MMS Notes by Polarao Sir

S.
SANYASIRAO
s.sanyasirao1@gmail.com
NOTES-1 UNIT-I
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Introduction to Atomic Structure : Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electrons and protons are negative and positive charged particles respectively. The magnitude of each charged particle in an
-19
atom is 1.6 10
Coulombs.
The mass of the electron is negligible with respect to those of the proton and the neutron, which form the nucleus of the atom. The unit of mass is an atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.66
-27
10
kg, and equals 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. The Carbon nucleus has Z=6, and A=6,
where Z is the number of protons, and A the number of neutrons. Neutrons and protons have very similar masses, roughly equal to 1 amu each. A neutral atom has the same number of electrons and protons, Z. A mol is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in amu of the atoms. Thus, a mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams. The number of atoms in a mole is
23
called the Avogadro number, N = 6.023 10 . Note that N = 1 gram/1 amu.

av av
Calculating n, the number of atoms per cm of a material of density (g/cm ): MNnav= where M is the atomic mass in amu (grams per mol). Thus, for graphite (carbon) with a
3 3 23 3 22
density = 1.8 g/cm , M =12, we get 6 10 atoms/mol 1.8 g/cm / 12 g/mol) = 9 10 C atoms/cm . Reference: 1.Elements of Material science -V. Rahghavan 2.Engineering materials and metallurgy-R.K.Rajput/ S.Chand. 3. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas
Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

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Atomic bonding in solids In order to understand the why materials behave like they do and why they differ in properties, it is necessary that one should look at atomic level. The study primarily concentrates on two issues: what made the atoms to cluster together, and how atoms are arranged. As mentioned in earlier chapter, atoms are bound to each other by number of bonds. These inter-atomic bonds are primarily of two kinds: Primary bonds and Secondary bonds. Ionic, Covalent and Metallic bonds are relatively very strong, and grouped as primary bonds, whereas van der Waals and hydrogen bonds are relatively weak, and termed as secondary bonds. Metals and Ceramics are entirely held together by primary bonds - the ionic and covalent bonds in ceramics, and the metallic and covalent bonds in metals. Although much weaker than primary bonds, secondary bonds are still very important. They provide the links between polymer molecules in polyethylene (and other polymers) which make them solids. Without them, water would boil at -80C, and life as we know it on earth would not exist. Ionic Bonding: This bond exists between two atoms when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another is positive (has lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attraction. Basically ionic bonds are non-directional in nature. An example is NaCl.
-
In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl and fewer electrons around
+
Na, forming Na . Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic bonding is usually exists along with covalent bonding.

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Covalent Bonding: In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the atoms, to saturate the valency. The simplest example is the H molecule, where the electrons spend more time in
2
between the nuclei of two atoms than outside, thus producing bonding. Covalent bonds are stereo-specific i.e. each bond is between a specific pair of atoms, which share a pair of electrons (of opposite magnetic spins). Typically, covalent bonds are very strong, and directional in nature. The hardness of diamond is a result of the fact that each carbon atom is covalently bonded with four neighboring atoms, and each neighbor is bonded with an equal number of atoms to form a rigid three-dimensional structure.
Metallic Bonding: Metals are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivities. Thus, neither covalent nor ionic bondings are realized because both types of bonding localize the valence electrons and preclude conduction. However, strong bonding does occur in metals. The valence electrons of metals also are delocalized. Thus metallic bonding can be viewed as metal containing a periodic structure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons. The attraction between the two provides the bond, which is nondirectional.

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Reference: 1.Elements of Material science -V. Rahghavan 2.Engineering materials and metallurgy-R.K.Rajput/ S.Chand. 3. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas

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Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds: Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is formed: the + nucleus at the center, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves, the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in atom A produces a fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an adjacent atom, B. Atom B then polarizes so that its outer electrons are on the side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to the side) of the dipole in A.
Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds: Another type of secondary bond exists with asymmetric molecules, also called polar molecules because of positively and negatively charged regions. A permanent dipole moment arises from net positive and negative charges that are respectively associated with the hydrogen and chlorine ends of the HCl molecule, leading to bonding. The These two kinds of bonds are also called van der Waals bonds. Third type of secondary bond is the hydrogen bond. It is categorized separately because it produces the strongest forces of attraction in this category.
Permanent Dipole Bonds / Hydrogen bonding: It occurs between molecules as covalently bonded hydrogen atoms for example C-H, O-H, F-H share single electron with other atom essentially resulting in positively charged proton that is not shielded any electrons. This highly positively charged end of the molecule is capable of strong attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent molecule. The properties of water are influenced significantly by the hydrogen bonds/bridges. The bridges are of sufficient strength, and as a consequence Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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water has the highest melting point of any molecule of its size. Likewise, its heat of vaporization is very high. magnitude of this bond will be greater than for fluctuating induced dipoles.

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Crystal structures All metals, a major fraction of ceramics, and certain polymers acquire crystalline form when solidify, i.e. in solid state atoms self-organize to form crystals. Crystals possess a long-range order of atomic arrangement through repeated periodicity at regular intervals in three dimensions of space. When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous. Examples of crystalline solids are metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite. Examples of amorphous solids are glass, amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si, most plastics. There is very large number of different crystal structures all having long-range atomic order; these vary from relatively simple structures for metals to exceedingly complex structures for ceramics and some polymers. To discuss crystalline structures it is useful to consider atoms as being hard spheres, with well-defined radii. In this scheme, the shortest distance between two like atoms is one diameter. In this context, use of terms lattice and unit cell will be handy. Lattice is used to represent a three-dimensional periodic array of points coinciding with atom positions. Unit cell is smallest repeatable entity that can be used to completely represent a crystal structure. Thus it can be considered that a unit cell is the building block of the crystal structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and the atom positions within. Important properties of the unit cells are The type of atoms and their radii R. Cell dimensions (Lattice spacing a, b and c) in terms of R and Angle between the axis , , a*, b*, c* - lattice distances in reciprocal lattice , *, *, * - angle in reciprocal lattice n, number of atoms per unit cell. For an atom that is shared with m adjacent unit cells, we only count a fraction of the atom, 1/m. CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded. APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually occupied by the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.

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Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials Single Crystals: Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal. Then it has a regular geometric structure with flat faces. Polycrystalline Materials: A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each other. It is called polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other. Where they meet is called a grain boundary. Non-Crystalline Solids: In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous does not mean random, since the distance between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of the hard spheres. Also, in many cases there is some form of short-range order. For instance, the tetragonal order of crystalline SiO (quartz) is still apparent in amorphous SiO (silica
2 2
glass). Miller indices: It is understood that properties of materials depend on their crystal structure, and many of these properties are directional in nature. For example: elastic modulus of BCC iron is greater parallel to the body diagonal than it is to the cube edge. Thus it is necessary to characterize the crystal to identify specific directions and planes. Specific methods are employed to define crystal directions and crystal planes. Methodology to define crystallographic directions in cubic crystal:
a vector of convenient length is placed parallel to the required direction. - the length of the vector projection on each of three axes are measured in unit cell dimensions. - these three numbers are made to smallest integer values, known as indices, by multiplying or dividing by a common factor. - the three indices are enclosed in square brackets, [uvw]. A family of directions is represented by <uvw>. Methodology to define crystallographic planes in cubic crystal: - determine the intercepts of the plane along the crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell dimensions. If plane is passing through origin, there is a need to construct a plane parallel to original plane. - take the reciprocals of these intercept numbers. - clear fractions. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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- reduce to set of smallest integers. - The three indices are enclosed in parenthesis, (hkl). A family of planes is represented by {hkl}.
For example, if the x-, y-, and z- intercepts of a plane are 2, 1, and 3. The Miller indices are calculated as: - take reciprocals: 1/2, 1/1, 1/3. - clear fractions (multiply by 6): 3, 6, 2. - reduce to lowest terms (already there). => Miller indices of the plane are (362).
Figure : depicts Miller indices for number of directions and planes in a cubic crystal.
Some useful conventions of Miller notation: - If a plane is parallel to an axis, its intercept is at infinity and its Miller index will be zero. - If a plane has negative intercept, the negative number is denoted by a bar above the number. Never alter negative numbers. For example, do not divide -1, -1, -1 by -1 to get 1,1,1. This implies symmetry that the crystal may not have! Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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- The crystal directions of a family are not necessarily parallel to each other. Similarly, not all planes of a family are parallel to each other. - By changing signs of all indices of a direction, we obtain opposite direction. Similarly, by changing all signs of a plane, a plane at same distance in other side of the origin can be obtained. - Multiplying or dividing a Miller index by constant has no effect on the orientation of the plane. - The smaller the Miller index, more nearly parallel the plane to that axis, and vice versa. - When the integers used in the Miller indices contain more than one digit, the indices must be separated by commas. E.g.: (3,10,13) - By changing the signs of all the indices of (a) a direction, we obtain opposite direction, and (b) a plane, we obtain a plane located at the same distance on the other side of the origin.
More conventions applicable to cubic crystals only: - [uvw] is normal to (hkl) if u = h, v = k, and w = l. E.g.: (111) [111]. - Inter-planar distance between family of planes {hkl} is given by:
[uvw] is parallel to (hkl) if hu + kv + lw = 0. - Two planes (h k l ) and (h k l ) are normal if h h + k k + l l =0.

1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
- Two directions (u v w ) and (u v w ) are normal if u u + v v + w w =0

1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
- Angle between two planes is given by:
Why Miller indices are calculated in that way? - Using reciprocals spares us the complication of infinite intercepts.

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- Formulas involving Miller indices are very similar to related formulas from analytical geometry. - Specifying dimensions in unit cell terms means that the same label can be applied to any plane with a similar stacking pattern, regardless of the crystal class of the crystal. Plane (111) always steps the same way regardless of crystal system.

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Differences between crystal, dendrite, grain and grain boundary.

Crystal A solid composed of atoms, iortS or molecules arranged in a three dimensional pattern is called a crystal. Since atoms tend to. Assume relatively fixed positions, this gives the formation of crystals in the solids. The atoms, instead of being fixed they oscillate about same fixed locations and they are in a dynamic equilibrium. The imaginary lines drawn connecting the atoms in three-dimensions is called the space lattice, and the smallest unit having full symmetry of the crystal is called a unit cell. The structure of the orderly packed crystals is called crystal structure. Dendrite When the temperature of the metal has dropped below the freezing point temperature sufficiently, nuclei appear in the liquid spontaneously. The nuclei will get solidified and they act as centers far further crystallization of the liquid metal. When codling is still continued the atoms tend to. freeze and they attach themselves to solidified atoms are form nuclei if their own. Crystal growth continues in three dimensions. The atoms attach themselves along the axis of , the crystals in so preferred directions. This gives a tree like structure called the dendrite. The nuclei is farmed by change, so the crystal axes are pointed randomly and the dendrites grow indifferent directions in each crystal. Grain and grain boundaries When the transition of liquid to solid is fully completed fanning many crystals, these crystals are called polycrystalline metals. These polycrystalline metals possess irregular shape, these irregular polycrystalline metals are called grains. The atoms in this grains are regularly packed in a geometrical pattern. Grain boundaries are those that separate the individual grains. These grain boundaries are formed after the complete solidification process has finished or stopped 'because of the inter phase with that of the adjacent structure. From one grain to another there is a Crystallographic orientation taking place through the grain boundary and at the grain boundary between two grains there exists a transient zone.

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Coordination Number:
Simple Cubic Crystal Structure (SCC) In simple cubic structure, there is one atom at each corner of the cube arid any corner atom has 4 Nearest neighbor atoms in the same plane and two .nearest neighbours in the material plane. Hence coordination number4 + 2 = 6.
Body Centered Crysta1 Structure (BCC)
In BCC structure, there is one atom at each corner of the cube and one atom at the, centre of cube. The corner atom is surrounded by eight unit cells having eight body centered atoms. Hence coordination number is 8. This type of crystal structure is found in the following metals, Li, Na, K, V,Ta,a-Cr, Mo, a-Fe etc.
Face Centered Crystal Structure (FCC) In FCC structure, there is one atom at each corner of the cube and one atom at the centre of each face of the cube. For any corner atom, the nearest are the face centered atoms. Hence coordination number =12 This type of crystal structurejs found in the following metals.
Hexagonal Close Packed Structure (HCP) In HCP crystal the coordination number is 12 It is shared , by two unit cells. The three atoms at interior remain unshared Reference: 1.Elements of Material science -V. Rahghavan 2.Engineering materials and metallurgy-R.K.Rajput/ S.Chand. 3. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas

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Alloy It is a material having two or more elements, in which one should be a metal. (or)The substance having metallic properties and composed of two or more elements of which one is a metal . Super Alloys -A group of alloys that retain high strength at elevated temperatures. Alloying elements- All the elements that make an Alloy . These are two types (i) Base metal -The metal present In the larger proportion in an alloy (ii) Alloying elements- the remaining metallic and non-metallic elements Alloying of element is done to get certain desirable properties which are not available in the base metal initially. Therefore, An alloy is a material which is expected of a metal, but it is not a pure metallic element Alloy system- consists of all the alloys that can be formed by the combination of several elements in all possible proportions. Alloy systems may be classified depending on their equilibrium diagram. Binary - (composed of two elements), Ternary - (composed of three elements), and so on. A homogeneous alloy - consists of single phase Heterogeneous alloy - consists of several phases. If a homogeneous alloy is in solid state, then it can be only a solid solution or compound. If the alloy is heterogeneous, it is composed of any combination of the phases possible in the solid state. Based on microstructure or metallurgical structure Single Phase Alloy : Alloy consisting of single phase (i.e.,liquid or solid). Example :Transformer iron. Multiple Phase Alloy :Alloy consisting of multiple phases. Example: Muntz metal (60% Cu and 40% Zn) is a two phase alloy. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Alloy It is a material having two or more elements, in which one should be a metal. All the elements that make an Alloy are called alloying elements.
Reference Books:
1. Elements of Material science / V. Rahghavan 2. Science of Engineering Materials / Agarwal 3. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas

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The alloying elements are classified generally as. 1.Based on the relation with carbon Graphitizing events -such as silicon, nickel,. copper and aluminum Carbide forming elements- like manganese, chromium, tungsten, vanadium and so on. Neutral elements like cobalt 2.Based on their effect of critical points - elements of two types Austenite stabilizers -nickel, manganese, copper and cobalt Ferrite stabilizers - chromium, tungsten molybdenum and vanadium. These alloys are added to the metal to overcome their limitations and to provide properties suited for use in the required areas. Alloys are produced to fulfill anyone of the the following needs (a) Improve hardness and wear resistance. (b) Improve corrosion resistance. (c) Improve both the magnetic and electric properties. (d) Improve the machinability, weldability. (e) Also to improve the" strength and toughness. Cobalt is added- to improves the strength of the metal at high temperatures. Copper is added- for improving corrosion resistance of metals. ' The addition of alloys to metals improve their metal properties and hence, are used widely by industry
Reference Books:
molybdenum,

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Difference between Pure metal and Alloy: Pure metal

1. Pure metal are single phased materials Composing of elements that readily give up electrons to form a metallic bond. 2. E.g., Aluminum, copper etc. 3. Pure metal are rarely used in engineering applications because of the poor physical and mechanical properties. 4. Pure metals are difficult to produce, these are obtained by refining the ore 5. Pure metals possess high electrical and thermal conductivity.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Alloy: Alloys are formed by when two or more relatively pure metals are melted together to form a new material E.g, Steels, brasses, bronzes etc Alloys are used more predominantly in engineering applications as they bring a significant change in the properties of the base metal. These are easily formed by the blending of two or more elements. Alloys have better mechanical properties than pure metals.
Reference Books:

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Solid Solutions:
A simple structure of alloys is termed as a solid solution. This solid solution has two elements soluble in each other and exist in single phase in solid state.
The two elements are: The major element -called the solvent called The minor element -called he solute. called Types of solid solutions: (a) Substitutional solid solution (b) Interstitial solid solution.
Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

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Substitutional solid solution: In substitutional solid solution, the arrangement of the solute atoms may be disordered (random) or ordered. Solute atoms can be substituted for the solvent atoms in a crystal lattice for this system solutions. The addition of this will not change the crystal structure of the solvent, but there may be some distortion due to the presence of the solute atoms. This happens generally when there is a difference in the diameters' of the solute and solvent atoms. Example- The alloy for gold silver systems, the crystal structure for this is Face Centered Cubic (FCC) lattice. Silver atoms may be substituted for gold atoms and there will be no change in the lattice structure, it will be a FCC structure. In the same way, gold atoms can also be substituted for silver atoms without any change in the lattice structure. This entire system contain a series of solid solutions. When atoms of small atomic radii fit into the space of the lattice structure of the larger solvent atoms the interstitial solid solutions are formed . Due to the restriction in space size of the lattice structure only the atom that have an angstrom number less than one are capable of forming interstitial solid solutions. Examples : Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Hydrogen with 0.46AO, carbon with 0.77AO and oxygen with 0.6 AO This type of solid solutions have limited solubility with little importance. Carbon dissolving in iron is a good example. For this type the solubility of -iron (FCC) in carbon is at 11300 with 2% solubility which is maximum.
Reference Books:

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INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS Intermetallic compounds are generally formed when one metal (for example magnesium) has chemical properties which are strongly metallic and the other metal (for example antimony, tin or bismuth) has chemical properties which are only weakly metallic. Examples of intermetallic compounds are Mg2Sn, Mg2Pb, Mg3Sb2 and Mg3 Bi2. These intermetallic compounds have higher melting point than either of the parent metal. This higher melting point indicates the high strength of the chemical bond in intermetallic compounds. Substitutional solid solution Solute atoms can be substituted for the solvent atoms in a crystal lattice for this system solutions. The addition of this will not change the crystal structure of the solvent, but there may be some distortion due to the presence of the solute atoms. This happens generally when there is a difference in the diameters' of the solute and solvent atoms. Example- the alloy for gold silver systems, the crystal structure for this is Face Centered Cubic (FCC) lattice. Silver atoms may be substituted for gold atoms and there will be no change in the lattice structure, it will be a FCC structure. In the same way, gold atoms can also be substituted for silver atoms without any change in the lattice structure. This entire system contain a series of solid solutions.
Reference Books:

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Hume Rotherys Rules:
Some alloy systems exhibit complete solid solubility (e.g. Cu-Ni,Cd-Mg), and others show only limited solubility at any temperature. Several factors determine the limits of solubility. These are expressed as a series of rules often called William Hume-Rothery Rules. 1.Crystal structure factor For complete solid solubility, the two elements should have the same type of crystal structure . i.e., both elements should have either F.C.C. or B.C.C. or H.C.P. structure. 2.Atomic Size Factor (the 15%) Extensive substitutional solid solution occurs only if the relative difference between the atomic diameters (radii) of the two species is less than 15%. If the difference > 15%, the solubility is limited. Example: Both silver and lead have F.C.C. structure and the relative size factor is about 20 percent. Therefore the solubility of lead in solid silver is about 1.5 percent and the solubility of silver in solid lead is about 0.1 percent. Copper and nickel are completely soluble in each other in all proportions. They have the same type of crystal structure (F.C.C.) and differ in atomic radii by about 2 percent.
3.Relative valence factor:

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It is found that a metal of lower valence tends to dissolve more of a metal of higher valence than vice versa. Example : In aluminium-nickel alloy system- nickel (lower valance) dissolves 5 percent aluminium ,but aluminium (higher valence) dissolves only 0.04 percent nickel. 4.Chemical affinity factor: Solid solubility is favoured when the two metals have lesser chemical affinity. If the chemical affinity of the two metals is greater then greater is the tendency towards compound formation. Generally, if the two metals are separated in the periodic table widely then they possess greater chemical affinity and are very likely to form some type of compound instead of solid solution. Hume-Rothery rules can be applied for interstitial solid solutions: Interstitial solid solutions are formed if 1. a solute is smaller than pores in the lattice of a solvent; 2. a solute has approximately the same electronegativity as a solvent. There are very few elements that create ions, small enough to fit in interstitial positions, therefore, appreciable solubility is rare for interstitial solid solutions. Ions that often may be a solute in solid solutions are: H, Li, Na, B.
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Difference between alloy and intermetallic compound? If we take example of binary alloy and binary intermetallic compound then in case of binary intermetallic compound the position of two types of atoms in a particular lattice structure remain fixed but in case of binary alloy the atoms position is not fixed although they formed the same lattice structure but the position of two types of atoms may not fixed in the lattice. Difference between amalgam and alloys All combinations of different metals form alloys. An alloy composed by mercury and other metal is an amalgam. In dentistry, amalgams may be composed by 3, 4, 5 or even more elements, so they are called binary, ternary, etc. Traditional dental amalgams contain Mercury, Silver, Copper, Tin and sometimes Zinc. Other metals like Palladium or Indium have been added by a few manufacturers, to modify the physical properties of the alloy. Difference between an alloy and a compound An alloy is a substance composed of two or more elements, at least one is a metal. Generally alloys have metallic properties. If you want to make an alloy, you can add any element to a metal. Then it can form a solid solution or compound based on the valence rules. Compound is a phase which comes as a sub classification of an alloy. Further more, an alloy is based on metals. A compound can have any two metals as their components. For example, H2O is a compound but not an alloy. Difference between compound and elements An element is a pure substance composed of 1 type of atom. A compound is a pure substance composed of 2 or more types of atom chemically bonded together.
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Electron Compounds Electron to Atom Ratio It is the ratio of number of valance electrons to the number of atoms Solid solubility is affected by the relative valence of the elements. The ratio of the number of valence electrons per atom e/a, effects the solubility. Solutes that rise the e/a, generally have higher solubility than to those that lower the e/a. Far example" the solid solution of lithium in magnesium is 24.5 atomic percentage, whereas the solubility Of magnesium in lithium is 70 atomic percentage. Like wise the solubility of aluminum in copper is much greater than the solubility of copper in aluminum. There are three such ratios,referred as H-R ratios H
21/14,
21/13,
21/12

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e/a=21/13: Cu9Al4 valence electrons=9x1+4x3=21 Total number of atoms=13 e/a=6/4 Ag3Al valence electrons=3x1+1x3=6 Total number of atoms=04 e/a=7/4 CuZn3 valence electrons=1+2x3=7 Total number of atoms=4
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SYSTEM A part of the universe under study is called system. PHASE Phase is homogeneous, physically distinct and mechanically separable part of the system under study. VARIABLE A particular phase exists under various conditions of temperature, pressure and concentration. These parameters are called as the variables of the phase COMPONENT The elements present in the system are called as components. Eg : Cu - Al system contains compounds Cu Al and CuAI2 and therefore all compositions can be expressed by the molecular spaces of Cu and Al and hence it is a two component system, i.e. binary system. LIQUIDUS TEMPERATURE The start of solidification temperature is called liquidus temperature because above this, the metal or alloy is in the liquid state. SOLIDUS TEMPERATURE The end of solidification temperature is called solidus temperature because below this, the metal or alloy is in the solid state.
Reference Books:

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GIBS'S PHASE RULE: Phase equilibrium It refers to the set of conditions where more than one phase may exist An equilibrium state of solid system can be reflected in terms of characteristics of the microstructure, phases present and their compositions, relative phase amounts and their spatial arrangement or distribution. Variables of a system 3Variables Two external variables namely temperature and pressure along One Internal variable such as composition (C) and Number of phases (P). Number of independent variables among these gives the degrees of freedom (F) or variance. All these are related for a chosen system as follows: P+F=C+2 which is known as Gibbs Phase rule. The degrees of freedom cannot be less than zero . For practical purpose, in metallurgical and materials field, pressure can be considered as a constant, and thus the condensed phase rule is given as follows. P+F=C+1
Reference Books:

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COOLING CURVES - FOR PURE METALS
COOLING CURVES - BINARY SOLID SOLUTION ALLOYS
COOLING CURVES - BINARY EUTECTIC ALLOYS
FOR OFF--EUTECTIC BINARY ALLOYS EUTECTIC

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Reference Books:

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Equilibrium Diagrams :
It is a graphical representation of different -states of alloy system. It is also known as equilibrium or constitutional diagram It indicates the phases existing in the system at any temperature and composition Equilibrium diagrams can be plotted by using several techniques : Thermal analysis, Dialometry, Optical and electron microscopy, X-ray and electron diffraction, Thermodynamic data analysis, Electrical resistivity and Magnetic measurements.
Lever Rule :
It is used for finding out the amounts of phases existing in a binary system for a given alloy at any temperature under consideration.

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Let us Consider an isomorphous system (Systems in which two metals are completely soluble in liquid as well as solid state) of two metals A and B . Z -be the composition of the alloy under consideration and T- be the temperature at Which the amounts of phases are to be found out. CD-Tie line CF-arm of liquid, FD-arm of solid Total amount is assumed to be 1. Amount of solid be S and Amount of liquid (L) will be 1-S, The amount of B in the alloy = Amount of B in the solid + Amount of B in the liquid The composition of liquid is C, and
composition of solid is D Z = S x D + (1 - S) x C Z =SD+ C- SC Z - C = S (D - C)

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Problem: Find the amount of liquid and amount of solid for alloy composition of 60 percent B and 40 percent A at a temperature T.

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% Amount of solid=(UC/UV)X100==(30/60)X100=50 % % Amount of liquid=(CV/UV)X100==(30/60)X100=50 %
Reference Books:

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Basic types of Binary Alloy Systems : 1. Isomorphous systems: A system in which components are completely soluble in both liquid and solid state is called isomorphous system. 2. Eutectic systems: A system in which components are soluble in liquid state but insoluble or partially soluble in solid state
3. Peritectic systems: Two components having different melting points are involved and in which a liquid react with solid first formed to form a new solid on cooling is called peritectic system, and this reaction between solid and liquid called peritectic reaction tion
4. Eutectoid systems: A solid phase decomposes into two solid phases isothermally

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Reference Books:
1. Elements of Material science / V. Rahghavan 2. Science of Engineering Materials / Agarwal 3. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas terial

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Isomorphous systems A system in which components are completely soluble in both liquid and solid state is called isomorphous system . Phase diagram consists of three regions. (i) Liquid phase above liquidus line (ii) Liquid + solid phase between liquidus and solidus line (iii) Solid phase below solidus line
Eutectic systems Soluble in liquid state but insoluble in solid state C -melting temperatures of A G-melting temperatures of B CEG- liquidus line CDEFG- solidus line Region above CEG -only liquid phase Region between CE and DE -contains liquid phase and solid A, Region between GE and EF -contains liquid phase and solid B, Region at the left of EA and eutectic alloy and
Region at the right of E - B and eutectic alloy. During cooling, Eutectic transformation occurs at the line DF except at the points D and F.

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The composition indicated by point E is eutectic composition and temperature is eutectic temperature. Eutectic reaction takes place during cooling. In this reaction liquid transforms into two solids. The mixture of these solids is called eutectic mixture. So liquid phase, and two solid phases exist at eutectic point. Soluble in liquid state but partially soluble in solid state CEGCDEFG Liquidus line Solidus line.
Above CEG - Liquid phase and Below CDEFG Solid state.
Left of CDH and Right of GFK - Solid solution. Point D Point FHD,FKDEFEMaximum solubility of B in A Maximum solubility of A in B. Solvus lines Eutectic Arm Eutectic composition and Eutectic Temperature.
The lowest temperature at which the liquid can exist when cooled under equilibrium conditions is known as eutectic temperature (E). Terminal solid solutions -The regions of limited solid solubility at each end of a phase diagram ( + ) .They appear at ends of the diagram. When the liquid of eutectic composition is cooled, at or below eutectic temperature this liquid transforms simultaneously into two solid phases (two terminal solid solutions, represented by and ). Liquid (L) solid solution-1 () + solid solution-2 () The lowest temperature at which the liquid can exist when cooled under equilibrium conditions is known as eutectic temperature (E). Terminal solid solutions -The regions of limited solid solubility at each end of a phase diagram ( + ) .They appear at ends of the diagram.

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When the liquid of eutectic composition is cooled, at or below eutectic temperature this liquid transforms simultaneously into two solid phases (two terminal solid solutions, represented by and ). Liquid (L) solid solution-1 () + solid solution-2 () There exist Three single phase regions- liquid (L), and phases. There also exist three two phase regions -L+, L+ and +. These three two phase regions are separated by horizontal line corresponding to the eutectic temperature Below the eutectic temperature, the material is fully solid for all compositions. Hypo-eutectic compositions -Compositions that are on left-hand-side of the eutectic composition Hyper-eutectic compositions- compositions on right-hand-side of the eutectic composition Compositions and relative amount of the phases can be determined using tie-lines and lever rule
Reference Books:

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EUTECTOID REACTION A solid phase decomposes into two solid phases isothermally A solid phase (usually a solid solution) is converted into two or more intimately mixed solids on cooling. The number of solids formed being the same as the number of components in the system. Examples: Cu - Al , Cu - Zn, Al - Mn , Cu - Be etc. As it is slowly cooled, solid solution is formed when the liquidus line is crossed at YI. More and more is formed until the solidus line is crossed at Y2 It remains a uniform solid solution until the solvus line is crossed at Y3 The pure metal A must now start to undergo an allotropic change, forming the solid solution. The composition of is gradually moving down and along the line ME, solution comes richer in metal B. When alloy reaches the eutectoid temperature Te, the reaches eutectoid point E. The microstructure at room temperature consists of primary for pro eutectoid which was formed between Y3 and Y4 surrounded by the eutectoid mixture of + Practical example of the eutectoid reaction occurs in the Fe-Carbon system
Reference Books:

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Types of Metals and Alloys Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds Ferrous- In which iron (Fe) is the principle constituent. ) Non-Ferrous Materials- All other materials Alloys of copper, aluminium, magnesium, nickel, Another classification is made based on their formability. Cast alloys- If materials are hard to form, components with these materials are fabricated by casting, d Wrought alloys - Material can be deformed. Materials are usually strengthened by two methods Cold work and Heat Treatment. Cold Strengthening by heat treatment involves either precipitation hardening or martensitic transformation, both of which constitute specific heat treating procedure. When a material ich cannot be strengthened by heat treatment, it is referred as non non-heat-treatable alloys. treatable zinc, tin, lead, etc.
Ferrous alloys with less than 2.14% C are termed as Steels. Ferrous alloys with higher than 2.14% C ar termed as Cast Irons are Cast Iron - Alloy of Iron and Carbon with more than 2.0% carbon. lloy
Most cast irons contains : Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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2.5 to 3.7% Carbon, 0.5 to 3.0% Silicon and Other elements as impurities.i.e., Mn,S,P Cast iron is widely used for cast components for which are not required to withstand impact or shock loads. It has many advantages over steel as a casting metal Advantages are: 1.Low melting point approximately 12000C (melting point of steel is about 1380C) and good machinability. 2. High fluidity and low shinkage on cooling, 3. Better corrosion and wear resistance than steel. 4. High compression strength and castings can withstand to heavy weights placed upon them. 5. Free graphite in cast iron can acts as a lubricant to reduce the friction between sliding surfaces. (machine tool slide ways) 6. It is an inexpensive materials. 7. High damping capacity The main disadvantages of cast iron are : It is brittle. It cannot be forged or hardened, and It is very weak in tension
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COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON
Carbon : Free Carbon (graphite) Results Low Tensile Strength and Low Impact values. (graphite)-Results Graphite Flakes act as Lubricants Combined form (cementite)-makes it very hard, brittle and almost unmachinable. very hard makes and wear resistant Silicon : Tends to destabilise cement ie., produce graphite Improves casting properties by increasing the fluidity and decreasing shrinkage Manganese : Reduce the effect of sulphur,Refine the grains, and Increases strength and hardness Sulphur : Increases the brittleness, Increases shrinkages, Decreases fluidity Phosphorus : Improves the fluidity and decreases shrinkage
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GREY CAST IRON CHARACTERISTICS: Grey iron basically is an alloy of carbon and silicon with iron. It is readily cast into a desired shape in a sand mould. Graphite flakes occupy about 10%of the metal volume When fractured, a bar of gray cast iron gives gray appearance. Possesses high fluidity and hence it can be cast into complex shapes and thin sections. It possesses machinability better than steel. It has high resistance to wear (including sliding wear), It possess high vibration damping capacity. Grey iron has low ductility and low impact strength as compared with steel Solidification range of2400 - 20000F. Shrinkage of 1/8 inch/foot (1 mm / 100 mm). Possesses high compressive strength USES : Machine tool structures -Gas or water pipes for underground purposes. Manhole covers Tunnel segment Cylinder blocks and heads for I.c. engines. Piston rings - Rolling mill and general machinery
parts - Household appliances, MALLEABLE CAST IRON CHARACTERISTICS: It is one which can be hammered and rolled to obtain different shapes It is obtained from hard and brittle white iron through a controlled heat conversion process. It possesses high yield strength. It has high young's modulus and low coefficient of thermal expansion. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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It possesses good wear resistance and vibration damping capacity. It has a solidification ranges of2500 - 2065F It has shrinkage of 3/16 inch per foot (1.5 mm / 100 mm). It has low to moderate cost. USES : Automotive industry. Rail road. Electrical line hardware. Agricultural implements. Gear case.
Conveyor chain links.
Universal joint yoke. Rear axle banjo housing. Truck tandem axle assembly parts. Automotive crankshaft. Crankshaft sprocket etc.
Reference Books:

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White Cast Iron CHARACTERISTICS: White cast iron derives its name from the fact that its freshly broken surface shows a bright white fracture. Possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance Under normal circumstances is brittle and not machinable Castings can be made in sand moulds Solidification range of white iron is 2550 - 2065F. Shrinkage is 1/8 inch per foot (1 mm / 100 mm). First step in the production of malleable iron castings. USES : For producing malleable iron castings. For manufacturing those component parts which require a hard and abrasion resistant material Nodular (Spheroidal) Cast Iron CHARACTERISTICS: Unlike long flakes as in gray cast iron, graphite appears as rounded particles, or nodules or spheroids in Nodular cast iron. When added to melt eliminate sulphur and oxygen Soft annealed grades of nodular cast iron can be turned at very high feeds and speeds The properties of nodular cast iron depend upon the metal composition and the cooling rate. It possesses damping capacity intermediate between cast iron and steel. It possesses excellent castability and wear resistance. USES : Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Paper industries machinery. Power transmission equipment. Earth moving machinery.
Internal combustion engines. Farm implements and tractors. Valves and fittings.
Steel mill rolls and mill equipment. Pumps and compressors. Construction machinery
Reference Books:

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ALLOY CAST IRONS Cast irons Have low values of
Impact resistance, Corrosion resistance, and Temperature resistance. These properties are increased by adding certain alloying elements in suitable amount. Most common alloying elements - Ni , Cr , Mo , V, Cu and Si. Ni-Hard: The hardness and wear resistance of white cast iron is increased by the addition of nickel and chromium with improvement in toughness. If only nickel is added for the above purpose, there is a danger of graphitization because nickel is a graphitizer. To avoid the risk of graphitization, chromium is added which is a carbide former. Ni-Hard: Modified Ni-hard : Ni-Resist : Increase the corrosion resistance of a gray or nodular cast iron Contains 14 to 36% nickel and 1 to 5% chromium Microstructure consists of flakes or nodules C graphite Used in applications requiring high corrosion, erosion, and heat resistance
Reference Books:
3 to 5% nickel and 1 to 3% chromium. 4 to 8% nickel and 4 to 15% chromium .

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STEELS: Steels are alloys of iron and carbon plus other alloying elements. In steels, carbon present in atomic form, and occupies interstitial sites of Fe microstructure. Alloying additions are necessary for many reasons including: Improving properties, Improving corrosion resistance, etc.
Steels are classified based on their Carbon content Steels are basically three kinds Low-carbon steels (% wt of C < 0.3), Medium carbon steels (0.3 <% wt of C < 0.6) and High-carbon steels (% wt of C > 0.6). The other parameter available for classification of steels is amount of alloying additions. Based on this steels are two kinds: (Plain) carbon steels and Alloy-steels.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS (PLAIN CARBON STEELS) (1) Amount of carbon (a) Low carbon steels (b) Medium carbon steels (c) High Carbon steels (2) Amount of alloying elements and carbon (a) Low Alloy steels (Alloy element < 10%) (b) High Alloy steels (Alloy elements>10%) (3) Amount of deoxidization (a) Rimmed steels (b) Killed steels (c) Semi killed steels (4) Grain coarsening characteristics Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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(a) Coarse grained steels (b) Fine grained steels (5) Method of manufacture (a) Basic open hearth (b) Electric furnace (c) Basic oxygen process (d) Acid open hearth (e) Acid bessemes (6) Depth of hardening (a)Non hardenable steels (b) Shallow hardening steels (c) Deep hardening steels (7) On the basis of form and use (a) Cast steels (b) Wrough steels
Reference Books:

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Composition of Plain Carbon Steel
American Iron and Steel Institution (AISI) adopted and expanded the standardization for steel used in the automotive industry which was provided by Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Denoted by four digit number: First digit Second digitLast two digitsMajor alloying elements, Primary alloying element Carbon content in percentage value.
LOW CARBON STEELS(OR) MILD STEELS These are produced in the greatest quantities than other alloys. Carbon present in these alloys is limited, and is not enough to strengthen these these materials by heat treatment; hence these alloys are strengthened by cold work. Their microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, These alloys are thus relatively soft, ductile combined with high toughness. Hence these materials are easily machinable and weldable. Typical applications of these alloys: structural shapes, tin cans, Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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automobile body components, buildings, etc. A special group of ferrous alloys with noticeable amount of alloying additions are known as HSLA (high-strength low-alloy) steels. Common alloying elements are: Cu, V, Ni, W, Cr, Mo, etc. These alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment, and yet the same time they are ductile, formable. Typical applications of these HSLA steels include: support columns, bridges, pressure vessels.
Reference Books:

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Medium carbon steels These are stronger than low carbon steels. However these are of less ductile than low carbon steels. These alloys can be heat treated to improve their strength. Usual heat treatment cycle consists of austenitizing, quenching, and tempering at suitable conditions to acquire required hardness. They are often used in tempered condition. As hardenability of these alloys is low, only thin sections can be heat treated using very high quench rates. Ni, Cr and Mo alloying additions improve their hardenability. Typical applications include: Railway tracks & wheels, gears, other machine parts which may require good combination of strength and toughness. High carbon steels These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels, and of course their ductility is very limited. These are heat treatable, and mostly used in hardened and tempered conditions. They possess very high wear resistance, and capable of holding sharp edges. Thus these are used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc. With addition of alloying element like Cr, V, Mo, W which forms hard carbides by reacting with carbon present, wear resistance of high carbon steels can be improved considerably. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ALLOY STEEL ADVANTAGES : Greater hardenability Less distortion and Cracking Greater stress relief at given hardness
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polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com
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Less grain growth Higher elastic ratio and endurance stength Greater high temperature strength Better machinabillty,atbigh hardness DISADVANTAGES : Cost Special handing Tendency to ward austenite retention Temper brittleness in certain grades PURPOSE OF ALLOYING 1. Strengthening of the ferrite 2. Improved corrosion resistance 3. Better hardenability 4. Grain size control 5. Greater strength 6. Improved machinability 7. Improved high or low temperature stability 8. Improved ductility 9. Improved toughness 10. Better wear resistance 11. Improved cutting ability 12. Improved case hardening properties etc.
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polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com
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TOOL STEELS Tool and Die steels may be defined as special steels which have been developed to form, cut or otherwise change the shape of a material in to a finished or semi finished product. Properties of tool steels : (i) slight change ofform during hardening (ii) Little risk of cracking during hardening (iii) Good toughness (iv) Good wear resistance (v) Very good machinability (vi) A definite cooling rate during hardening (vii) A definite hardening temperature (viii) A good degree of through hardening (ix) Resistance to decarburization (x) Resistance to softening on heating (red hardness). Classification tool steels The Joint Industry Conference (He), USA has classified tool steels as follows:

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Example: W8 means water hardening steel with 0.8% C. INDIAN STANDARD CODE FOR DESIGNATIONOF PLAIN AND ALLOYSTEELS Steels have been classified on the basis of: (i) Mechanical properties, and (iij Chemical composition Designation of steel on the basis of mechanical properties such as tensile strength or yield stress Method of deoxidation : R - Rimming steel K - Killed steel No symbol - Semi Semi-killed steel Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Quality of steel : QI - Non-ageingquality ageingquality Q2 - Freedom from flakes Q3 - Given size controlled Q4 - Inclusions controlled Q5 - Internal homogenity guaranteed Sulphur and Phosphorus content: No symbol - 0.055% and 0.025 % S P25 - 0.025 % P and 0.025 % S P70 - 0.07 % P and 0.07% S Weldability guarantee : W = Fusion weldable steel WI = Steel weldable by resistance welding but not fusion weldable Formability : Drawingquality D1 -Drawingquality D2 - Deepdrawingquality D3 - Extra deep drawing quality
High alloy steels (total alloying elements> 10%)
Alloy tool steels

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Reference Books:

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Heat Treatment Of Alloys The properties of steel depends on the composition and its structure. These properties can be improved by either changing its composition (i.e. alloying) or its structure. The structure of steel and thus the properties can be changed by heat treatment. It is the most important method of strengthening the metals. It involves heating the metal within the solid state. The temperature and time of heating must be strictly controlled, because, it has an effect on grain size.
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After attaining desired uniform temperature throughout, the metal is cooled at specified rate. Mechanical properties are significantly affected by the rate of cooling. Heat Treatment can be defined as the process of changing the structure and properties of metals and alloys by controlled heating and cooling. etals There are three stages of heat treatment . (I) Heating to required temperature. (2) Holding at this temperature for a period of time to attain uniform temperature throughout the section. This stage is c called soaking. (3) Cooling the steel at specified rate.
The major considerations are to produce a satisfactory combination of microstructure and mechanical properties so that the metal can fulfill its intended purpose. Relieving internal stresses, and softening for further deformation. Refining the grain size to improve mechanical properties. Improving the machinability. Altering the surface conditions, and Increasing the corrosion and wear resistance.
Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gm
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Heat treatment effects mechanical properties by changing the structure and grain size. Heat treatment of steel involves a combination of heating, holding and cooling at controlled rates to produce the desired conditions.
Reference Books: 1. Elements of Material science / V. Rahghavan 2. Science of Engineering Materials / Agarwal 3. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas
Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gm
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Annealing
Annealing can be defined as a heat treatment process in which the material is taken to a high temperature, kept there for some time and then cooled. Benefits of annealing are: Relieve stresses Increase softness, ductility and toughness Produce a specific microstructure Depending on the specific purpose, annealing is classified into various types:
(I) Full annealing (2) Process annealing (Recrystallisation annealing) (3) Spheroidise annealing (4) Isothermal annealing
Full annealing :Heating the steel to austenite phase and then cooling slowly within a closed furnace by putting-off the heat supply.
Process annealing : Heating the steel to a temperature 600 - 700 (i.e. below critical point, A1) holding at this temperature for a prolonged period and slow cooling.
Spheroidise annealing :Heating the steel just above the lower critical temperature (730 770) and prolonged holding at this temperature followed by slow cooling to 660C within the furnace Isothermal annealing :Steel is heated above the upper critical temperature and held for a certain time at this temperature to form austenite. Then the steel is suddenly cooled to a temperature 50 to 100Cbelow lower critical temperature.
Term isothermal is associated with transformation of austenite at constant temperature. Defined as the process of heating the steel to austenite phase and then cooling slowly within a closed furnace by putting-off the heat supply.
(i) Heating the hypo-eutectoid steel to a temperature 30OC to 50C above A3 (upper critical point) and the same amount above A1.3 (lower critical point) for hypereutectoid steel. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com Page 64
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(ii) holding at this temperature for sufficient time to allow necessary changes to occur (i.e. to obtain austenite structure throughout the volume) and then, (iii) slow cooling in the furnace.
It is commonly employed for castings and forgings to reduce the coarse grain structure prior to machining Purposes of full annealing : (i) To soften the steel, (ii) To relieve the internal stress, (iii) To improve machinability, (iv) To refine the grains, and (v) To reduce the hardness.
After annealing steel becomes more ductile
Heating the steel to a temperature 600 - 700 (i.e. below critical point,A1) holding at this temperature for a prolonged period and slow cooling. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com Page 65
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(i) to reduce the distortion of the crystal lattice produced by cold working. (ii) to remove the strain hardening i.e., improve the ductility. (iii) to relieve the internal stresses, and (iv) to obtain a homogeneous fine-grained structure.
The process annealing is used extensively in the treatment of sheet and wires. It is also applied to cold worked steel in order to restore ductility and softness.
Spheroidise Annealing
The spheroidised structure has lowest hardness and strength but good machinability, toughness and ductility. Heating the steel just above the lower critical temperature (730 - 770 and prolonged 770) holding at this temperature followed by slow cooling to 660C within the furnace. ithin The subsequent cooling maybe conducted in still air. This results in a completely spheroidised structure This process is applied to high carbon steel and alloy steel to improve machinability and ductility
Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com
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The steel is heated above the upper critical temperature and held for a certain time at this temperature to form austenite. Then the steel is suddenly cooled to a temperature 50 to 100Cbelow lower critical temperature.
At this temperature the austenite is completely decomposed to form pearlite. It is widely employed for reducing the hardness of alloy steel. The major limitation of the process is that, it is suitable only for small components.
Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com
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Normalising Process of heating the steel to above the upper critical temperature (810 - 930C) followed by cooling in still air.
Purpose: (i) to relieve the internal stresses. (iii) to improve the machinability. (ii) to refine the grain structure. (iv) to improve strength and toughness.
Normalising consists of : (i)Heating the steel 30 to 50C above upper critical temperature (A3 for hypo hypo-eutectoid steel and Acm for hyper-eutectoid steel). eutectoid (ii) Holding at this temperature for shorter time to prevent grain growth. But the time allowed ure should be sufficient so that the temperature is uniform throughout the section, and (iii) Cooling in air: The cooling rate is the major difference between normalising is similar to that of annealing. But, slightly more rapid cooling results in finer grained structure than for annealing.
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Hardening
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Process of heating steel to austenite phase following by rapid cooling in a liquid bath such as water or oil. Consists of heating the steel to a temperature 30 to 500 above A3 point for hypoeutectoid steels and 30 to 50 above A 1,3 point for hypereutectoid steel, holding at this temperature for considerable time to complete phase transformation and sudden cooling in water or oil
Purpose: The purposes of hardening followed by tempering are: (i) to develop high hardness, wear resistance and ability to cut other materials. (ii) to improve strength and toughness It not suitable for industrial applications because of the following reasons: Martensite obtained due to quenching is extremely brittle and is not stable. Quenching produces high internal stresses in the hardening steel which results heavy distortions and cracking of the part in service Tempering
Process of heating hardened steel to a temperature below lower critical temperature, followed by cooling. Tempering renders the steel tough and ductile. The hardening increases strength and hardness in steel, but decreases ductility and toughness i.e. imparts brittleness. Thus the steel under hardened condition is rarely used and is subsequently tempered to relieve brittleness The main purposes of tempering are: (i) to reduce the thermal stresses. (ii) to stabilise the structure of the metal. (iii) to reduce the brittleness, and (iv) to increase the toughness and ductility. The tempering temperature must not exceed the critical point, as the steel would become austenite and the benefits of hardening treatment would be lost. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com
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CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPERING PROCESSES: Low-temperature tempering (150-250C). Cutting tools, measuring tools and the parts that .have been carburised and surface hardened. Medium-temperature tempering (350 - 450C). Commonly employed for coils and laminated springs. High-temperature tempering (500 - 650C). Applied to gear wheels, axles shaft and connecting rods.
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THE JOMINY (END-QUENCH) TEST Hardenability is the ease with which a steel piece can be hardened by martensitic transformation Or It is the depth of hardening produced under the given conditions of cooling. It is evaluated by determining the minimum cooling rate to transform an austenitized steel to a structure that is predominately or entirely martensitic, Or By determining the thickness of the largest steel section that can be converted to such a structure under the given conditions of cooling.
Hardenability is most commonly measured by the Jominy end quench test.
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The specimen is of cylindrical shape with 25 mm (1.0 inch) diameter and approximately 100mm (4.0 inch) in length and has a machined shoulder (or a fitted detachable collar ring) at one end. The above specimen is austenitized at a constant temperature for a fixed time and quickly transferred to a fixture (quenching) Water is allowed to flow on the bottom end through a pipe for about 20 minutes.
At this pressure, water forms a complete umbrella over the bottom surface of the specimen. The temperature of water should be between 21 and 27C.
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The cooling rate is maximum at the quenched end of the specimen where usually full hardening occurs and diminishes steadily towards the air cooled end where the structure is nearly equivalent to that produced by normalising;
The hardness (VPN or RC) is measured at intervals of 1.6 mm (1/16inch) distance from the quenchedend. The hardness values are plotted as function of distance trom the quenched end and the resulting-curveis called as Jominy Hardenability curve. The hardness changes most rapidly at a location where the structure is 50% martensite.
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Surface hardening Surface layers of the steel parts are heated to the hardening temperature and it is then quenched in water or some other medium.
Many important industrial products such as cams, gears, camshafts, piston pins, etc. should have a hard, wear resistant surface and a tough core. Such conditions in the steel are obtained by the following two methods. 1.Surface hardening: Only the surface layers of the steel parts are heated to the hardening temperature ce and it is then quenched in water or some other medium. It requires appreciably less time. Since only a small portion of the component is heated there is a minimum tendency to crack. (i)Flame hardening, (ii)Induction hardening. 2. Chemical heat treatment: In which the composition of surface layers is altered to make it hard and wear resistanceand it is also called as case hardening. (i) Carburising. (ii)Nitriding. (iii) Cyanidi and carbonitriding. Cyaniding
Carburising : Introducing carbon into surface of the steel
Nitriding : Introducing nitrogen into the surface of the steel.
Cyaniding :Both carbon and nitrogen are added to the surface layers of the steel. added Decomposition of molten cyanides salts Carbonitriding : Addition of carbon and nitrogen Gaseous mixture of ammonia and hydro hydro-carbons.
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Flame Hardening
Consists of heating the metal surface by using an oxyacetylene flame. Only a thin layer of the heated surface is brought to the hardening temperature. The flame is followed by a stream of cold water which quenches the heated layer of metal and there by hardens . Small parts may be heated individually and then quenched. Parts of cylindrical shape may be slowly rotated and heated by exposing their surfaces to the flame of the torch. Parts which may be flame-hardened successfully include machine tool beds, gears, cams and camshafts. Induction hardening
The procedure for induction hardening is the same as flame hardening. High temperature is produced by high frequency alternating current. The surface to be hardened is enclosed (with out contact) in an induction coil. The passage of current through the coil causes induced current to heat the steel very rapidly to the hardening range, and is immediately followed by spray quenching. The process of surface hardening by induction is expensive. However, when large quantities of identical parts are to be surface hardened, this process is economical and efficient. e.g., crank shafts, transmission shafts, cam shaft, connecting rods,
gears, spindles cylinders, etc.
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Carburising
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Introducing carbon into surface of the steel. Carburising is most widely used for securing hard; wear resistant surface and a tough core. In this process, low-carbon or low-carbon alloy steel is heated in contact with carbon Carbonaceous material from which the steel absorbs carbon. Solid Carburising or Pack Carburising :
The components are placed in a heat resistant alloy box filled with carburiser (charcoal) mixed with an energiser (barium carbonate or sodium carbonate). sodium The filled box is closed with a steel cover and it is heated to about 940C. At that temperature oxygen (air in the box) combines with carbon to form carbon monoxide and is decomposed. Gas Carburising : Tight sealed furnace chamber filled with a carburising gas such as methane CH4 and propane with C3H8. The parts are heated in furnace to the temperature of 900 - 950C. At this temperature, hydrocarbons decompose with the formation of free carbon. The steel surface absorb the carbon, liberated in the process. The advantages of gas carburising are: (i) Operation time is less.(ii) Plant is more compact for given output.(iii) Carbon content of the surface layers can be controlled easily, and(iv) The process is very suitable for mass production. Nitriding Introducing of nitrogen into the surface of the steel. Nitriding is usually done at 500 - 600C. Parts (machined to accurate size and heat treated) are placed in a gas gas-tight chamber through which ammonia is allowed to circulate. In this temperature interval ammonia dissociates according to the following reaction. nterval The atomic nitrogen combines with elements in the steel to form nitrides. This gives extreme hardness to the surface Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam polarao@yahoo.com,rpolarao@gmail.com
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Quenching is not required for development of hardness and therefore the parts do not tend to crack. Since the parts are slow cooled, no further heat treatment is required. Nitriding increases the wear resistance, corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of the steel. Since nitriding is done at low temperature it requires more time than gas carburising.
Cyaniding:
Case hardening process in which both carbon and nitrogen are added to the surface layers of the steel. The process is based on the decomposition of molten cyanides salts with the formation of free atoms of carbon and nitrogen which diffuse into the surface. The steel to be casehardened is placed in the molten salt bath (maintained at 800C to 900C) consisting of about 40% sodium cyanide, with about 60% of barium carbonate and sodium chloride. At this temperature the steel will absorb carbon and nitrogen from the bath. The usual depth of a cyanide case is about 0.1 to 0.3 mm.
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Carbonitriding
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Involves the addition of carbon and nitrogen (in a single operation) by heating the steel in a gaseous mixture of ammonia and hydro hydro-carbons. This processes increase the surface, wear resistance and fatigue limit. e.g., gears, pistons, pins, small shafts, etc.
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Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys: Metallic materials are divided into two large groups namely ferrous and nonferrous. The iron based materials are called as ferrous materials and the materials which have same element other than iron as the principle constituent are called as nonferrous materials. The most extensively used non ferrous materials are alloys of copper, aluminium, magnesium, nickel, zinc, tin, lead, etc. COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS Properties: I. Good ductility and malleability because of its FCC structure 2. High electrical and thermal conductivity 3. Non magnetic 4. Pleasing reddish color . 5. Ability of getting alloyed with many other metals which helps in improving its properties 6. Good corrosion resistance to atmosphere. Applications of Pure Copper: 1. Electrical conductor 4. Roofs 2. Bus bars 5. Pressure vessels 3. Automobile radiators 6. Kettles 7. Utensils.
Classification of Copper Alooys: Four Groups (a) Brasses (b) Bronzes (c) Cupronickels (d) Nickel silvers
Brasses : Copper and Zinc and containing more than 5 percent zinc Bronzes : Alloys of copper with all other elements except zinc. Alloys of copper and tin, aluminium, silicon, or berylium Cupronickels : Alloys of copper and nickel are called cupro nickels and Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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contain upto 30 percent nickel Nickel silvers : Alloys of copper, nickel and zinc
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Brasses : (a) brasses or Red brasses : contain zinc upto 36%. -brasses : having 5 to 22 percent zinc are reddish in colour and are called as red brasses. brasses: having zinc content between 20 and 36 percent are yellow in colour and are called yellow brasses. Commercial Brass: contains 90 percent copper and 10percent zinc. used for rivets,screws,jewellary Cartridge Brass : 70 percent copper and 30 percent zinc. used for making cartridge cases, house hold articles, radiator fins, lamp ,fixtures, etc. Admirality Brass: contains 70 percent copper, 29 percent zinc and 1 percent tin. used for propellers and marine works. Aluminium Brass: 76 percent copper, 22 percent zinc and 2 percent aluminium . extensively used for marine works (b ) (+ ) brasses: contain copper between 54 and 62 percent. Muntz Metal: Contains 60 percent copper and 40 percent zinc. It has high strength and excellent hot working properties. Extensively used for marine fittings, consider heads, radiator cores, springs, chains, etc. Naval Brass: Contains 60 percent copper, 39 percent zinc and 1 percent tin. It has high corrosion and abrasion resistances . Widely used for condenser plates, propeller shafts and in marine works. Season Cracking of Brasses : Season cracking occurs when a cold worked component containing Internal tensile stresses is in service for some time. Internal tensile stresses are developed due to deep drawing, pressing etc.

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The presence of the internal stresses makes that area more susceptible to corrosion w.r.t other area. This increased tendency of corrosion leads to disintegration and failure of component by inter granular corrosion process. This feature is known as season cracking. Season cracking is avoided by annealing the component at a temperature of 280 - 300C. Only high zinc brasses are attacked by season cracking.
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Bronzes : Copper with all other elements except zinc are called bronzes. Most important bronzes are alloys of copper and tin, aluminium, silicon, or berylium. These may also contain phosphorus, lead, zinc or nickel. Tin Bronzes or Phosphor Bronzes :Alloys of copper and tin and contain tin between 1 and 11 percent. Possess high strength, toughness, high corrosion resistance, low coefficient of friction and do not susceptible to season cracking. Used for bushes, cotter pins, clutch disks, springs, taps, marine pumps, etc. Tin bronzes have good castability and are widely used in the foundry. Gun Metal: Contains 88 percent copper, 10 percent tin and 2 percent zinc. It has considerable strength and toughness and resistance to sea water corrosion. It is used for bushes, nuts, hydraulic fittings, heavy load bearings, marine pumps, etc. Aluminium Bronzes : Contain aluminium between 4 and II percent Have good cold working properties, good strength and good corrosion resistance. These are used for corrosion resistant vessels, nuts, condenser tubes, bolts, etc. Heat treated aluminium bronzes are used for gears, propellers, pumps parts, bearings, bushings, drawing and forming dies Silicon Bronzes : Contain 90 to 97 percent copper. 1 to 4 percent silicon and small amounts of zinc, iron and manganese. The thermal and electrical conductivity of these alloys is about 10 percent of that of pure copper.

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Silicon bronzes have mechanical properties comparable to that of mild steel and corrosion resistance comparable to that of pure copper. These are used for storage vessels for chemical and gases,marine construction, bolts, nuts, rivets, etc. Beryllium Bronzes : Beryllium bronzes contain 1.5 to 2.25 percent of Beryllium. These alloys can be easily cast, can be easily hot or cold worked and can be easily welded. Like aluminium alloys, beryllium bronzes can be age hardened Used for diaphragms ,springs, surgical and dental instruments, gears,watch parts, screws, bearings, etc Cupronickel: Alloys of copper and nickel . Contain upto 30 percent nickel. 25% nickel alloys are used for utensils, coinage and in ships. 30percentnickelalloy containing 1 percent manganese and 1percent iron can be cast into small castings. These are used in pumps, valves, condenser, tubes due to its good resistance to corrosion by sea water. Constantan : Constantan is a copper alloy containing 40 percent nickel, 1 percent manganese and the rest copper. Used for rheostats, thermo couples and heating devices operating at moderately high temperatures Nickel Silver or German Silver: Alloys of copper, nickel and zinc and contain 20 to 30 percent nickel, 10 to 30 percent Zinc and the balance copper. The appearance of these alloys is similar to silver and possess good corrosion resistant characteristics. These are mainly used for utensils, costume jewellary, name plates, etc.
Reference Books: Elements of Material science / V. Rahghavan
1. Science of Engineering Materials / Agarwal 2. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS It has several excellent properties as below: It is ductile and malleable due to FCC structure It is light in weight It has very good thermal and electrical conductivity It has excellent ability of getting alloyed with other elements like Cu , Si, Mg , Mn , Zn, etc It has excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance. This is due to the formation of Al2O3 film on the metal surface. Al2O3 is non-toxic which makes the metal suitable for food packaging purpose. It is powerful deoxidiser It is also used in permanent magnets, shape-memory alloys and space alloys due to its many other peculiar properties Used for cooking utensils, combs, collar buttons, toasters, mixers, electrical conductors, food containers, paint, name plates, ashtrays, flowers pots, etc. It is also used in transportation industry in the manufacture of bicycles, motorcycles, trucks and buses, aeroplanes and marine vessels The aluminium-silicon alloys : Are widely used for the production of castings due to their excellent fluidity and casting characteristics. The properties of aluminium-silicon alloys depend on the amount of silicon. Higher the silicon content, better are mechanical properties, better is the corrosion and oxidation resistance and lower is the coefficient of thermal expansion with improved fluidity and casting characteristics.
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Reference Books:
Elements of Material science / V. Rahghavan Science of Engineering Materials / Agarwal Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Aluminium-Manganese alloys: Magnalium It is highly resistant to corrosion, machines well and takes a high polish, and anodises well. It has fairly good strength and is particularly suitable in marine environments. Aluminium-Copper alloys: LM 11 (4.5% Cu) is a precipitation hardenable alloy and produces good strength after precipitation hardening. It is mainly used for aircraft castings and for other highly stressed parts due to its good mechanical properties and shock resistance. Y-Alloy: This is a high strength aluminium alloy and contains about 4% copper, 2% nickel and 1.5% magnesIUm. It has an excellent ability to retain the strength at elevated temperatures with fairly good corrosion resistance. It can be easily cast and rolled, but it is chiefly used in the cast form. It is mainly used for pistons and cylinder heads of diesel and high duty petrol engines. Hinduminium: It contains about 5% Cu and 1.5%Ni with small amounts of Mn , Ti , Sb , Co and Zr. It is superior toy-alloy at elevated temperature service particularly in respect of creep resistance. It is used in aero engines and other continuous elevated temperature service applications upto 300C.
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Titanium and its alloys: Titanium is the fourth most abundant metallic element in the earth's rust. Unfortunately, winning the metal from its ore is complicated and costly. Titanium is one of the few allotropic metals (steel is a:1other);that is, it can exist in two different Crystallographic forms. At room temperature, it has a close-packed hexagonal structure, designated as the Alpha phase. At around 885C, the alpha phase transforms to a body-centered cubic structure, known as the betaphase, which is stable upto titanium's melting point of about 1680C The presence of a thin, tough oxide surface film provides excellent resistance to atmospheric and sea environments as well as a wide range of chemicals, including chlorine and organics containing chlorides. Being near the cathodic end of the galvanic senes, titanium performs the function of a noble metal. Other notable properties are a higher melting point than iron, low thermal conductivity, low coefficient of expansion, and high electrical resistivity Alpha Alloys : These alloys contain such alloying elements as aluminum tin, columbium, zirconium, vanadium, and molybdenum in amounts varying from about I to 10percent. They are non heat-treatable, having good stability upto 540C and down as low as 220C . They have a good combination of weldability, strength,and toughness. The 5 percent aluminium and 25 percent tin alloy, perhaps, the most widely used alpha alloy,has been employed in numerous space and aircraft applications. It has a strength at room temperature of 8400 kg/cm2, acceptable ductility and is useful at temperatures upto 430 and 540C. In addition, it has good oxidation resistance, and good weldability and formability.
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Reference Books:
1. Elements of Material science / V. Rahghavan 2. Science of Engineering Materials / Agarwal 3. Material Science -Prof. Satish V. Kailas Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Alpha-Beta Alloy: It is the largest and most widely used group of titanium alloys. Because these alloys are a two-phase combination of alpha and beta alloys, their behavior falls in a range between the two single-phase alloys. They are heat-treatable, useful upto 430C, more formable than alpha alloys, but less tough and more difficult to weld Beta Alloys: Although the beta alloys have exceptionally high strengths - over 14085 kg/cm2 - their lack of toughness and low fatigue strength limits their use. They retain an unusually high percentage of strength upto320C, but cannot be used at much higher temperatures, and they become brittle at temperatures below -400C.
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ABRASIVE:
Abrasive is a small ,non metallic hard particle having sharp
edge and irregular shape .
They are capable of removing small amounts of material from a surface in form of small chips. In modern industry , the use of abrasives contributed to produce the components with close tolerance and good surface finishes . Hence abrasives are used for such operations as scratching , grinding, cutting, rubbing and polishing. CLASSIFICATION: Abrasives used in industries are classified under : 1. Hard 2.Siliceous 3.Soft 4. Artificial HARD ABRASIVES: Hard abrasives are diamond, corundum , emery and garnet. DIAMOND: Diamond is a crystalline form of carbon found in nature .It is the hardest material. Diamond therefore used for those applications where the life of other abrasives is poor. Typical applications are in brick and concrete saws , wire drawing dyes, diamond
drills for drilling hard rocks and cutter for cutters for machining hard metals like any abrasives CORUNDUM: Corundum is aluminium oxide. This is used in grinding glasses and making grinding wheels. EMERY: Emery is a mixture of corundum and magnetic. This is used cheaply in making grinding wheels , polishing glass and other materials. GARNET: Garnet is either alamandite or grossularite .It is mainly used for rough polishing plate glass
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SILICEOUS ABRASIVES:
Siliceous abrasives are Quartz , Flint, Quartzite ,Sand stone , plumice which are all composed chiefly of silica. Most of them are used for sharpening stone and very fine edged instruments. SOFT ABRASIVES: These are non siliceous materials. The most common soft abrasives are rottenstone, viennalime and metallic oxides. These soft abrasives are used for buffing . ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES: The most important artificial abrasives are : 1.silicon carbide 2.Aluminium oxide. SILICON CARBIDE: Silicon carbide is manufactured in electric induction furnace. It is then manufactured under trade names of carborundum, Crystolon , Carbolon ,electrolon etc., Silicon carbide is harder ,but not tougher than aluminium oxide. They are used for grinding material sof low tensile strength such as cast iron ,brass, bronze, etc., TYPES: GREEN GRIT ABRASIVES : It contains 97% SiC . It is mainly used for cementite carbides and other harder materials BLACK GRIT ABRASIVES : It contains 95% SiC. This is harder but weaker than green silicon carbide. Black SiC is used for grinding cast iron ,Al,Cu and their alloys.It is also suitable for grinding ceramics. ALUMINIUM OXIDE: It is manufactured from calcined bauxite in an electric arc furnace. It is then manufactured under the trade names of aloxite , alundum , borolon. Aluminium oxide is tough and not easily fractured. It is used for grinding high tensile strength materials such as steel , malleable cast iron , wrought iron ,alloy steel and tough bronzes.
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Advanced ceramics: these are newly developed and manufactured in limited range for specific applications. Usually their electrical, magnetic and optical properties and combination of properties are exploited. Typical applications: heat engines, ceramic armors, electronic packaging, etc. Some typical ceramics and respective applications are as follows: Aluminium oxide / Alumina (Al O ): it is one of most commonly used ceramic material. It is used in many
2 3
applications such as to contain molten metal, where material is operated at very high temperatures under heavy loads, as insulators in spark plugs, and in some unique applications such as dental and medical use. Chromium doped alumina is used for making lasers. Aluminium nitride (AlN): because of its typical properties such as good electrical insulation but high thermal conductivity, it is used in many electronic applications such as in electrical circuits operating at a high frequency. It is also suitable for integrated circuits. Other electronic ceramics include barium titanate (BaTiO ) and Cordierite
3
(2MgO-2Al O -5SiO ).
2 3 2
Diamond (C): it is the hardest material known to available in nature. It has many applications such as industrial abrasives, cutting tools, abrasion resistant coatings, etc. it is, of course, also used in jewelry. Lead zirconium titanate (PZT): it is the most widely used piezoelectric material, and is used as gas igniters, ultrasound imaging, in underwater detectors. Silica (SiO ): is an essential ingredient in many engineering ceramics, thus is the most
2
widely used ceramic material. Silica-based materials are used in thermal insulation, abrasives, laboratory glassware, etc. it also found application in communications media as integral part of optical fibers. Fine particles of silica are used in tires, paints, etc. Silicon carbide (SiC): it is known as one of best ceramic material for very high temperature applications. It is used as coatings on other material for protection from extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive material. It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based composites. It is a semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics. Silicon nitride (Si N ) has properties similar to those of SiC but
3 4
is somewhat lower, and found applications in such as automotive and gas turbine engines. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Titanium oxide (TiO ): it is mostly found as pigment in paints. It also forms part of
2
certain glass ceramics. It is used to making other ceramics like BaTiO .

3
Titanium boride (TiB ): it exhibits great toughness properties and hence found
2
applications in armor production. It is also a good conductor of both electricity and heat. Uranium oxide (UO ): it is mainly used as nuclear reactor fuel. It has exceptional
2
dimensional stability because its crystal structure can accommodate the products of fission process. Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG, Y Al O ): it has main application in lasers (Nd-YAG
3 5 12
lasers). Zirconia (ZrO ): it is also used in producing many other ceramic materials. It is also used in
2
making oxygen gas sensors, as additive in many electronic ceramics. Its single crystals are part of jewelry.
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Fabrication and processing of ceramics Ceramics melt at high temperatures and they exhibit a brittle behavior under tension. As a result, the conventional melting, casting and thermo-mechanical processing routes are not suitable to process the polycrystalline ceramics. Inorganic glasses, though, make use of lower melting temperatures due to formation of eutectics. Hence, most ceramic products are made from ceramic powders through powder processing starting with ceramic powders. The powder processing of ceramics is very close to that of metals, powder metallurgy. However there is an important consideration in ceramic-forming that is more prominent than in metal forming: it is dimensional tolerance. Post forming shrinkage is much higher in ceramics processing because of the large differential between the final density and the as-formed density. Glasses, however, are produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above which melting occurs. Most commercial glasses are of the silica-soda-lime variety, where silica is supplied in form of common quartz sand, soda (Na O) in form of soda ash
2
(Na CO ) while the lime (CaO) is supplied in form of limestone (CaCO ). Different
2 3 3
forming methods- pressing, blowing, drawing and fiber forming- are widely in practice to fabricate glass products. Thick glass objects such as plates and dishes are produced by pressing, while the blowing is used to produce objects like jars, bottles and light bulbs. Drawing is used to form long objects like tubes, rods, fibers, whiskers etc. The pressing and blowing process is shown in figure

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Figure: Schematic diagram of pressing and blowing processes
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Ceramic powder processing consists of powder production by milling/grinding, followed by fabrication of green product, which is then consolidated to obtain the final product. A powder is a collection of fine particles. Synthesis of powder involves getting it ready for shaping by crushing, grinding, separating impurities, blending different powders, drying to form soft agglomerates. Different techniques such as compaction, tape casting, slip casting, injection molding and extrusion are then used to convert processed powders into a desired shape to form what is known as green ceramic. The green ceramic is then consolidated further using a high-temperature treatment known as sintering or firing. As-mined raw materials are put through a milling or grinding operation in which particle size is reduced to and physically liberate the minerals of interest from the rest of the gangue material. Wet milling is much more common with ceramic materials than with metals. The combination of dry powders with a dispersant such as water is called slurry. Ball- and vibratory- milling is employed to further reduce the size of minerals and to blend different powders. Ceramic powders prepared are shaped using number of techniques, such as casting, compaction, extrusion/hydro-plastic forming, injection molding. Tape casting, also known as doctor blade process, is used for the production of thin ceramic tapes. The schematic diagram of tape casting process is shown in figure 10.2. In this technique slurry containing ceramic particles, solvent, plasticizers, and binders is then made to flow under a blade and onto a plastic substrate. The shear thinning slurry spreads under the blade. The tape is then dried using clean hot air. Later-on the tape is subjected to binder burnout and sintering operations. Tape thickness normally range between 0.1 and 2 mm. Commercially important electronic packages based on alumina substrates and barium titanate capacitors are made using this technique. A schematic diagram of doctor blade process is shown in the figure.

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Figure: Schematic diagram of tape casting process
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Slip casting is another casting technique widely used. This technique uses aqueous slurry, also known as slip, of ceramic powder. The slip is poured into a plaster of Paris (CaSO :2H O) mold. As the water from slurry begins to move out by capillary action, a
4 2
thick mass builds along the mold wall. When sufficient product thickness is built, the rest of the slurry is poured out (drain casting). It is also possible to continue to pour more slurry in to form a solid piece (solid casting). The schematic diagram of slip casting process is shown in figure
Figure: Schematic diagram of slip casting process Extrusion and injection molding techniques are used to make products like tubes, bricks, tiles etc. The basis for extrusion process is a viscous mixture of ceramic particles, binder and other additives, which is fed through an extruder where a continuous shape of green ceramic is produced. The product is cut to required lengths and then dried and sintered. Injection molding of ceramics is similar to that of polymers. Ceramic powder is mixed with a plasticizer, a thermoplastic polymer, and additives. Then the mixture is injected into a die with use of an extruder. The polymer is then burnt off and the rest of the ceramic shape is sintered at suitable high temperatures. Ceramic injection molding is suitable for producing complex shapes. Figure shows schematically the injection molding

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process
Figure: Schematic diagram of Injection molding Most popular technique to produce relatively simple shapes of ceramic products in large numbers is combination of compaction and sintering. For example: electronic ceramics, magnetic ceramics, cutting tools, etc. Compaction process is used to make green ceramics that have respectable strength and can be handled and machined. Time for compaction process varies from within a minute to hours depending on the complexity and size of the product. Basically compaction process involves applying equal pressure in all directions to a mixture ceramic powder to increase its density. In some cases, compaction involves application of pressure using oil/fluid at room temperatures, called cold iso-static pressing (CIP). Then the green ceramic is sintered with or without pressure. CIP is used to achieve higher ceramic density or where the compaction of more complex shapes is required. In some instances, parts may be produced under conditions in which compaction and sintering are conducted under pressure at elevated temperatures. This technique is known as hot iso-static pressing (HIP), and is used for refractory and covalently bonded ceramics that do not show good bonding characteristics under CIP. HIP is also used when close to none porosity is the requirement. Another characteristic feature of HIP is high densities can be achieved without appreciable grain growth. Sintering is the firing process applied to green ceramics to increase its strength. Sintering is carried out below the melting temperature thus no liquid phase presents during sintering. However, for sintering to take place, the temperature must generally be maintained above one-half the absolute melting point of the material. During sintering, Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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the green ceramic product shrinks and experiences a reduction in porosity. This leads to an improvement in its mechanical integrity. These changes involve different mass transport mechanisms that cause coalescence of powder particles into a more dense mass. With sintering, the grain boundary and bulk atomic diffusion contribute to densification, surface diffusion and evaporation condensation can cause grain growth, but do not cause densification. After pressing, ceramic particles touch one another. During initial stages of sintering, necks form along the contact regions between adjacent particles thus every interstice between particles becomes a pore. The pore channels in the compact grow in size, resulting in a significant increase in strength. With increase in sintering time, pores become smaller in size. The driving force for sintering process is the reduction in total particle surface area, and thus the reduction in total surface energy. During sintering, composition, impurity control and oxidation protection are provided by the use of vacuum conditions or inert gas atmospheres.
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COMPOSITE MATERIALS
With the invention and continued progress of modern technology, need for materials with special properties are growing. Basic conventional engineering materials are not able to serve the purpose. New class of materials, known as composites, is thus emerged to serve the specific needs of modern technology. A composite is made artificially and it contains at least two chemically distinct constituents, which are insoluble in each other. Thus it achieves properties of both the constituents, which are otherwise does not exist together. An engineer needs to have a very good knowledge about these materials for efficient use of composites, and also to develop a new category of composites. There is a great need for materials with special properties with emergence of new technologies. However, conventional engineering materials are unable to meet this requirement of special properties like high strength and low density materials for aircraft applications. Thus, emerged new class of engineering materials composites. Composites : Any multiphase material that is artificially made and exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of the constituent phases. The constituent phases of a composite are usually of macro sized portions, differ in form and chemical composition and essentially insoluble in each other. Composites are, thus, made by combining two distinct engineering materials in most cases; one is called matrix -that is continuous and surrounds the other phase dispersed phase. The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the constituent phases, their relative amounts, and size-and-shape of dispersed phase. Composite materials are classified based on different criteria like:

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1.type of matrix material metal matrix composites, polymer matrix composites and ceramic matrix composites 2.size-and-shape of dispersed phase particle-reinforced composites, fiber-reinforced composites and structural composites That properties of composite materials are nothing but improved version of properties of matrix materials due to presence of dispersed phase. However, engineers need to understand the mechanics involved in achieving the better properties.
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Particle-reinforced composites reinforced Most widely used composites mainly because they are widely available and cheap. Two kinds: Dispersion Dispersion-strengthened and Particulate-reinforced composites. Particulate These two classes are distinguishable based upon strengthening mechanism : dispersion dispersionstrengthened composites and particulate composites.
Dispersion-strengthened: Particles are comparatively smaller, and are of 0.01 0.01-0.1m in size. m Here the strengthenin occurs at atomic/molecular level strengthening i.e. mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation hardening in metals . Where matrix bears the major portion of an applied load Examples: Thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with high alloys) high-temperature strength. SAP (sintered aluminium powder) where aluminium matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of alumina (Al2O3). Particulate-reinforced composites reinforced Contain large amounts of comparatively coarse particles. Large particle composites are utilized with all three material types (metals, composites polymers, and ceramics)

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The particles should be of approximately the same dimension in all directions (equiaxed). For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and evenly distributed throughout the matrix. The mechanical properties are enhanced with increasing particulate content. Concrete- Being composed of cement ( the matrix) and sand and gravel (the particulates). It is also known as Portland cement concrete. Its strength can be increased by additional reinforcement such as steel rods/mesh. Cermets are examples of ceramic-metal composites Cemented carbideExtremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or nickel. These composites are utilized extensively as cutting tools for hardened steels.
Reference Books:

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Fiber-reinforced composites : reinforced Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength and other reinforced mechanical Properties and strength weight ratio by incorporating strong, strength-to-weight stiff. The matrix material acts as a medium to transfer the load to the fibers, which carry most off the applied load. The matrix also provides protection to fibers from external loads and atmosphere. Classified as either continuous or discontinuous. The highest strength and stiffness are obtained with continuous reinforcement. st Discontinuous fibers are used only when manufacturing economics dictate the
use of a process.
Mechanical properties of fiber fiber-reinforced composites depend on: The properties of the fib fiber The degree of which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase. Length of fibers, their orientation and volume fraction Direction of external load application
Structural composites These are special class of composites, usually consists of both homogeneous and composite materials.

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Properties of these composites depend not only on the properties of the constituents but also on geometrical design of various structural elements.
Classification: Laminar composites, and Sandwich structures.
Reference Books:

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Laminar composites There are composed of two-dimensional sheets/layers that have a preferred strength direction. These layers are stacked and cemented together according to the requirement. Materials used in their fabrication include: Metal sheets, cotton, paper, woven glass fibers embedded in plastic matrix, etc. Examples: thin coatings, thicker protective coatings, claddings, bimetallics, laminates. Many laminar composites are designed to increase corrosion resistance while retaining low cost, high strength or light weight. Sandwich structures. Consist of thin layers of a facing material joined to a light weight filler material. Neither the filler material nor the facing material is strong or rigid, but the composite possesses both properties. Example: corrugated cardboard. The faces bear most of the in-plane loading and also any transverse bending stresses. Typical face materials include Al-alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel and plywood. The core serves two functions : It separates the faces and resists deformations perpendicular to the face plane; provides a certain degree of shear rigidity along planes that are perpendicular to the faces. Typical materials for core are: foamed polymers, synthetic rubbers, inorganic cements, balsa wood. Sandwich structures are found in many applications like roofs, floors, walls of buildings, and in aircraft for wings, fuselage and tailplane skins. Polymer Matrix Materials: Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. High temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Thermosets : Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. They are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites Find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas Thermoplastics: Have one or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Techniques for Producing Fiber Reinforcement Plastics (FRP) Open Mold Process Spray lay-up - Chopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled. Hand lay-up - Lay-up of fibres or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or pressure. Filament winding. Sheet molding compound. Expansion tool molding. Contact molding. Closed Mold Process Compression molding Load with raw material, press into shape. Vacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave - Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured. Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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Injection molding Mold injected under pressure. Resin Transfer Fibres in place, resin injected at low temperature. Continuous Process : Pultrusion. Braiding Hand Lay up: 1. gel coat is applied to the open mould. 2. Fiber glass reinforcement in the form of cloth is manually placed in mould. 3. The base resin mixed with catalysts and accelerators is applied by pouring, brushing or spraying. 4. Rollers or squeezers are used to thoroughly wet the reinforcement with the resin and to remove entrapped air. 5. To increase the wall thickness of part being produced, layers of fiber glass that roving and resin and added. Examples: Tanks, Housings and building panels are made by this process.
Reference Books:

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Spray up process: 1. If fiber glass is used continuous strand roving is fed through a combination of chopper and spray gun that simultaneously deposits chopped roving and catalyzed resin into the mould. 2. The deposits laminate is then identified with a roller or squeeze to remove air to make sure the resin impregnates the reinforcing fibers. 3. Multiple layers are added to produce desired thickness. 4. Curing is done at room temperature. Sometimes curing is accelerated by application of moderate amount of heat.
Filament winding process:
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1.The fiber reinforcement is fed through a resin both and then wound on the suitable mandrel. 2. When sufficient layers are applied, the wound mandrel is cured either at room temperature or at an elevated temperature in an oven. 3. The moulded part is thin stripped from the mandrel
Reference Books:
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Pultrusion process:
Used for the manufacture of components having continuous lengths and a constant cross-sectional shape (i.e., rods, tubes, beams, etc). sectional With this technique, continuous fiber rovings are first impregnated with a thermosetting resin. these are then pulled through a steel die which performs to the desired shape and also establishes the resin/fiber ratio. The stock then passes through a curling die which imparts the final shape; this die is also heated in order to initiate. Curing of the resin matrix. Laminating Plastics: A laminated material is made by bonding together two or more thin layers of materials to form a single unit or sheet. Plywood, which is a laminated wood, is made up of many thin sheets of wood . The same principle is used in the laminating plastics also. s
Reference Books:

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PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS : Composite materils are used to: I. To increase heat deflection temeprature 2. To reduce costs 3. To decreasethermal expansion 4. To reduce weight 5. To increase' toughness 6. To increase stiffness, strength 7. To increase mechanical damping 8. To increase dimensional stability 9. To reduce permeability to gases and liquids 10. To modify electrical properties 11. To maintain strength/stiffness at high temperatures 12. To improve design flexibility. LIMITATIONSOF COMPOSITE MATERIALS: 1. Sophisticated technology requires high cost. 2. Skilled labourarerequired. 3. Theprocessof manufacturingcompositematerialsis suitableonlyformassproduction. 4. Choppedfiber reinforcementstend to extra moldwear from abrasion from the reinforcement and melt flow problems. 5. Materials cost is very high. 6. Glass and carbon as a reinforcement after fabrication machining can be abrasive to tools. 7. Aramid can cause surface finish problems. 8. The process is not economical for small scale production
C C composites:Carbon/Carbon (C/C) is a lightweight, high-strength composite

material capable of withstanding temperatures over 3000C in many environments. Carbon/Carbon Composites use the strength and modulus of carbon fibers to reinforce a carbon matrix to resist the rigors of extreme environments. Using FMI (Fiber Materials, Inc) specialty weaving techniques, composite structures can be tailored to meet varied physical and thermal requirements through weaving architecture design. FMI woven reinforcements are impregnated with resin or pitch and carbonized to yield finished, fully dense composites using well controlled temperature and pressure processes (up to 15000 psi). At one-tenth the density, C/C offers a high performance, cost effective alternative to refractory metals. Aerospace components commonly fabricated from C/C include rocket motor nozzle throats and exit cones, nosetips/leading edges and thermal protection Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam
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systems. Reliable performance is the most critical requirement of these components. FMI C/C Composites have demonstrated reliability and reduced systems costs, especially when multiple components in an assembly can be replaced with a one-piece C/C design. Commercial applications of Carbon/Carbon materials are: Missile Nosetips Leading Edges Solid Rocket Motor Throats Heatshields Missiles Furnace Insulation Heating Elements Furnace Fixturing, Load Plates X-Ray Target
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called the Avogadro number, N = 6.023 10 . Note that N = 1 gram/1 amu.

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

[uvw] is parallel to (hkl) if hu + kv + lw = 0. - Two planes (h k l ) and (h k l ) are normal if h h + k k + l l =0.

- Two directions (u v w ) and (u v w ) are normal if u u + v v + w w =0

- Angle between two planes is given by:

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Differences between crystal, dendrite, grain and grain boundary.

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Body Centered Crysta1 Structure (BCC)

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Difference between Pure metal and Alloy: Pure metal

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Hume Rotherys Rules:

3.Relative valence factor:

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

COOLING CURVES - FOR PURE METALS

COOLING CURVES - BINARY SOLID SOLUTION ALLOYS

COOLING CURVES - BINARY EUTECTIC ALLOYS

FOR OFF--EUTECTIC BINARY ALLOYS EUTECTIC

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

% Amount of solid=(UC/UV)X100==(30/60)X100=50 % % Amount of liquid=(CV/UV)X100==(30/60)X100=50 %

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Above CEG - Liquid phase and Below CDEFG Solid state.

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME, ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Conveyor chain links.

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

Paper industries machinery. Power transmission equipment. Earth moving machinery.

Ronanki .Pola Rao, Asso.Prof, Dept of ME,GMRIT-Rajam

ALLOY CAST IRONS Cast irons Have low values of

3 to 5% nickel and 1 to 3% chromium. 4 to 8% nickel and 4 to 15% chromium .