+ =


where:
T
k = spring constant for the springs connected in parallel


2. Spring attached in series
-we first determine the constant
T
k of a single spring equivalent to the two
spring by finding the total elongation, ( X
T
) of the spring under a given static
load P.

Given:

2 1
2 1
k
P
k
P
X
kX P
X X X
T
T
+ =
=
+ =

Comparison In Parallel In Series


Equivalent
spring constant


Compressed
distance


Energy
stored


SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION


A.
Equilibrium Position
F
h
= 0
ma = 0
since the block is at rest







-x
s

B.
F
h
= fs
fs = fs
k(-x
s

) = ma
x
m
k
a =
f
s
(+)

Following a sign convention, situation (B) presents that the initial displacement of the block (x
s
)
gets a negative sign because it goes to the direction of the negative x-axis. The force gets a
positive sign because it goes to the positive side of the axis. Situation (C) presents the reverse of
its precedent situation.




C.) x
s


F
h
= fs
fs = -fs
kx = -ma
x
m
k
a =
(-) f
s

4
inch 1 . 0 = I




From calculus
Velocity (v) =
dt
dx


Acceleration (a)
2
2
dt
x d
=

thus:


m
k
: let ; x
m
k
dt
x d
2
2
2
= = e

then:

x
dt
x d
2
2
2
e = where: - angular velocity in radians/s


transposing the right hand side gives us a Differential Equation

0 x
dt
x d
2
2
2
= +e

using auxiliary equation:

0 m
2 2
= + e
and the roots are:
m = i

thus the general solution is:

t sin c t cos c ) t ( x
2 1
e e + =

applying possible initial conditions when t = 0
1 0
) 0 ( sin c ) 0 ( cos c ) 0 ( x
2 1
e e + =

1
c ) 0 ( x =
also 0 1
) 0 ( cos c ) 0 ( sin c ) 0 ( v
2 1
e e e e + =

2
c
) 0 ( v
=
e



the graphical representation of the motion is:





C2 x(0)

x(t)
C1
A





the simplified form of SHM:

( )
m
k
and ) t ( sin A x
c
c
tan ; c c A ;
t
where sin A x
2
1 1 2
2
2
1
= + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= + = = + =

e | e
|
u
e | u


then:
Velocity ( v ) ( ) e e + = = t cos A
dt
dx


Acceleration ( a ) ( ) | e e + = = t sin A
dt
x d
2
2
2


where:

A Amplitude ( m or ft )
Angular velocity ( rads/s )

also:

Period (T) = 2/

Frequency (f)
t
e
2
1
= =
T
f or t e 2 =






-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
C1 cos t
C2 sin t
x(t)

To have a maximum velocity: cos (t + u) = 1

thus:

( ) 1 for 0 t
0
+ = +| e
and: A
m
k
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
max



To have a max acceleration: ( ) 1 t sin + = +| e

thus:

( ) 1 for 2 / or 180 t
0
+ = + t | e

and: A
m
k
A A
2
max
= =e


EXAMPLE

An object oscillates with SHM along the x-axis. Its position varies with time according to the eq.
x = 4m cos (t + /4). Where t is in second and the angles in the parenthesis are in radian

a.) Determine the amplitude, frequency and period.
b.) Calc. the vel. And acc. Of the object at any time (t)
c.) Det. the position, velocity and acceleration of the object at t=1s
d.) Det. the max speed and acceleration of the object.
e.) Find the displacement of the object between t=0 and t=1s

Solution:
a. From the general equation: x = A cos (t + )

A = 4m = /4 =

Frequency (f) = /2 = /2 =

Period (T) = 1/f = 2 seconds

b. ( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
4
sin 4 sin
t
t t | e e t m t A v
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
4
cos 4 cos
2 2
t
t t | e e t m t A a

c. ( ) ( ) m m t A x 83 . 2
4
1 cos 4 cos =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
t
t | e
( ) ( )
s
m
m t A v 89 . 8
4
1 sin 4 sin =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
t
t t | e e
( ) ( )
2
2 2
9 . 27
4
1 cos 4 cos
s
m
m t A a =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
t
t t | e e

d.
s
m
m A v 57 . 12 4
max
= = = t e

2
2 2
max
48 . 39 4
s
m
m A a = = = t e

e. ( ) m m x
i
83 . 2
4
0 cos 4 =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
t

( ) m m x
f
83 . 2
4
1 cos 4 =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
t
t
Then:
m m m x x x
i f
66 . 5 83 . 2 83 . 2 = = = A



A





/4 5/4















EXAMPLE:

A spring is such that it would be stretched 6 inches by a 12 lb weight. Let the weight be
attached to the spring and pulled down 4 inches below the equilibrium point. If the weight is
started with an upward velocity of 2 ft/sec, describe the motion and compute the period.

Given:




6 in
Equilibrium

12 lb 4 in


-2 ft/sec




Solution:
solving for the mass: solving for the natural frequency

slug 37 . 0 m
sec
ft
2 . 32
sec . lbf
ft . slug
1 lbf 12
m
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

sec
rad
054 . 8
37 . 0
24
m
k
o
o
o
=
=
=
e
e
e


solving for the spring constant:


ft
lbf
24 k
in 12
ft 1
in 6
lbf 12
x
F
k
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =


the general solution as evaluated above is:

t sin c t cos c ) t ( x
2 1
e e + =


using the initial values, it shows the following:

ft 25 . 0
s / rad 054 . 8
s / ft 2
c and ft 33 . 0
ft
in
12
in 4
c
2 1
=

= = =

thus the particular solution is:

( ) ( )t s / rad 054 . 8 sin ft 25 . 0 t s / rad 054 . 8 cos ft 33 . 0 ) t ( x =















the period of the motion is:

sec
4
1
s / rad 054 . 8
2 2
T
n
t
t
e
t
= = =


















-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0
0
.
0
5
0
.
1
0
.
1
5
0
.
2
0
.
2
5
0
.
3
0
.
3
5
0
.
4
0
.
4
5
0
.
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
6
0
.
6
5
0
.
7
0
.
7
5
0
.
8
0
.
8
5
0
.
9
C1 cos t
C2 sin t
x(t)
EXAMPLE:

A 50kg block moves between vertical guides as shown. The block is pulled 40mm down
from its equilibrium position and released. For each spring arrangement, determine the period of
vibration, the maximum velocity and maximum acceleration of the block.

a. Parallel Connection:
Figure:



m
kN
k 4
1
=
m
kN
k 6
2
=


2 1
X X X
T
= =

Solution:

m
kN
k
m
kN
m
kN
k
k k k
X
P
X k k P
X k X k X k P
T
T
T
T
T
T T
10
6 4
) (
2 1
2 1
2 2 1 1
=
+ =
= + =
+ =
+ = =

Solving for ( w ):


sec / 14 . 14
50
) / 1000 )(
sec .
.
1 ( 10
2
rad
kg
KN N
N
m kg
m
kN
m
k
T
=
=
=
e
e
e


Thus:
a.) sec 44 . 0
14 . 14
2 2
= = =
t t
w
T
b.)
sec
57 . 0 ) 04 . 0 ( 14 . 14
max
m
m wA V = = =
c.)
2
2 2
max
sec
8 ) 04 . 0 ( ) 14 . 14 (
m
m A w a = = =


b. Series Connection
Figure:



m
kN
k 4
1
=


m
kN
k 6
2
=

50 kg W

Solution:

N 96 KN 096 . 0
6
1
4
1
04 . 0
P
k
1
k
1
X
P
k
1
k
1
P X
cm 4
k
P
k
P
X
2 1
T
2 1
T
2 1
T
= =
+
=
+
=
(

+ =
= + =


Since:
m
N N
X
P
k
T
T
400 , 2
04 . 0
96
= = =
or
m
N
k k
k
T
400 , 2
6000
1
4000
1
1
1 1
1
2 1
=
+
=
+
=

Solving for ( ):

sec
93 . 6
50
2400 rad
m
k
T
= = = e
thus:
a.) sec 91 . 0
93 . 6
2 2
= = =
t
e
t
T
b.)
sec
28 . 0 ) 04 . 0 ( 93 . 6
max
m
A V = = = e
c.)
2
2 2
max
sec
92 . 1 ) 04 . 0 ( 93 . 6
m
A a = = =e
ENERGY OF THE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Assumption: the total mechanical energy of a spring-mass system is constant.

Kinetic Energy (KE)
2
2
1
mV KE =
Where:
V = A sin (t + )

Then:
KE = m
2
A
2
sin
2
(t + )

Elastic Potential Energy (U)
( )
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
:
x k U
dx x k U
dx x k dU
x k f where x f U Wk
s s
= A
= A
=
= = =
}
} }

Total Mechanical Energy (E)


( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | e e e
| e e | e
+ + + =
+ = + = + =
t A k t A m E
t A V and t A x where U KE E
2 2 2 2 2
cos
2
1
sin
2
1
sin cos :

Since:
( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2
max
2
2 2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
cos sin
2
1
A m V m A k E
t t A k E
m
k
e
| e | e
e
= = =
+ + + =
=

Also:
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
x A V
x A
m
k
V
m
kx kA
V
=
=

=
+

e


EXAMPLE

A block of unknown mass is attached to a spring with k=6.5 N / m. It undergoes SHM
with an amplitude of 10cm. When the block is halfway between its equilibrium position and the
endpoint, its speed is measured to be 30 cm/sec. Calculate a.) mass of block b.) the period c.) the
maximum acceleration

Solution;
Given: k = 6.5 N / m
v = 30 cm / sec
A = 10 cm

a.
( ) ( )
sec / 3
5 10
sec / 30
2 2
rad
cm cm
cm
A
=

=
=
e
e
u
e

kg m
k
m
m
k
722 . 0
2
2
=
=
=
e
e


b.
Period ( T )


sec 094 . 2
3
2
2
=
=
=
T
T
T
t
e
t


c.

2
max
2 2 2
max
2
max
sec / 9 . 0
)
100
1
)( 10 ( 3
m a
cm
m
cm a
A a
=
=
= e












EXAMPLE:

A 0.5 kg cart connected to a light spring for which the force constant is 20 N/m oscillates
on a horizontal frictionless air track.

A.) Calc. the total energy and max. speed of the cart if the amplitude is 3cm.

B.) What is the velocity of the cart when the position is 2cm.

C.) Compute the kinetic and potential energies of the system when x = 2cm.



Solution:

a)

J or m N E
s
m
kg
J
m
m
N
E
m E kA E
=
= = =
= =
009 . 0
1897 . 0
5 . 0
) 009 . 0 ( 2
) 03 . 0 )( 20 (
2
1
2
1
2
1
max
2
2
max
2
u
u


b)

sec / 1414 . 0
) 02 . 0 03 . 0 (
) 1 ( 5 . 0
20
) (
2 2
2
2 2
m
m m
s N
m kg
kg
m
N
x A
m
k
=

=
=
+

u
u
u


J J
m
m
N
s
m
kg
kx U m KE
004 . 0 005 . 0
) 02 . 0 )( 20 (
2
1
) 1414 . 0 )( 5 . 0 (
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
2 2
= =
= =
= = u






THE PENDULUM










W

While < 10
0
, a pendulum exhibits a SHM


Free Body Diagram on the Pendulum Bob

Tension (T)


mg cos


mg sin

From the FBD is the tangential compliment of the weight (mg) therefore it is the restoring force.
Applying Newtons 2nd law.

u sin mg ma =

Where:
ma = unbalanced force
m = mass of bob
g = gravitational acceleration

In another form:

u sin
2
2
mg
dt
s d
M =
)
`

Where: u L S =




Thus:

u
u
u
u
sin
sin
2
2
2
2
L
g
dt
d
mg
dt
d
L m
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|




Since: sine of very small angle is equal to the angle itself.

Example: Sin (0.0001) = 0.0001

Then:
u
u
L
g
dt
d
=
2
2


Comparing this with:
x
dt
d
2
2
2
e
u
=

We see that:

L
g
=
2
e

Thus the angular frequency (w)


L
g
= e

The period of rotation is

g
L
T t
e
t
2
2
= =


Note: the period and frequency depends on the length of string and acceleration due to
gravity.






Example 1

It is suggested that an international unit of length could be defined as the length
of a single pendulum having a period of exactly 1 second. How much shorter would our
length unit be had this suggestion been followed?


Solution:


From T = 2
G
L
t
T =
2

g
L
2
4t

L =
2
2
4
) 81 . 9 ( 1
t


L = 0.248 m


EXAMPLE 2

The angular position of a pendulum is represented by the equation u = 0.32 rad cos
(wt) , where w=4.43 rad / sec. Determine the period and length of the pendulum?



Solution:

=
L
g
also:
T =
sec / 43 . 4
2
rad
rad t


2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
g
e


T = 1.42 sec
L =
( )
2
sec / 43 . 4
sec / 81 . 9
rad
m


L = 0.4994 m



PHYSICAL PENDULUM

If a hanging object oscillates about a fixed axis that does not pass through its center of
mass and the object cannot be approximated as a point mass, we cannot treat the system as a
simple pendulum. In this case the system is called a physical pendulum.


Illustration: O


d




mg
The torque about the axis O:

( )( ) u t sin d mg =

Where:
I moment of inertia by mass
acc angular o
d Distance of pivot to center of mass ( Radius of Gyration)

From Newtons second laws: Comparing this to:


u e
u
2
2
2
=
dt
d


Thus: Consequently:


2
2
sin
dt
d
I d mg
u
u =
I
mgd
=
2
e

Again since: the period is



Then

u
u
|
.
|

\
|
=
I
mgd
dt
d
2
2


mgd
I
T
T
t
e
t
2
2
=
=

u u u of value small for = sin

= + = 0 u o o t mgd I I
EXAMPLE 1

A uniform rod of mass m and length L is pivoted about one end and oscillates in
vertical plane. Find the period of oscillation if the amplitude of the motion is small.

SOLUTION:

I =
3
2
mL
where: d =
2
L


Thus : T =
mgd
I
t 2

T =
) 2 / (
) ( 3 / 1
2
2
L mg
mL
t

T =
g
L
3
2
2t

T=1.64secs

EXAMPLE 2:

A physical pendulum in the form of planar body moves in SHM with a
frequency of 0.45 Hz. If the pendulum has a mass of 2.2 kg and the pivot is located
0.35 m from the center of mass, determine the amount of inertia of the pendulum.

SOLUTION:

I =
2
e
mgd


Where:
w = f t 2
= ) 45 (. 2t
= 2.83 rad / sec

Thus:
I =
2
sec) / 83 . 2 (
) 35 . 0 sec)( / 8 . 9 ( 2 . 2
rad
m m kg


I = 0.944 kg - m
2


CENTER OF PERCUSION ( C )

The distance along the centerline such that a simple pendulum (a mass less rod pivoted
at zero with mass (m) at its tip) of radius q
o
has the same period with a physical pendulum.


Illustration:

From the moment of Inertia

2
md I =
r
Where: d radius of gyration

From the figure:

o
q
mg C



Thus:

Where: r=distance from pivot to C.G.
d=radius of gyration

o
q =center of percusion
So that:


I
mgr
and
mgr
dt
d
I
n
=
= +
e
u
u
0
2
2


In terms of center of percussion:


o
q
g
= e







2
2
d r q
mr q md
I I
o
o
=
=
=

mr
I
q
o
=


COMMON MOMENT OF INERTIA


A. About the center radial

1. Solid Cylinder or Disc




2
2
1
mr I =
r



2. Hoop about symmetrical Axis



R
2
mR I =





3. Solid sphere





2
5
2
mR I =



4. Rod about the center




2
12
1
mL I =
L



B. About the specified axis

1. Solid cylinder central diameter




r
2 2
1
4
1
mL
R
mR I + =
L



2. Hoop about diameter





2
2
1
mR I =





3. Thin spherical shell




2
3
2
mR I =




4. Rod about End




2
3
1
mL I =

L

Example:

A uniformly shaped physical pendulum has a length of 50cm. Calculate a) the natural
frequency b) center of percussion and c) radius of gyration.

SOLUTION:

Figure:
r
u L



SOLUTION:

From the general equation:

u
u
) (
2
2
mgr
dt
d
I = where:
2
3
1
mL I
rod
=

Thus: u u
u
) (
2
2
2
I
mgr
w
dt
d
= =


) ( 3 / 1
2
2
mL
mgr
= e where:
2
L
r =


Then:

sec / 425 . 5
) 5 . 0 ( 2
sec) / 8 . 9 ( 3
2
3
) )( 3 / 1 (
) 2 / (
2
2
2
rad
m
m
L
g
mL
L mg
=
=
=
=
e
e
e
e






a.)

cm q
L q
L m
mL q
mr
I
q
o
o
o
o
33 . 33
3
2
) 2 / (
1
) 3 / 1 (
2
=
=
=
=





b.)


cm d
cm cm d
r q d
o
87 . 28
) 25 )( 33 . 33 (
=
=
=

















TORSIONAL PENDULUM



When the object is twisted through same angle ,
the twisted wire exert on the object restoring torque
that is proportional to the angular position

u t k =








Where: k - torsional constant
- Twisting angle

Thus:


2
2
dt
d
I k
u
u t = =

Rearranging the equation:

u
u
I
k
dt
d
=
2
2


Then:


I
k
=
2
e


I
k
= e

And


k
I
T t 2 =





EXAMPLE:

A torsional pendulum is formed by taking a meter stick of mass 2 kg and attached to its
center a wire with its upper end clamped, the vertical wire supports the stick as it turn in a
horizontal plane. If the resulting period is 3 mins, what is the torsional constant for the wire?


Solution: Figure










1m

From :


k
I
T t 2 =
where:

2
2
4
T
I
k t = and
12
2
L
m I =


( )
m . N 10 x 08 . 5 k
min
sec
60 s min 3 12
) m 5 . 0 )( kg 2 ( 4
k
T 12
mL 4
k
5
2
2 2
2
2 2

=
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
=
t
t












S T I F F N E S S

The stiffness of a vibrating body can be related more directly to material and geometric
properties. The stiffness actually gives the value of (k)


Value of Stiffness in Different Forms:

1.) where: E elastic modulus of the rod
(E
steel
= 2.0 x 10
11
N/m)

EA
k = A cross-sectional area of the rod
- length of the rod





where: J
p
Area moment of inertia of the rod
2.) (J
rod
= d
4
/32 m
4)

G shear modulus of rigidity of the
rod (G
cu
=2.22 x 10
10
N/m
2
)
- length of the rod





3.) d
Where: G shear modulus of the spring
(G
steel
=8x10
10
N/m
2
)

2R d diameter of the spring wire
n number of turns
R radius of the coil

4.)
where: E modulus of elasticity
I area moment of inertia of the beam
- length of the rod







3
4
R n 64
d G
k =

P
J G
k =

3
EI 3
k

=
Example

A shaft is made of steel and is 2 m long with a diameter of 0.5 cm. If the disk has a polar
moment of inertia J = 0.5 kg-m
2
and considering that the shear modulus of steel is G = 8 x 10
10

N/m
2
, calculate the frequency of the motion.

Solution:


s / rad 2156 . 2
) m kg 5 . 0 )( 2 )( 32 (
) m 10 x 5 . 0 )( )( m / N 10 x 8 (
J
J G
j
k
2
4 2 2 10
2
p 2
=

=
= =

e
t
e
e

Example

A 100 lbs weight and a coil spring with modulus k = 100 lb/in are attached to the end of a
wooden cantilever beam where E = 2 000 ksi and I = 0.1 in
4
. Determine the length of the beam
so that the natural frequency of the system will be 2 cycles per second. Neglect the mass of the
spring and beam.







Solution:

The weight is supported by two springs in series, namely, the beam and the coil spring.


3
2 5
3
4 6
3 beam
spring
L
in lb 10 x 6
L
) in 10 . 0 )( psi 10 x 2 ( 3
L
EI 3
k
in / ft 100 k

= = =
=


Resultant Spring Constant is:


5 3
7
5 3
3
3
7
beam spring
beam spring
total
10 x 6 L 100
10 x 6
10 x 6 L 100
L
L
10 x 6
k k
) k )( k (
k
+
=
(

+
=
+
=

From the equation of frequency:


2
1
total
W
k g
2
1
f
(

=
t



(

+
= =
5 3
7
2 2
2
10 x 6 L 100
1
100
10 x 6
4
g
W 4
k g
f
t t



(

+
=
5 3
7
2
10 x 6 L 100
1
100
10 x 8 . 58
2


5 5 3
10 x 8 . 58 10 x 24 L 400 = +

inches 6 . 20 L =























UNDAMPED OSCILLATION

Considering the differential equation:


) t ( F x
dt
x d
m
k
where ) t ( F x
m
k
dt
x d
) t ( F kx
dt
x d
m
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= +
= = +
= +
e
e


the general solution is:


p c
x x ) t ( x + =

from SHM:

t sin c t cos c x
2 1 c
e e + =

and yp is the particular solution of the function F(t)

thus:
p 2 1
x t sin c t cos c ) t ( x + + = e e


Let us now apply the process by finding the solution of an undamped vibration is represented by
the equation:

t sin L kx
dt
x d
m
2
2
| = +
Solution:

t sin
m
L
x
m
k
dt
x d
2
2
| = +


m
L
H and
m
k
: where t sin H x
dt
x d
2 2
2
2
= = = + e | e

using the auxiliary equation to solve the left hand side of the equation:
m
2
+
2
= 0
m = i

thus: t sin c t cos c x
2 1 c
e e + =
for the right hand side:

t sin H ) t ( F | =
F(t) happens to be a particular solution of a homogeneous linear differential equation
whose auxiliary roots are: m = i

therefore the linear differential equation of F(t) is:
0 x
dt
x d
2
2
2
= + |

and: t sin C t cos C x
4 3 p
| | + =

taking the first derivative:

t cos C t sin C Dx
4 3 p
| | | | + =
the second derivative:

t sin C t cos C x D
4
2
3
2
p
2
| | | | =

substituting xp to the original equation and multiplying by 1/sin t:


t sin
1
} t sin H ] t sin C t cos C [ ] t sin C t cos C [ {
4 3
2
4
2
3
2
|
| | | e | | | | = + +


by comparison, the cosine function = 0 and sine function =H


0 t cos C t cos C
3
2
3
2
= + | e | |


H C C
4
2
4
2
= + e |

thus:

2 2
4
3
H
C
0 C
| e
=
=

therefore:


t sin
H
x
2 2
p
|
| e
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

finally:

t sin
H
t sin c t cos c ) t ( x
2 2
2 1
|
| e
e e
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ + =



with derivative
t cos
H
t cos c t sin c ) t ( ' x
2 2 2 1
|
| e
|
e e e e
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ + =
applying the initial conditions, the values of the constants are:


( )
(

= =
2 2 2 1
H ) 0 ( v
C ; ) 0 ( x C
| e e
|
e





EXAMPLE

A spring is such that it is stretched 6 inches by a 12 lb weight. The 12 lb weight is pulled
down 3 inches below the equilibrium point and released. If there is an impressed force of
magnitude 9 sin (4t) lbs, describe the motion. Assume that the impressed force acts downward
for very small time.

Given:



F
6 in
Equilibrium
12 lb 3 in





Solution

solving for the mass of the block:

c
o
g
g
m W = ;
o
c
g
g
W m=

other parameters:

slug 37 . 0 m
sec
ft
2 . 32
sec . lbf
ft . slug
1 lbf 12
m
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

s / rad 4
0 ) 0 ( v
ft 25 . 0
ft / in 12
in 3
) 0 ( x
lb 9 L
f
=
=
= =
=
|



solving for the spring constant:
solving the natural frequency:

ft
lbf
24 k
in 12
ft 1
in 6
lbf 12
x
F
k
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =

s / rad 054 . 8
s
rad
86 . 64
37 . 0
24
2
2
2
=
= =
e
e


solving for the constants:


2
1
s / ft 24
slug 375 . 0
lb 9
m
L
H also ft 25 . 0 ) 0 ( x C = = = = =


( )
( )( )
( )
ft 25 . 0
4 8 8
4 24
8
0 H ) 0 ( v
C
4 2 2 2 2
=
(

=
(

=
| e e
|
e



ft 5 . 0
4 8
24 H
C
0 C
2 2 2 2 4
3
=

=
=
| e


the particular solution therefore is:

t 4 sin 5 . 0 t 8 sin 25 . 0 t 8 cos 25 . 0 ) t ( x + =

the graphical representation of the motion is:



















-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
c1 cos
C2 sin
C4 sin
x(t)
DAMPED OSCILLATION

In many real systems, non-conservative forces, such as friction, retard the motion
consequently, the mechanical energy of the system diminishes ion time, and the motion is said to
be damped. Because the retarding forces can be expressed as R = -bv (where b is constant called
the damping coefficient. )

from:

0 x
m
k
dt
dx
m
b
dt
x d
0 kx
dt
dx
b
dt
x d
m
2
2
2
2
= + +
= + +
Equation 1

let:
m
b
2 =
;
m
k
2
n
= e


using the auxiliary equation


0 D 2 D
2
n
2
= + + e

from quadratic equation:


2
) 2 ( ) 2 ( 2
D
2
n
2
e
=

let:


2 2
n
2
d
e e =

then:


d 2
d 1
2
d
2
n
2
2
n
2 2
i D
i D
D
D
2
) ( 2 2
D
e
e
e
e
e
=
+ =
=
=

=





using auxiliary eq. (imaginary roots)


t cos e C t sin e C ) t ( x
d
t
2 d
t
1
e e

+ = - General Solution


from initial value problem, where at t = 0 ; x ( 0 ) = A


A C
) 0 ( cos e C ) 0 ( sin e C ) 0 ( x
2
d
) 0 (
2 d
) 0 (
1
=
+ =

e e



thus:

t cos Ae ) t ( x
d
t
e

= - Particular Solution of Equation 1


EXAMPLE:

A pendulum with a length of 1m is released from an initial angle of 15. After 1sec, the
amplitude has been reduced by friction to 5.5. what is the value of b / 2m ? What is the damped
frequency?

Solution:

) cos( ) ( t Ae t
t
o u

=

Where at t = 0


0
0 0
) 0 (
15
0 cos 15
)) 0 ( cos( ) 0 (
=
=
=

A
Ae
Ae o u



At t = 1 sec


L
b
e
e
e
2
0033 . 1
15
5 . 5
ln
15
5 . 5
)) 1 ( cos( 15 5 . 5
)) 1 ( cos( 15 ) 1 (
0 0
) 1 ( 0
= =
=
=
=
=

o
o u

For the damped frequency

0
2
2
= + + u
u u
g
dt
d
b
dt
d
L

Using the auxiliary equation:

0
2
= + + g bD LD

From quadratic equation:


L
Lg b b
D
2
4
2

=

Where:


L
Lg b
d
2
4
2

= e :
2
2
2
) 2 (
4
L
Lg b
d

= e

Thus:


L
g
L
b
d
=
2
)
2
( e

Reversing the position of the terms inside the radical sign:


sec
965 . 2
) 0033 . 1 (
1
81 . 9
)
2
(
2
2
rad
L
b
L
g
d
d
d
=
=
=
e
e
e









DAMPING RATIO




From:


0
0
2
2
2
= + +
= + +
k bD mD
k
dt
dx
b
dt
dx
m
Where : b = damping coefficient

using the quadratic formula:

0
2
= + +
m
k
D
m
b
D


The roots are:

mk b
m m
b
D 4
2
1
2
2
= - Equation 1

The determinant ) 4 (
2
mk b will indicate the general solution of the differential equation

Thus:

Critical damping coefficient ( mk mk b
cr
2 4 = = )

and so the damping ratio ( )


mk
b
b
b
cr
2
= =

Where: m = mass
k = spring constant

Since:


m
k
W
o
= - Multiplying both side by ( m )

mk m
m
k
m m
m
k
m m
o
o
o
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
e
e
2 2 2
2


Then:


o
m
b
e

2
=
Or

o
m
b
e =
2
- Equation 2


Also from the damped angular frequency:


2 2
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
) 1 (
) (
2
2
o o d
o d
d
d
m
b
m
b
m
k
e e e
e e e
e e
e
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=



2
1 e e =
o d
- Equation 3 (True Equation)

Note that equation 3 is the true while is less than 1.

In case where is greater than 1, then:


2 2
2
2
) 2 (
4
) 2 (
2
4
m
mk
m
b
m
mk b
d
d
=

=
e
e





And since:


( )
o o d
o
o
m
k
m
b
e e e
e
e
=
=
=
2
2
2


1 = e e
o d
- Equation 4

Substituting Equation 2 and Equation 4 to Equation 1

1 e e
o o
D - Equation 5


Using this equation to evaluate the damped vibration, three cases will arise.

Case 1. 0 < < 1
For this case, the quantity inside the radical sign will give an imaginary root, thus using
the auxiliary equation for imaginary roots.

i D
d o
e e = - where: ( i = 1 )

The general solution is:

t t C t C e t x
d d
t
o
e e
e
+ + =

) cos sin ( ) (
2 1




Case 2. > 1 - over damped motion

For this case, the determination of equation 5 is positive, thus, it yields to:

1
2
0
= e e
o
D

And the general solution is:

) ( ) (
1
2
1
1
2 2

+ =
e e e
o o o
e a e a e t x
t






Where:


1 2
) 1 (
1 2
) 1 (
2
2
2
2
2
1

+ +
=

+ +
=
e
e u
e
e u
o
o o o
o
o o o
x
a
x
a



Case 3. = 1 - critically damped
For this case, equation 3 is reduced to


o
D e =

And the general solution is:

) ( ) (
2 1
t a a e t x
t
o
+ =
e


Where:
o o o
o
x a
x a
e u + =
=
2
1



EXAMPLE

A spring is such that it would stretch 6in by a 12lbf weight. Let the weight be attached to
the spring and pulled down 4in below the equilibrium point. If the weight is started with an
upward velocity of 2 ft / sec with a damping force of magnitude 0.6 V. Determine the
displacement x(t) after 1.5 sec.

Given:




6 in
Equilibrium
4 in



sec
2
f t
V
o
=



Solution

a. Damping ratio


mk
b
b
b
cr
2
= =
Where:
b = 0.6

c
o
g
g
m W = ;
o
c
g
g
W m =

slug m
f t
lbf
f t slug
lbf
m
37 . 0
sec
2 . 32
sec .
.
1 12
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=


f t
lbf
k
in
f t
in
lbf
x
F
k
24
12
1
6
12
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =


Thus:


1007 . 0
) 24 ( 37 . 0 2
6 . 0
=
=

Since 0 < < 1 ; solution will come from Case 1

Where:


sec
054 . 8
37 . 0
24
rad
m
k
o
o
o
=
=
=
e
e
e



Solving for C
1
and C
2
:

At t = 0 ;
ft x
in ft in x
33 . 0 ) 0 (
) 12 / 1 ( 4 ) 0 (
=
=


| | ) 0 ( cos ) 0 ( sin ) 0 (
2 1
) 0 (
d d
C C e x
o
e e
e
+ =
33 . 0
2
= C

At t = 0 ; v(0)= sec / 2 ft
t e C t e C t x
d
t
d
t
o o
e e
e e
cos sin ) (
2
) (
1

+ =

| | ) 811 . 0 ( ) 0 ( 013 . 8 sin 013 . 8 )) 0 ( 013 . 8 cos( ) 0 (
) ( 811 . 0 ) 0 ( 811 . 0
1
=
t
e e C u
| | 811 . 0 ) ( 013 . 8 cos ) 013 . 8 )( 013 . 8 sin (
) ( 811 . 0 ) ( 0811 .
2
t t
e t t e C

+ +
| | ) 811 . 0 )( 0 ( 013 . 8 cos 013 . 8 )) 0 ( 013 . 8 cos( ) 0 (
) 0 ( 811 . 0
2
) 0 ( 811 . 0
1
=

e C e C u
| | ) 811 . 0 )( 0 ( 013 . 8 sin 013 . 8 )) 0 ( 013 . 8 sin(
) 0 ( 811 . 0
2
) 0 ( 811 . 0
1

+ e C e C

216 . 0
) 811 . 0 ( 33 . 0 ) 013 . 8 (
sec
2
) 811 . 0 ( ) 013 . 8 (
sec
2
) 811 . 0 ( ) 013 . 8 ( ) 0 (
1
1
2 1
2 1
=
=
=
=
C
C
f t
C C
f t
C C u


So


| |
| |
f t x
e x
t t e t x
t
12 . 0 ) 5 . 1 (
) 5 . 1 ( 013 . 8 sin 216 . 0 ) 5 . 1 ( 013 . 8 cos 33 . 0 ) 5 . 1 (
013 . 8 sin 216 . 0 013 . 8 cos 33 . 0 ) (
) 5 . 1 ( 811 . 0
811 . 0
=
=
=