Physical properties of water

Figure 1: The atomic structure of a water (or dihydrogen monoxide) molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms joined to one oxygen (O) atom. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net)

Figure 2: The three diagrams above illustrate the distinct arrangement patterns of water molecules as they change their physical state from ice to water to gas. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net) We live on a planet that is dominated by water. More than 70% of the Earth's surface is covered with this simple molecule. Scientists estimate that the hydrosphere contains about 1.36 billion cubic kilometers of this substance mostly in the form of a liquid (water) that occupies topographic depressions on the Earth. The second most common form of the water molecule on our planet is ice. If all our planet's ice melted, sea level would rise by about 70 meters.

Water is also essential for life. Water is the major constituent of almost all life forms. Most animals and plants contain more than 60% water by volume. Without water, life would probably never have developed on our planet. Water has a very simple atomic structure. This structure consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom (Figure 1). The nature of the atomic structure of water causes its molecules to have unique electrochemical properties. Due to the way in which the hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom, the hydrogen side of the water molecule has a slight positive charge. On the other side of the molecule a negative charge exists. This molecular polarity causes water to be a powerful solvent and is responsible for its strong surface tension.

Figure 3: The following illustration shows how water molecules are attracted to each other to create high surface tension. This property can cause water to exist as an extensive thin film over solid surfaces. In the example above, the film is two layers of water molecules thick. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net) When the water molecule makes a physical phase change its molecules arrange themselves in distinctly different patterns (Figure 2). Frozen water molecules arrange themselves in a particular highly organized rigid geometric pattern that causes the mass of water to expand and to decrease in density and volume. Expansion of the water molecule at freezing allows ice to float on top of liquid water. Figure 2 shows a slice through a mass of ice that is one molecule wide. In the liquid phase, water molecules arrange themselves into small groups of joined particles. The fact that these arrangements are small allows liquid water to move and flow. Water molecules in the form of a gas are highly charged with energy. This high energy state causes the molecules to be always moving reducing the likelihood of bonds between individual molecules from forming. Water has several other unique physical properties. These properties are:

Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance. Because water has a high specific heat, it can absorb large amounts of heat energy before it begins to get hot. It also means that water releases heat energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's high specific heat allows for the moderation of the Earth's climate and helps organisms regulate their body temperature more effectively.

Figure 4: The adhesive bonding property of water molecules allows for the formation of water droplets (Photo 2004 Edward Tsang).

Water in a pure state has a neutral pH. As a result, pure water is neither acidic nor basic. Water changes its pH when substances are dissolved in it. Rain has a naturally acidic pH of about 5.6 because it contains naturally derived carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except mercury. This fact causes large bodies of liquid water like lakes and oceans to have essentially a uniform vertical temperature profile. Water molecules exist in liquid form over an important range of temperature from 0 100 Celsius. This range allows water molecules to exist as a liquid in most places on our planet. Water is a universal solvent. It is able to dissolve a large number of different chemical compounds. This feature also enables water to carry solvent nutrients in runoff, infiltration, groundwater flow, and living organisms. Table 1: Density of water molecules Water has a high surface tension at various temperatures. (Figures 3 and 4). In other words, Temperature Density water is adhesive and elastic, and tends (degrees Celsius) (grams per cubic centimeter) to aggregate in drops rather than 0.9150 spread out over a surface as a thin film. 0 (solid) 0.9999 This phenomenon also causes water to 0 (liquid) stick to the sides of vertical structures 4 1.0000 despite gravity's downward pull. 20 0.9982 Water's high surface tension allows for 40 0.9922 the formation of water droplets and 60 0.9832 waves, allows plants to move water 80 0.9718 (and dissolved nutrients) from their roots to their leaves, and the movement 100 (gas) 0.0006 of blood through tiny vessels in the bodies of some animals. Water molecules are the only substance on Earth that exist in all three physical states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Incorporated in the changes of state are massive amounts of heat exchange. This feature plays an important role in the redistribution of heat energy in the Earth's atmosphere. In terms of heat being transferred into the atmosphere,

approximately three-fourths of this process is accomplished by the evaporation and condensation of water. The freezing of water molecules causes their mass to occupy a larger volume. When water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by volume. Fresh water has a maximum density at around 4 Celsius (see Table 1). Water is the only substance on this planet where the maximum density of its mass does not occur when it becomes solidified. Table 1: Density of water molecules at various temperatures. Temperature Density (degrees Celsius) (grams per cubic centimeter) 0 (solid) 0.9150 0 (liquid) 0.9999 4 1.0000 20 0.9982 40 0.9922 60 0.9832 80 0.9718 100 (gas) 0.0006

Seawater
Published: October 16, 2006, 11:30 pm Edited: May 22, 2011, 9:49 am Lead Author: Michael Pidwirny Topics: Rate:

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Figure 1: Relative proportions of dissolved salts in seawater. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net) Seawater is a mixture of various salts and water. Most of the water in the ocean basins is believed to originate from the condensation of water found in the early atmosphere as the Earth cooled after its formation. This water was released from the lithosphere as the Earth's crust solidified. Additional water has also been added to the oceans over geologic time from periodic volcanic action. Some scientists have recently speculated that comets entering the Earth's atmosphere may be another important source of water for the oceans. Most of the dissolved chemical constituents or salts found in seawater have a continental origin. It seems that these chemicals were released from continental rocks through weathering and then carried to the oceans by stream runoff. Over time, the concentration of these chemicals increased until an equilibrium was met. This equilibrium occurred when the ocean's water could not dissolve any more material in solution. Similarities between fossilized sea life and organisms living today indicate that the composition of seawater stopped changing drastically about 600 million years ago. Only six elements and compounds comprise about 99% of sea salts: chlorine (Cl-), sodium (Na+), sulfur (SO4-2), magnesium (Mg+2), calcium (Ca+2), and potassium (K+) (Figure 1). The relative abundance of the major salts in seawater are constant regardless of the ocean. Only the amount of water in the mixture varies because of differences between ocean basins because of regional differences in freshwater loss (evaporation) and gain (runoff and precipitation). The chlorine ion makes up 55% of the salt in seawater. Calculations of seawater salinity are made of the parts per 1000 of the chlorine ion present in one kilogram of seawater. Typically, seawater has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand. Water is one of the few substances existing on the Earth's surface in all three forms of matter. At zero degrees Celsius liquid water turns into ice and has a density of approximately 917 kilograms per cubic meter. Liquid water at the same temperature has a density of nearly 1000 kilograms per cubic meter. The density of seawater generally increases with decreasing temperature, increasing salinity, and increasing depth in the ocean. The density of seawater at the surface of the ocean varies from 1,020 to 1,029 kilograms per cubic meter. Highest densities are achieved with depth because of the overlying weight of water. In the deepest parts of the oceans, seawater densities can be as high as 1,050 kilograms per cubic meter.

Seawater freezes at a temperature that is slightly colder than fresh water (0.0 Celsius). The freezing temperature of seawater also varies with the concentration of salts. The more salt, the lower the initial freezing temperature. At a salinity of 35 parts per thousand, seawater freezes at a temperature of -1.9 Celsius. Sea ice normally contains considerably less salt than seawater. Most of the salts found in liquid seawater are forced out it when freezing occurs. The reason for the exclusion is because the molecules of the various salts do not fit well in the highly orderly molecular structure of frozen water. Because of the density difference between ice and seawater, ice floats on the surface of the ocean. Seawater also contains small amounts of dissolved gases. Many of these gases are added to seawater from the atmosphere through the constant stirring of the sea surface by wind and waves. The concentration of gases that can be dissolved into seawater from the atmosphere is determined by temperature and salinity of the water. Increasing the temperature or salinity reduces the amount of gas that ocean water can dissolve. Some of the important atmospheric gases found in seawater include: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate HCO3), argon, helium, and neon. Compared to the other atmospheric gases, the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in saturated seawater is unusually high. Some gases found within seawater are also involved in oceanic organic and inorganic processes that are indirectly related to the atmosphere. For example, oxygen and carbon dioxide may be temporally generated or depleted by such processes to varying concentrations at specific locations within the ocean.