SRICHUNDIRANGANAYAKULU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CH. R. CHAITANYA KRISHNA B.Tech., 4th MECH

Ckrishna343@gmail.com

CH.PRAVEEN KUMAR B.Tech., 3rd MECH

praveen.311@hotmail.com

Address: D.NO. 18-16-2/1 Opp. Big Mosque, Lalapet, GUNTUR-522003 Cell: 9966743874 9966990205

PAPER PRESENTATION AUTOMOBILE SENSORS

ABSTRACT A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury in glass thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube INTRODUCTION Sensors are used in every day objects such as touch sensitive elevator buttons and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base A sensors sensitivity indicates how much the sensors output changes when the measured quantity changes A good sensor obeys the following rules * Is sensitive to the measured property * Is insensitive to any other property * Does not influence the measured property

SENSORS AND ITS TYPES USED IN MODERN AUTOMOBILES

The number of sensors used in automobiles has risen dramatically in the last decade. Current vehicles can contain 40-50 of them. Researchers are looking for new sensors and new ways to package them. Multi-sensor modules Researchers at Delphi Automotive Systems are investigating multi-sensor modules. In addition to the increased number of sensors used in current vehicles, one or more vehicle-wide data-communication networks are being used. These networks link various sensors to actuators and control centers and enable a variety of new automotive functions. Complex antilock braking systems, drive-by-wire, heads-up display, navigation, and traction control can all use vehicle networks. Increased use of wiring has caused the harness weight to increase from 4 kg (9 lb) fifty years ago to between 37 and 91 kg (81 and 200 lb) in today's vehicles. Multiplexing is an efficient way to reverse this weight increase trend and is being employed by a number of vehicle suppliers. Bus protocols vary with manufacturers and include Class 2, CAN, GMLAN, UART, ABUS, VAN, SCP, BEAN, and ACP. Individual sensors can be fitted with data-bus communication capability. This can be done by providing a processor, protocol controller, and transceiver chip to the sensor module. A cost penalty goes along with this conversion from a "dumb" analog sensor to a "smart" sensor capable of vehicle-wide communications. This cost can exceed several dollars per sensor. Examination of sensor function and placement shows that a variety of sensors lend themselves to being placed in localized clusters. These multi-sensor modules can share a single set of communication chips, thereby lowering the overall cost associated with the conversion to a smart sensor network. Packaging is one of the more expensive pieces of sensor manufacturing. By using a single housing, sensor cost is also reduced by eliminating multiple connectors and cables. Reducing the number of connectors, integrated circuits, and cables not only saves costs but also improves reliability and the assembly process and reduces vehicle weight. A first-generation prototype module contains angular rate sensors and low-g linear accelerometers oriented along the three axes of the vehicle. Two high-g accelerometers for impact detection are also included as is a

barometric pressure, temperature, and carbon dioxide sensor. A second prototype module contains only motion sensors, including smaller second-generation angular rate sensors to reduce the overall module size. The majority of the sensors used in the prototypes are safety-related or could be used as the core of an Both modules are CAN compatible-for bus communication. automotive black box or data recorder. Accelerometers and angular rate sensors can be used to fire frontal and/or side airbags or raise roll bars as well as increase tension in seatbelts or adjust braking. Such sensors require faster communication rates and high priority. This leads to the potential need for multiple bus interfacing for an individual sensor cluster. Temperature or barometric pressure sensors most likely would be tied to a slower vehicle-wide bus. Pressure sensor Integrated Sensor Solutions, Inc. has developed a small outline pressure sensor for use in various automotive applications including vehicle dynamic control (VDC), gasoline direct fuel injection, common rail diesel fuel injection, and other emerging systems. The sensor uses a stainless steel diaphragm for fluid compatibility and can be built in versions to measure a wide range of pressures from 0-700 kPa (0-100 psi) up to 0-180 MPa (026,000 psi). Advanced diagnostic and protection functions are included in the electronics to alert the electronic control module of possible sensor or system failures. All signal conditioning functions are integrated into a single CMOS circuit to reduce cost, size, and Digital programmable sensor system complexity. Programmable CMOS integrated pressure sensor Researchers Motorola Automotive and Industrial Electronics Group and Motorola Corporate Communications Research Lab) have developed an integrated pressure sensor which uses a custom digital signal processor and non-volatile memory to calibrate and temperature-compensate a family of pressure sensor elements for a wide range of automotive applications. Unlike previously introduced analog solutions, this programmable signal conditioning engine operates in the digital domain using a calibration algorithm that accounts for higher order effects beyond the realm of most analog signal conditioning approaches. It also provides enhanced features that typically were implemented off-chip (or not at all) with traditional analog signal conditioning solutions that use laser or electronic trimming. A specially developed digital communication interface permits calibration of the individual sensor module via connector pins after the module has been fully assembled and encapsulated. Post trim processing is eliminated and calibration and module customization can be performed as an integral part of end-of-line testing at the completion of the manufacturing flow. The integrated circuit contains a pressure sensor element that is coprocessed in a submicron mixed-signal CMOS wafer fabrication process, and which can be scaled to a variety of automotive pressure-sensing applications. Both digital and analog sensor outputs are available. Side airbag sensor A new generation of side airbag sensors that use a linear accelerometer has been developed by researchers at Robert Bosch GmbH. For side airbag systems it is necessary to measure the acceleration within a time frame of less than 3 ms to inflate the side airbag in time. The valuation circuit includes amplification, temperature coefficient compensation, two-wire unidirectional current interface, and a zero-offset compensation. The sensing element for the measurement of acceleration is a surface micromachined accelerometer. To minimize production costs, the surface micromachined sensor element and the corresponding evaluation ASIC are packaged into a standard PLCC28 housing. For the entire function only a few external components are necessary. During the power-on cycle an internal self-test is performed and the result is transmitted to the airbag control unit. The peripheral acceleration sensor (PAS) is used in PC-board technology. The main part is a PLCC28 housing that contains the micromachined sensor element and the evaluation IC, which is also used for the calibration of the sensitivity. The PC-board is mounted inside a customer-specific plastic housing for direct

assembly into the car. To obtain a waterproof outer housing, a lid with a sealing ring is used. This results in a high sensitivity against environmental conditions. The sensor measures the real acceleration value. The amplified and filtered analog signal (three-pole Bessel filter at 400 Hz) is converted into a digital signal. This value is transmitted via a two-wire current interface to the airbag control unit. The sensor supply voltage is 6 V and current consumption is less than 40 mA. The fullscale acceleration range is normally 100 g and can be adapted to 50 g by using an external resistor. The accelerometer is tested by a real deflection of the sensing element with electrostatic forces. The interface from the airbag control unit to the PAS can be realized by using the peripheral integrated circuit (PIC). ThePIC can provide the power supply for the control unit and PAS as well as the communication interface for two PAS. Micro-safing sensor: Control systems such as ABS and airbags are dependent on sensors. Many of today's vehicles have both frontal and side airbag systems. Safing sensors, whose purpose is the prevention of malfunction, are incorporated into airbag systems to detect an impact from collision Structure of the microsafing sensor simultaneoulsy with the main acceleration sensor in the deployment of the airbag. However, there is a problem concerning the acceleration sensor for the side airbag. In a side collision the crushable zone is smaller than in a head-on collision, so in a side collision, the deployment of the airbag must be quicker. Therefore, analog sensors are used for the side airbags because mechanical lead-switch type safing sensors, used mainly for front collision sensors, have a slow response speed. The sensor is composed of an upper electrode, cantilever, and pedestal formed by silicon micromachining. The upper electrode and cantilever contact mechanically when acceleration during a collision is applied and the "on" signal is input. To achieve a satisfactory solution, an optimal shape was designed using an FEM simulation. The frequency characteristic of 100 Hz and threshold acceleration of 2-4 g are obtained by electrostatic force and chattering measure at the contact point. Other characteristics include high-speed response, compactness, and the low cost. Sensing system discrimination:The absolute severity of a vehicle crash cannot be determined until the crash event is complete. However, airbag-sensing systems are required to discriminate the severity of the crash event in the first milliseconds of an impact. Future airbag systems will require even more discrimination capability than current systems to provide separate deployment thresholds for advanced technologies such as multi-staged airbags and pretensioners and threshold shifting for belted and unbelted occupants. A prototype advanced sensing system has been tested by researchers at Visteon Automotive Systems. This prototype may improve the severity measurement of an impact and offer multiple deployment thresholds without increasing the time required for event discrimination. Sensing systems today often are packaged in the vehicle's interior on the center tunnel or other internal location. The sensing system is typically a single electronic control unit (ECU) which uses internal accelerometers to measure the severity of the impact and provide deployment signals to the appropriate squibs. The vehicle body structure must transfer the force from the crush zone to the ECU mounting location in time for the ECU to make the deployment decisions. The acceleration signal at the ECU monitoring location in moderate-severity impacts may be similar to the signal in a severe impact due to the deployment decision. The ECU must predict the severity of the impact prior to deployment based on the acceleration data acquired. Increased separation between moderately severe and severe event signals will yield improved discrimination between the events. The method chosen by the researchers to increase the separation between the signals was to use the combined measurements of the vehicle acceleration in the crush zone and the occupant compartment. The

prototype system simultaneously uses accelerometer data from the engine and occupant compartments to provide more advanced discrimination than current sensing systems. This method allowed the sensor system to measure a significantly larger percentage of the overall vehicle velocity change prior to the deployment decision time, required little change in the vehicle structure, and also did not increase the time required for the deployment decision. In this way, deployment events may be more easily separated into various levels of severity, and non-deploy events may be more easily detected. Variable reluctance sensors A novel variable reluctance speed sensor with Magnetically distributed VR sensor configuration from GM. distributed magnetic circuit configuration is being investigated at the GM Global Research and Development Center. When compared with a lumped element sensor, it shows improved performance and simplicity because of its magnetically distributed configuration and reduced number of parts. Variable reluctance (VR) speed and position sensors are widely used in industry and, in particular, the automotive industry because of their low cost and high reliability. Unlike other types, these sensors are self-excited. They do not require an external voltage source to operate. Two factors led to the development of the magnetically distributed sensor configuration. One is concerned with the shape of the wheel bearing grease cover where the sensor would be integrated. The second is reduced sensitivity of the distributed sensor to the radial tolerances which offset the exciter wheel with respect to the sensor. A ring-shaped sensor would fit best and could be integrated within the bearing grease cover while its magnetic distribution would help to compensate for the radial tolerances. Unlike existing lumped element VR sensors, the distributed ones use fully 3D magnetic field variation for the signal development. This sensor signal is a function of the number of magnetic pole pairs. Polymer PTC sensors There has been increasing interest in developing a reliable sensor to guard automotive interior motors from an unexpected current surge. Researchers at Therm-O-Disc, Inc. have developed self-resettable positive temperature coefficient (PTC) sensors from two polymer PTC material systems. One is a polyolefin-based conductive material that provides a switch temperature of around 125C. The other is a polyamide-based material with a higher switch temperature of 165C for applications where the ambient temperature is typically higher. A wide range of motors in the automotive interior requires over-current or over-temperature protection. These motors include ones for power seats, power door locks, and window lifts. There is recent interest in protecting underhood cooling fan motors, which can get blocked with snow in the winter. Three important material characteristics are required for these sensorslow material resistivity (10 /cm or less) or low device resistance with a specified geometric design (typically 50 m or less; relatively high PTC effect (5 X 103 or higher), where the PTC effect is defined as the ratio of peak resistance, or resistivity, at high temperature to that at room temperature; and ability to self-reset. A polymer material with both low resistivity and high PTC effect is practically difficult to achieve since the low material resistivity normally detriments the PTC effect according to polymer PTC theory. A polymer PTC material typically consists of a crystalline or semicrystalline thermoplastic polymer with a dispersion of conductive fillers. At a low temperature, the material has contiguous structure which provides a conducting path through direct contact of conductive aggregrates, thus providing low resistivity. Electron hopping or tunneling in the insulating polymer matrix is also proposed to explain low resistivity state of a PTC material. When the PTC material or sensor device is heated to the polymer melting temperature TM, or the fault overcurrent causes the material to self-heat to TM, the large thermal expansion of the polymer interrupts the conducting path, resulting in the high resistivity (latched) state. Thus, a dramatic increase in resistance is

observed at a temperature close to TM. However, the low resistivity state can be restored upon cooling the material to a temperature below TM removing power from the circuit ad correcting the fault condition which caused the current surge. It is this behavior that provides the material the self-resettability.

Thick film oxygen sensor:A thick film-type oxygen sensor has been developed by researchers at Honda R&D Co., Ltd that has the unique structure and principle to achieve fast light off and a compact configuration. The main part of the uniqueness is the self-generation of oxygen from exhaust gas, as the reference. It does not require fresh air from the atmosphere as the conventional thimble-type oxygen sensor, and no output is shifted down by the change of the reference oxygen partial pressure. The other advantage is the monolithic nature of the sensing element and heater, which makes the sensor start working in 10 seconds with low power. The combination of these two key technologies enables the oxygen sensor to be small and free from the location issue. As emission regulations tighten, reducing HC emissions during engine cold Radar-based near distance sensing starts becomes more important. There are strong demands to devise efficient oxygen sensors that control the air/fuel ratio with the least amount of time delay. The conventional automotive oxygen sensor is comprised of a pen cap shaped zirconia element (thimble type) and a ceramic heater (heating the sensing element). The fast light off of the thimble-type oxygen sensor is achieved mainly by increasing the heater power. Distance sensing A generic idea of a synergetic system approach and a radar-based near distance sensing device is being investigated by researcher at Siemens AG. Due to the limited space in the vehicle's front and rear region, a multi-functional sensor system for different applications is envisaged. Since 1991 ultrasonic-based parking aid systems turned up on the automotive market with continuously increasing numbers. Actually systems like ACC based on 77 GHz microwave technology appear on high cost vehicles, which scan an observation zone in front of the vehicle from one to 150 m with an aperature angle of about 10. For next-generation ACC with stop and go, the observation angle before the vehicle must be enlarged to an amount which demands a broad-looking, near-distance sensing device. Smart restraint systems of future generations with reversible actuators (e.g., pneumatic airbag, motor-driven seat-belt pretensioner) require a so-called precrash sensor which alerts the restraint ECU of an imminent object coming frontal or aside into the car several milliseconds before crash occurrence. The surveillance of the vehicle's blind spots and an indicator of the presence and speed of an object within this area not covered by the rear view mirrors will support the driver during lane-change operation or low speed maneuvering. The fast growing number of elderly drivers will benefit from such driver assistant devices.

The key to these systems is the near-distance sensing device. Due to the limited mounting space, cost aspects, and distributed, multi-functional architecture concepts, a proximity sensing device must provide sufficient flexibility to fulfill the different demands for near-field applications. Among the different physical realization principles for near distance measurements radar-based devices offer several advantages compared to acoustic, optical, or thermal methods: invisible mounting behind non-conductive materials all-weather operation capability conform with harsh-environment constraints very fast, parallel operation possibility low interference with same or similar systems small or no performance deterioration during important environment variations precise and redundant information achievable.

The varying demands of the different systems functions require a flexible sensor concept, which can adapt its performance limits accordingly. To cover the complete vehicle's front or rear surface, a distributed sensor system consisting of at least two radar devices placed at the car body's outer dimensions (e.g. the bumper's right and left corner) is obligatory. The usage of a smart control and processing unit, either implemented with a microcontroller or an ASIC, in the radar front end guarantees the desired flexibility for a multi-functional operation. A common ECU communicates both with each radar front-end module via a local communication protocol and with the vehicle's infrastructure by the appropriate gateway link. The near-distance sensing device system consists of two functional module types and a given number of smart radar modules, and can be easily extended by adding other radar modules. The microwave front-end module consists of a high-frequency circuit, two patch antenna, a microcontroller with some glue electronics, and some signal conditioning stages. The microcontroller provides all necessary control commands, samples the received radar signals, and conducts basic signal processing algorithms. The ECU gathers the processed, condensed information from the front-end modules via a dedicated local bus. The data exchange to relevant subsystems on the vehicle's infrastructure is managed exclusively by the ECU with the respective, subsystem-specific protocol. This communication link is also used to provide the near-field sensing ECU with vehicle-specific information (e.g. steering angle, reverse gear, or driving speed). The bidirectional high-speed Can-bus between front-end modules and ECU manages both control and information exchange and avoids data package collisions on the communication link by ECU bus mastering. Special command sequences of the ECU cause the radar modules to conduct a special function task and send back the information in a specific order and time frame. Alternatively, event-triggered data transmission of the radar front-end devices, previously set in a scanning operation mode by the ECU module, can be established for time-critical applications like precrash sensing. From the many possible radar operation principles, a combination of pulse, Doppler, and FMCW radar is selected to best match the varying performance requirements of the envisaged functions. Among the possible operating frequency bands, stipulated by national and international regulations, the ISM frequency band from 24.00 GHz to 24.25 GHz was selected for the near-field sensor.

Programmable sensors Advantages in cost and function of sensor technology has been driven by the quest to reduce emissions, improve safety, Melexis sensors. achieve zero defect/quality, and reduce cost. The introduction of a mixed signal CMOS, programmable sensors and sensors systems by Melexis (Chad Brad and Chris Peter) is providing a path to meet these demands.

Signal conditioning will always be necessary for most sensor elements. Raw sensors exhibit some level of offset voltage, an output signal level when no stimulus is applied to the sensor. The span of a sensor, the output signal change from no stimulus to the maximum stimulus, typically needs to be amplified. A typical element may have a span of a few millivolts. This small amount of change may be difficult to detect and transmit over lengthy connections. Engine noise can easily drownout a small signal directly from the bridge with a long harness. By amplifying the signal to have a span of a few volts, the signal is much easier to covert to digital for use by a processor. With the progression of the sensor and semiconductor technologies the integration of the sensor element and signal conditioning on one die is a logical step forward. With integrated signal conditioning electronics, programmability is required. There is no option of using a potentiometer or laser trimming a resistor. Most Hall-effect sensors are integrated, that is, the Hall plate and signal processing components are on the same chip. However, the signal to noise ratio of silicon Hall plates, prior to programmable linear development (MLX90215) forced higher precision systems to use a discrete Hall plate. In pressure sensors, the converse has been true, as developers have previously assumed that the combination of integrated silicon electronics and micro-machining are incompatible and would result in unacceptable yield losses. With the development of the first programmable linear Hall sensor IC, the MLX90215, researchers gained confidence to replace the Hall plate with an integrated micromachined pressure sensor. The first example of this is the Melexis MLX90218 programmable pressure sensor. This device includes the integration of a temperature sensor on the same die as the micromachined pressure sensor and the programmable signal conditioning electronics. The temperature sensors used for accurate temperature compensation of the pressure sensor. This eliminates the need for an additional temperature sensor. Also it puts the temperature sensing as close to the pressure sensor as possible. The cost of integrated electronics will continue to decline and the level of integration will increase. This will enable realization of the IEEE 1451.2 specification in lower and lower cost sensors. The cost of implementing a programmable sensor has just begun to enable it to be used in the low cost high volume sensor applications. As the cost of a programmable integrated sensor or sensor interface declines so does the size. This reduction in size allows for more innovative solutions such as integrating a pressure sensor with programmable signal conditioning into a brake fluid solenoid valve. As the IC supplier provides a smarter sensor, the module supplier must abdicate more of the electronic design to the IC designer. Additionally the sensor systems maker must be more involved with the IC and module design activities to maximize the capability of smart sensors in the total systems. This puts the module supplier in the middle as the coordinator who must understand IC, automotive, and module technologies as well as control the three way relationship. The ideal programmable smart sensor would be one that is programmed with the desired output span and the electronics figures out the rest. The temperature coefficients, offset, and gain would be calculated automatically. The ideal sensor would further reduce manufacturing costs of the sensor assembly by reducing the programming time. Eventually this type of programmable sensor will be developed, either as an integrated device or as an interface circuit with a discrete sensor element. With the processing needed to make this possible, a microcontroller is required. Using a microcontroller will enable other features to be added at little additional cost.

SENSOR DEVIATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS If sensor is not ideal several types of deviations occur The sensitivity in practice differ form the value specified Since the range of output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits If the out put signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an offset which defines the output of sensor

If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of sensor this is called non linearity, which means output varies form ideal behaviour If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, this is known as dynamic error If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as drift Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long period time Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time. If the sensor has a digital output with an approximation of measured property, this is called digitization error All these deviations are classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors some time compensated by means of calibration strategy. Noise is random error that can be reduced by signal processing