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The Industrial Revolution

Adam Smith
The first proponent of lasseiz-faire capitalism, Adam Smith was a Scottish professor
that believed government attempts to regulate the economy interfered with natural
economic laws.
Instead, the laws of supply and demand should dictate the economy. He saw natural
resources as unlimited – humans should exploit nature for their benefit.
Wrote the Wealth of Nations in 1776. While he believed that the government should
largely stay out of economic affairs, he did believe in the state providing schools,
armies, navies, and roads, as well as undertaking certain commercial ventures too
expensive or risky for private enterprise.

Agricultural Revolution
“During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the pace of the agricultural
revolution quickened. The development of scientific agriculture, the introduction of
new crops, the enclosure of agricultural land, and increasing mechanization expanded
agricultural production and ended the specter of famine in Europe. Fewer farm
workers were needed to produce food for Europe’s growing population, and surplus
agricultural labor migrated to the new industrial towns to find employment in the
factories.” -- Viault, Modern European History, pg. 256
Several important people contributed to the new developments:
o Jethro Tull: invented the seed drill
o Charles Townshend: promoted crop rotation and planting of crops that nourished
the soil, such as clover and turnips
o Robert Blakewell: scientific breeding of cattle and sheep
o Cyrus McCormick: invented and patented the reaper
In addition to technological developments, new crops were being introduced to
different parts of the world. The potato, originally from the Western Hemisphere,
became a staple in Ireland. During the eighteenth century, peas and new bean
varieties diffused to Great Britain from the Netherlands.
The enclosure movement, which had begun in the 16th century, intensified during the
agricultural revolution. Landowning aristocrats and country gentry built stone walls
around land that had once been free-access grazing land and woodland areas. This
resulted in an increase in the number of large and medium-sized farms, as well as
increased crop production.

Anarchism
Denounces capitalism for exploitation of labor and favored abolition of private
property. Anarchism goes further than Marxism, stating that the state itself is an
instrument of exploitation and repression. Thus, the state must be removed.
See “Pierre Proudhon” and “Michael Bakunin.”
While there have never been any successful anarchist revolutions, anarchists have been
successful in committing acts of violence such as assassinations of major political
figures. For example, President William McKinley of the United States in 1901.

Bolsheviks
Meaning “majority,” Bolsheviks were Lenin’s followers after the split in the Russian
Social Democrat Party.
Lenin favored a Marxist revolution in the sense of further industrial development. He
also thought that a small, professional, nondemocratic revolutionary party that was
organized and elite would best be able to resist penetration by police spies. This group
of people would be substituted for Mars’s proletariat as the instigators of revolutionary
change.

Bourbon Restoration
After Napoleon was defeated, the Bourbon line in France was reinstated with Louis
XVIII. Charles Talleyrand was an influential force in having the Bourbons recognized as
the actual rulers of France.
This period is marked by extreme conservatism and the reinstating of the Roman
Catholic Church as a power in French politics.

Bourgeoisie
The members of the middle/merchant class.

Charles Dickens
He wrote novels set in industrial England that depicted the poor living conditions the
working class and peasants had to endure. By writing about such subjects, he was
hoping for the middle class to begin social reform.

Charles Lucas
A French reformer who exposed the horrible conditions in prisons and demanded
change.
However, such reform came slowly because of the expense of constructing new
prisons as well as the overall lack of sympathy for criminals.

Classical Economics
Economists who championed the doctrine of laissez-faire.
o Adam Smith – first major advocate, published The Wealth of Nations in 1776
o Thomas Malthus – population growth was outstripping the food supply, thus, war,
famine, and disease were designed to limit the human population
o David Ricardo – the Iron Law of Wages: wages should be neither too little or too
much and like other commodities, is subject to supply and demand

Communist Manifesto
Published in 1848 by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Sets forth the major ideas of what
they termed “scientific socialism.” Ideology in the publication known as Marxism.
Discusses dialectical materialism and economic determinism.
The existence of social classes leads to class struggles, which ultimately produce social
change. Such class struggle can be found throughout the history of the world.

Concert of Europe
Following the overthrow of Napoleon, the governments of Europe came together at
the Congress of Vienna to discuss further action that would conserve the balance of
power in Europe.
Led to action that would “stamp out liberalism.”

Das Kapital
In which Karl Marx further develops his ideas, analyzing and critiquing the capitalist
system. He claimed that under the capitalist system, workers created wealth by
making products out of raw materials, but received only a small fraction of this wealth
in the form of wages.
While this wealth was not evenly distributed in a classed society, it would be entrusted
to the community and evenly distributed in the classless society after the revolution.

David Ricardo
Used Thomas Malthus’ concepts into the Iron Law of Wages. If wages were raised,
more children would be produced. These children, in turn, would enter the labor
market and expand the number of workers, thus lowering wages. As wages fell,
working people would produce fewer children, causing wages to rise.
Thus, wages would always tend toward a minimum level. As a result, employers
should pay workers a minimum amount.

Determinism
Inevitably, events are a result of previous actions/events and are independent of human
will, as proposed by G.W.F. Hegel. Thus, the history of the world was fixed from the
beginning of the universe, with only unimportant chance events occurring that did not
ultimately change the meaning of history.

Dialectical Materialism
“He [Karl Marx] wrote that ‘the mode of production of material life determines social,
political and intellectual life processes in general’; that is, he claimed that it was what
humankind produced and who owned it that determined the nature of society.
Material factors were more important than religions or other ideologies in shaping
society.” -- “A Call to Revolution: The Challenge of Socialism.”
Marx combined a materialist interpretation of historical development with the theory
of the dialectic, resulting in dialectical materialism.

Dictatorship of the Proletariat


The class conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie would become more
intense and lead to the proletarian revolution, in which the proletariat would destroy
the power of the bourgeoisie.
After the proletarian revolution, the leaders of the proletariat would establish a
temporary dictatorship responsible for eradicating the last elements of the bourgeoisie,
reorganizing the economy by establishing the social ownership of the means of
production and distribution, and reeducating the proletariat to work in behalf of the
interests of society.
With this new classless society, there would be no exploitation of one class by another
and no class conflict, which would lead to harmony.

Edward Bernstein
See “Revisionism.”

Elizabeth Fry
An English prison and social reformer who was also a Quaker.

Friedrich Engels
Friedrich Engels, son of a wealthy German industrialist, was critical of the conditions of
the working class. He met Marx in France and the two collaborated until Marx’s death
in 1883.
G.W.F. Hegel
Argued that the development of change is a result of a ‘clash of opposite forces’ from
which a new situation is produced, with struggle as essential to the process. He
illustrated this idea in terms of conflict between cultures or races.
He contended that change in history occurred as the result of a dialectical process,
which involved a series of conflicts. The established order (thesis) encountered a
challenge (antithesis), producing a conflict that would end in a compromise: a new
ordering of society (synthesis). The synthesis would then become the new thesis and
the process would begin again.

Jeremy Bentham
He began the retreat from laissez-faire capitalism, believing that the government
should intervene on behalf of the disadvantaged. (See “Utilitarianism”)
Bentham believed that government could assure happiness for the greatest number of
people by permitting them the maximum possible amount of individual freedom.
However, if pains suffered by the many exceeded the pleasures enjoyed by the few, the
government could justifiably intervene to redress the balance.
His ideas led to the creation of the twentieth-century welfare state.

John Howard
Prison reformer.

John Wesley
Leader of the Methodist movement, which took place during the Romantic period. He
sent a message of repentance and good works through his sermons in open fields near
western English towns and cities.
He and his brother, Charles, began to organize Methodist societies. This religion
stresses inward, heartfelt religion, and the possibility of Christian perfection in this life.
Emotion played an important role in Methodism.

Karl Marx
The most influential socialist thinker of the nineteenth century. Born in western
Germany and a student of philosophy. While he had brilliant ideas, no university
would accept him because of his reputation as a radical.
He became a journalist for a radical newspaper in Prussia, but the newspaper was later
suppressed by censors.
When he moved to Paris, he met with Friedrich Engels.
Would later publish The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital.

Lenin/Stalin
Lenin originally studied to become a lawyer, but more interested in Marxism, he
became involved in radical activities. When he was exiled in Western Europe, he
published a Russian-language Marxist newspaper which was smuggled into Russia. He
and his followers, all Russian Marxists, split from the Russian Social Democrats and
became known as Bolsheviks.
Stalin was Lenin’s successor and developed the doctrine of socialism in one country.
He felt that the Soviet Union could survive and develop its socialist society even if the
world revolution did not occur in the near future. After he came to power, he forced
industrialization.

Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII expressed his concern about economic and social issues in his letter
Rerum Novarum. He condemned socialism, especially Marxism, for its atheism, as well
as for its opposition to the private ownership of property and doctrine of the class
struggle. However, he also disliked laissez-faire capitalism because it regarded labor
simply as one commodity among many.
He insisted on the moral obligation of employers to pay their workers a living wage
and defended the rights of workers to form labor unions in order to improve their
conditions.

Louis Blanc
He felt the first step to a socialist society was political reform – creating a French
republic based on universal manhood suffrage and establishment of a workers’ party.
This party would soon gain control of the government and could nationalize the
railroads and use profits of railroads and tax revenues in order to create a social
workshop in every area of industry.
The social workshops would be owned and managed by workers who would share in
the profits. Better items would be produced at a lower cost than in privately owned
factories. These social workshops would drive privately owned factors into
bankruptcy, which would be converted into social workshops.
In the end, all industry would consist of social workshops.

Louis XVIII
The brother of Louis XVI, he ascended the throne to begin the Bourbon restoration
after the overthrow of Napoleon.

“Manchester School”
The term used to refer to radical liberalism in the form of economics. This includes
laissez-faire economics, free trade, government withdrawal from the economy, and free
capitalistic enterprise.
It is mainly influenced by the Classical Ricardian School (Ricardo’s ideas, such as the
Iron Law of Wages)

Materialism
Only material objects are real, which is the antithesis of Romanticism. Since God
cannot be seen or touched, God is not real.

Mensheviks
A more moderate, democratic faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party. Meaning
“minority,” Mensheviks were followers of Julius Martov.

Michael Bakunin
A Russian radical who was a proponent of revolutionary violence. He believed that the
revolutionary movement should be led by secret societies of committed radicals.
Once the workers had been lead in a seizure of power, the state would be destroyed
and a new social order created based on a loose federation of autonomous
communities.

Pierre Proudhon
Wrote What is Property? in 1840, denouncing property as theft. He believed that the
people who do the work should own the property, rather than capitalists.
The state should be replaced with a voluntary, cooperative society of peasants,
shopkeepers, and artisans.

Proletariat
The working class, depicted by Marx as being exploited by the capitalists. Forced to
work for cheap wages and live in shoddy tenement houses, the working class’ plight
soon prompted social reform.

Revisionism

Doctrines of Eduard Bernstein, who questioned Marx’s views toward capitalism. He


argued that the standard of living in Europe was on the rise, ownership of capitalist
industry was becoming more widespread through stockholding, and the members of
the working class were now able to vote. He felt that social reform through
democratic institutions replaced revolution as the path to a humane socialist society.
A changing of fundamental Marxist ideas.

Robert Bakewell

The first person to introduce the scientific breeding of cows and sheep for greater
productivity/profit.

Robert Fulton

An American engineer that is credited with developing the first commercially viable
steamship, which sped up shipping and lowered transport costs.

Robert Owen
He became a partner at one of the largest cotton factories in Britain at New Lanark,
Scotland. As a firm believer in the environmentalist psychology of the Enlightenment,
he felt that if people were placed in the correct surroundings, they could be improved.
He also thought it was possible to create a humane industrial environment while still
realizing profits.
At New Lanark, he gave workers good quarters, recreational possibilities, and provided
children with education. There were several churches and the factory gave rewards
for good work. He called for a reorganization of industry based on his own successful
model.

Robert Peel

Helped steer the Catholic Emancipation Act through Parliament, which allowed Roman
Catholics to become members of Parliament.
Sponsored legislation in 1828 that placed police forces on London streets, which came
to e known as “bobbies.” These forces were not armed and they were distinguished by
an easily recognizable uniform.
Repealed the Corn Laws in 1846 that removed the tariffs protecting the domestic price
of grain. This marked the lowering of British tariffs and was accompanied by a
program to modernize British agriculture and make it more efficient.

Royal Society of London

The “scientific think tank” where new ideas regarding technology were circulated and
scientific research was encouraged. It is the world’s oldest scientific society.

Saint-Simon

Count Henri de Saint-Simon was an early utopian socialist who believed that modern
society required rational management. Private wealth, property, and enterprise should
be governed by an administration rather than its owners.
His ideal government consisted of a large board of directors organizing and
coordinating activity of individuals and groups to achieve social harmony.

Scientific Socialism

Friedrich Engels referred to the system that Karl Marx proposed as “scientific socialism”
in order to contrast it with utopian socialism. He saw this new theory as more
concrete than the idealistic principles of the utopian socialists.

Squires

The squires were wealthy landowners who went into agriculture for profit. This
eventually ended in farms that were more productive (profitable).

Surplus Value

The remainder of the created wealth produced by skilled workers – the surplus value
became the possession of capitalists.

The Enclosure Acts

The squires, in order to gain more land for farming and livestock breeding, passed a
series of laws that allowed them to usurp what was once common, shared land, from
the peasant class.
Without land and room for their own animals, hundreds of thousands of peasants
migrated to the new world or went to cities to work in industrial factories.

Thomas Malthus

The condition of the working class cannot be improved. Since population increased on
a geometric scale and food increased on an arithmetic scale, population would outstrip
the food supply.
Additionally, if wages were raised for the working class, workers would produce more
children, who would consume the extra wages and more food.
Thomas Newcomen

Invented the first steam engine. However, it was very heavy and generally only used
in mining operations, such as to operate a pump to drain water from coal mines.
James Watt improved Newcomen’s work in 1769 with a more portable type of engine
that was adapted for textile-mill use and for transportation.

Upton Sinclair

Pulitzer-Prize winning American author whose life experiences resulted in his adoption
of socialist ideas and themes. Lived from 1878 – 1968.

Utilitarianism

Application of the principal of utility (the greatest happiness for the greatest number)
would overrule the special interests of privileged groups who prevented rational
government.
Use of reason and utility would result in justice being realized.

Utopian Socialists

Their ideas advocated the creation of ideal communities and questioned the structures
and values of the existing capitalistic framework – thus utopian socialist. However,
they do not necessarily follow the above description.
Another factor was their discussion and sometimes practice of radical ideas regarding
sexuality and the family. This caused them to lose the support of people who would
have agreed with their economic ideas, but were unsympathetic to their views on free
love and open family relationships.

War Communism

The economic, social, and political system enforced during the Russian Civil War by
Lenin. Political and economic administration became highly centralized, with all major
decisions coming from the top in a nondemocratic manner.
The banks, transport system, and heavy industry were controlled by this government.
War communism aided the victory of the Red Army, but generated domestic
opposition to the Bolsheviks.

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