EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Muslim Scientists
Ibne Rushd - 1987 Al Farabi - 1991 Ibn e Nafis - 1991 Al Kinidi - 1991 Ibn Hayyan - 1987, 2001, 2011 Ibn al Baitar - 1995, 2001 Abu Ali Sina - 1991, 2001, 2008, 2011 Biruni - 1995, 2005, 2010 Ibn Al-Haitham -1987, 1995, 2005, 2010 Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi - 2008 Umer Al Khayam - 1991, 2001, 2009 Zakariya Al Razi - 1987, 2001, 2009

Balanced Diet
Balanced diet 1993, 1994, 2002, 2007, 2008, Pasteurization 1987, 1995, 2001, 2008 Disease caused by deficiency 1987 Sources of Vitamins 1990

Computers
Software 1991, 2000, 2002 Registers 1998, 2000 Computers 1991 Microcomputers 1991 Peripheral uses 1991 Hardware 1991 CPU 1996 RAM 2000 Byte 2000 Mouse 2000 Icons 2000 Control Unit 2000 LAN 2000 Modem 2000 ALU 2000 Computer Viruses 2008 Millennium Bug - 2009 Internet - 2010, 2011

Energy
Renewable energy resources 1996, 2001, 2008, 2011 Geothermal energy 2005, 2008

Non conventional source of energy 1994 Magnetic resonance Imaging 2006 Tide energy 2006 Dam and barrage 2006 Voltage Stabilizer - 2010 Forms of energy - 2011 Types of energy- 2011

Universe
Solar System - 1999, 2002, 2003, 2008 Planets 1986, 2002 Lunar Eclipse 1994, 1999 Solar Eclipse 1999 Hovering Satellite 1994 Steroid 2002 Mercury 2004 Plato 2004, 2011 Communication satellite 2005 Satellites 2007 Artificial Satellite - 2011 Supernova 2008 A supernova (abbreviated SN, plural SNe after supernovae) is a stellar explosion that is more energetic than a nova. It is pronouncedpron.: /suprnov/ with the plural supernovae /suprnovi/ or supernovas. Supernovae are extremely luminous and cause a burst ofradiation that often briefly outshines an entire galaxy, before fading from view over several weeks or months. During this short interval a supernova can radiate as much energy [1] as the Sun is expected to emit over its entire life span. The explosion expels much or all of a [2] star's material at a velocity of up to 30,000 km/s (10% of the speed of light), driving a shock [3] wave into the surrounding interstellar medium. This shock wave sweeps up an expanding shell of gas and dust called a supernova remnant. Synchronous satellite - 2009 Big Dipper 2009 the Big Dipper, also known as the Plough or the Saptarishi (after the seven rishis), is an asterism of seven stars that has been recognized as a distinct grouping in many cultures from time immemorial. The component stars are the seven brightest of the formalconstellation Ursa Major. The North Star (Polaris), the current northern pole star on Earth, can be located by using it. Polaris is part of the "Little Dipper", Ursa Minor. Nebula 2009 [1] A nebula (from Latin: "cloud"; pl. nebulae or nebul, with ligature or nebulas) is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and otherionized gases. Originally, nebula was a name for any extended astronomical object, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The Andromeda Galaxy, for instance, was referred to as the Andromeda Nebula before galaxies were discovered by Edwin Hubble. Nebulae are often star-forming regions, such as in the Eagle Nebula. This nebula is depicted in one of NASA's most famous images, the "Pillars of Creation". In these regions the formations of gas, dust, and other materials "clump" together to form larger masses, which attract further matter, and eventually will become massive enough to form stars. The remaining materials are then believed to form planets, and other planetary system objects.

Big Bang Theory - 2011 Galaxy - 2011

Hazards of Sciences
Water pollution 1995, 2000, 2001, 2005 Global warming 1998, 2004, 2006, 2010 Green house effect 1998, 2001, 2009 Acid rain 1990, 2002 Environmental pollution 1988 Reclaim a saline soil 1989 Water logging 1989 Salinity 1989 Ozone depletion - 1996

Geography
Earthquake 1989, 1998, 2008 Heavy water 1989, 1985 Structure of earth 1997, 2003 Minerals 2002, 2009 Lightening 1985 Seasonal variation 1991, 2010 Movements of the earth and its atmosphere 2000 Seismograph 2004 Tsunami 2005 Sedimentary rocks 2007 Days and nights 1991 Volcanoes 1999 International Date Line 1998 Deforestation 1995 Igneous rocks - 2009 Typhoons - 2011 Tornadoes - 2011

Biology
Pollination (cross) 1988, 1991, 2001, 2003 Photosynthesis 1987, 1988, 1998, 2001 Ecosystem 1994, 2000, 2001, 2002 Positively and negatively phototropic parts of plant 1987 Nitrogen cycle 1992 Structure of animal cell 1994 Cellulose 1992 Viruses 1994 Osmosis 1997 Transpiration 1997 Important parts of flower 2001 Fertilization 2001 Animal cell 2008

Producers and consumers of ecosystem 1989 Balance of nitrogen in atmosphere 1985 Glycolysis 1997 Phototaxis 1997 Root tubers 1987, 1992 Food chain 1987 Symbiosis 1987 Biochemical cycle 1992 Diffusion 1994 Catabolism 1995 Epiphytes 2007 Similarities and differences between animals and plants - 2009 Amphibian - 2009 Vertebrates - 2010 Invertebrates - 2010 Flying mammal 2010 Bird 2010 Ribosome - 2011 Mitochondria - 2011 Lysosomes - 2011 Chloroplasts - 2011 Golgi apparatus - 2011 Nucleic acids - 2011

Human Biology
Endocrine glands 1990, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2007 Human eye 1985, 1990, 2002 Hemophilia 1987, 1989, 1992 Excretory system 1995, 2000 Human brain 1990, 1994 Principle of immunization 1987, 1995 Chromosomes 1988, 1989 Composition of blood 1995, 1999 Hormones 2001, 2008 Human kidney 1988 Human blood 1988 Clotting 1988 Heredity 1989, 2010 Hereditary disease transferred from parents to offsprings - 2010 DNA 1990 Digestion 1991 Feedback mechanism of human system 2000 Characters transmitted from parents to offsprings 2007 Blood pressure 1987 Immunity 1987 Blood groups 1998 Ovulation 2003 Gene 2006 Biotechnology 2003 Receptors and receptor organs in human body - 2009 Genetic Engineering - 2009

Coronary artery - 2010 Sino- Auricular Node - 2010 Aortic valve - 2010 Auricle - 2010 Reflex Action - 2010

Chemistry
Polymer (synthetic) 1994, 2001, 2002 Heavy water - 2011 Soft water Hard Water - 2011 Carbon cycle 1992, 1998, 2000 Suplhide Cynnabar (Hgs) 2003 Catalyst 1992 Fermentation - 2009 Aqua Regia - 2009 Enrichment of Uranium - 2009 Allotropy - 2009 Isomers - 2010, 2011 Isotopes - 2010, 2011

Diseases
Virus 1987, 1994 Meningistis 2000 Pollen allergy 2006 Bird flu 2006 Short sightedness 1998 Dengue Virus - 2009 Swine flu - 2010

Physics
Nuclear fission 1986, 1987, 1998, 2001 Fusion 1986, 1998, 2001 Radioactivity 1989, 2008 Law of gravitation 1992 Conductor 1998 Resistor 1998 Transistor 1998 Escape velocity 1999 Optic fiber 2003

Inventions of Science
Laser 1986, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2008 Pesticides 1990, 1995, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2010 Semiconductor 1990, 1998, 2000, 2008, 2011 Antibiotics 1989, 1996, 2001, 2002, 2011

Antibody 1998, 2011 Ceramics 1996, 2001, 2007, 2008 Telephone 1990, 1994, 2000 RADAR 1986, 2001 Vaccine 1990, 1996, 2001, 2011 Television 1999, 2001 Plastics 1986, 2008, 2011 Fertilizers 2002, 2004, 2011 Microwave oven 2001, 2008, 2010, 2011 Immunization 1995 Transmistor 1998 Escape velocity 1999 PVC 2001 Tape recorder 2001 Camera 2008 Teleprinter- 2009 Vacuum Cleaner - 2009 Microwave oven 2001, 2008 Pace Maker 2010

Miscellaneous
Ultrasonic waves 1986, 2005 Plaster of Paris 1998, 2006, 2010 Radio waves 1990 Scavenger 1998 Superconductivity 2004 Night Vision Technology 2004 Supersonics 2006 Short circuit 1998 Shockwaves 2005 Second barrier 2005 Solar cell 2005 Reaction time 1998 Quartz 2003 Allele 2002 Pressure cooker 2001 Paramagnetism and diamagnetism 2001 CNG 2001 Super fluid 2005 Photovoltaic cell 2005 Theodolite 2006 Hygrometer 2005, 2010 Role of Nitrogen and phosphorous in plant 1990 Modulation 1995 Saponification 1997 Nuclear reactor 2007 Hydrometer 2010 Plaster of Paris 2010 Perimeter 2010 Telemeter 2010 Microscope - 2011

Telescope - 2011 Ultrasonics - 2011 Infrasonics - 2011 Antigens - 2011

Balanced Diet

A balanced diet is nothing but a diet which includes right amount of all the nutrients such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats, carbohydrates etc. A balanced diet is required for the growth and development of a person especially the children. Each food group is abundant in certain type of nutrients. So a right mix of all nutrients in our food will ensure long and healthy life.

Essential Nutrients of Balanced Diet

A balanced diet must contain carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins, mineral salts and fiber. It must contain these things in the correct proportions.

Functions of Nutrients 1. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the most important source of energy. They contain the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. The first part of the name carbo- means that they contain Carbon. The second part of the name -hydr- means that they contain Hydrogen. The third part of the name -ate- means that they contain Oxygen. In all carbohydrates the ratio of Hydrogen atoms to Oxygen atoms is 2:1 just like water. We obtain most of our carbohydrate in the form of starch. This is found in potato, rice, spaghetti, yams, bread and cereals. Our digestive system turns all this starch into another carbohydrate called glucose. Glucose is carried around the body in the blood and is used by our tissues as a source of energy. Any glucose in our food is absorbed without the need for digestion. We also get some of our carbohydrate in the form of sucrose; this is the sugar which we put in our tea and coffee. Both sucrose and glucose are sugars, but sucrose molecules are too big to get into the blood, so the digestive system turns it into

glucose. When we use glucose in tissue respiration we need Oxygen. This process produces Carbon Dioxide and water and releases energy for other processes.

2. Proteins
Proteins are required for growth and repair. Proteins contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and sometimes Sulphur. Proteins are very large molecules, so they cannot get directly into our blood; they must be turned into amino-acids by the digestive system. There are over 20 different amino-acids. Our bodies can turn the amino-acids back into protein. When our cells do this they have to put the amino-acids together in the correct order. There are many millions of possible combinations or sequences of amino-acids; it is our DNA which contains the information about how to make proteins. Our cells get their amino-acids from the blood. Proteins can also be used as a source of energy. When excess aminoacids are removed from the body the Nitrogen is excreted as a chemical called urea. The liver makes urea and the kidney puts the urea into our urine.

3. Fats
Like carbohydrates, fats contain the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. Fats are used as a source of energy: they are also stored beneath the skin helping to insulate us against the cold. Do not think that by avoiding fat in our diet we will stay thin and elegant! If we eat too much carbohydrate and protein, we will convert some of it into fat, so we will put on weight. We must balance the amount of energy containing foods with the amount of energy that we use when we take exercise. We must have some fat in our diet because it contains fat soluble vitamins.

4. Vitamins
Vitamins are only required in very small quantities. There is no chemical similarity between these chemicals; the similarity between them is entirely biological. 1. Vitamin A: good for your eyes

2. Vitamin 3. Vitamin 4. Vitamin Calcium. 5. Vitamin

B: about 12 different chemicals. C: needed for your body to repair itself. D: can be made in your skin, needed for absorption of E: Anti oxidant function

5. Mineral Salts
These are also needed in small quantities, but we need more of these than we need of vitamins. 1. Iron: required to make hemoglobin. 2. Calcium: required for healthy teeth, bones and muscles. 3. Sodium: all cells need this, especially nerve cells. 4. Iodine: used to make a hormone called thyroxin.

6. Fibre
We can not digest cellulose. This is a carbohydrate used by plants to make their cell walls. It is also called roughage. If we do not eat foods materials which contain fibre we might end up with problems of the colon and rectum. The muscles of our digestive system mix food with the digestive juices and push food along the intestines by peristalsis; if there is no fibre in our diet these movements cannot work properly.

Importance of Balanced Diet

A balanced diet has direct relation with the health of a person. Following a balanced diet will ensure you certain things such as Helps to keep our body weight under control Keep us energetic throughout the day Maintaining the cholesterol, blood sugar and blood pressure level under control Helps to relax our body and mind Plays a major role in making our physique attractive, Classification of Food Food itself is a medicine which has the potential to cure any kind of disease if consumed in a right way. Food is broadly classified into following five major categories

Vegetables
Vegetables should be compulsorily present in ones diet as it provides

most of the nutrients required for a human body. Even the nutrients present in the meat and other non-vegetarian items are also available in the vegetables. More over only vegetables can provide you the fiber which is not available in other food items. Vegetables have the ability to sustain the fluid balance of the body. They are also abundant in vitamins, minerals and carbohydrates.

Fruits
Without any doubt we can say that fruits are gift of nature which is rich in nutrients and is widely available anywhere. Fruits are naturally good source of vitamins and some minerals. Fruits have the ability to restore the water balance in your body. Just like vegetables, fruits are also good source of fiber. Similarly fruit juices can also do good to your body.

Milk and milk products

Milk is the only food which is has all the nutrients. It is a good source of calcium and taking a glass of milk everyday will meet the daily requirement of calcium. Milk is a must for children for their growth and development. Protein is essential for the growth of body and it is abundant in milk and diary products. Milk also helps in strengthening your bones.

Meat and Fish Group

Though vegetables have all the nutrients, some of them are not abundant enough to meet the requirement of your body. In such case meats are a good alternative. Meats are good source of protein, iron, zinc and vitamins. Meat and fish group include egg, chicken, mutton and fish, crab, lobsters and shrimp.

Legumes and Nuts

Legumes and nuts are good source of carbohydrates and fats. They maintain the energy level of your body. More over they are rich in protein.

The Concept of the Ecosystem

"I bequeathe myself to the dirt, to grow from the grass I love; If you want me again, look for me under your boot-soles."

- Walt Whitman
In this lesson, we will learn answers to the following questions: What is an ecosystem, and how can we study one? Is the earth an open or closed system with respect to energy and elements? How do we define "biogeochemical cycles," and how are they important to ecosystems? What are the major controls on ecosystem function? What are the major factors responsible for the differences between ecosystems? Format for printing

10/31/2008

Introduction - What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. The boundaries are not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seem obvious, as with the shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons having to do with the goals of the particular study. The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living, or biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. Energy transformations andbiogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology. As we learned earlier, ecology generally is defined as the interactions of organisms with one another and with the environment in which they occur. We can study ecology at the level of the individual, the population, the community, and the ecosystem. Studies of individuals are concerned mostly about physiology, reproduction, development or behavior, and studies of populations usually focus on the habitat and resource needs of individual species, their group behaviors, population growth, and what limits their abundance or causes extinction. Studies of communities examine how populations of many species interact with one another, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that share common needs or resources. In ecosystem ecology we put all of this together and, insofar as we can, we try to understand how the system operates as a whole. This means that, rather than worrying mainly about particular species, we try to focus on major functional aspects of the system. These functional aspects include such things as the amount of energy that is produced by photosynthesis, how energy or materials flow along the many steps in a food chain, or what controls the rate of decomposition of materials or the rate at which nutrients are recycled in the system.

Components of an Ecosystem

You are already familiar with the parts of an ecosystem. You have learned about climate and soils from past lectures. From this course and from general knowledge, you have a basic understanding of the diversity of plants and animals, and how plants and animals and microbes obtain water, nutrients, and food. We can clarify the parts of an ecosystem by listing them under the headings "abiotic" and "biotic". ABIOTIC COMPONENTS Sunlight Temperature Precipitation Water or moisture Soil or water chemistry (e.g., P, NH4+) etc. All of these vary over BIOTIC COMPONENTS Primary producers Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Detritivores etc. space/time

By and large, this set of environmental factors is important almost everywhere, in all ecosystems. Usually, biological communities include the "functional groupings" shown above. A functional group is a biological category composed of organisms that perform mostly the same kind of function in the system; for example, all the photosynthetic plants or primary producers form a functional group. Membership in the functional group does not depend very much on who the actual players (species) happen to be, only on what function they perform in the ecosystem.

Processes of Ecosystems
This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main ideas about how ecosystems function: ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials. These two processes are linked, but they are not quite the same (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Energy flows and material cycles. Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the continued input of solar energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with respect to energy. Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of ways. Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals may also obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but usually they obtain these mainly as a consequence of consuming other organisms. These materials are transformed biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state. Often bacteria complete this process, through the process called decomposition or mineralization (see previous lecture on microbes). During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the earth is a closed systemwith respect to elements (with the exception of a meteorite entering the system now and then). The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and abiotic states within ecosystems. Those elements whose supply tends to limit biological activity are called nutrients.

The Transformation of Energy

The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of energy from the sun. Energy from the sun is captured by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen (derived from the splitting of water molecules) to produce

carbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in the high energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP (see lecture on photosynthesis). The prophet Isaah said "all flesh is grass", earning him the title of first ecologist, because virtually all energy available to organisms originates in plants. Because it is the first step in the production of energy for living things, it is called primary production (click here for a primer on photosynthesis). Herbivores obtain their energy by consuming plants or plant products,carnivores eat herbivores, and detritivores consume the droppings and carcasses of us all.

Figure 2 portrays a simple food chain, in which energy from the sun, captured by plant photosynthesis, flows fromtrophic level to trophic level via the food chain. A trophic level is composed of organisms that make a living in the same way, that is they are all primary producers (plants),primary consumers (herbivores) or secondary consumers (carnivores). Dead tissue and waste products are produced at all levels. Scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers collectively account for the use of all such "waste" -- consumers of carcasses and fallen leaves may be other animals, such as crows and beetles, but ultimately it is the microbes that finish the job of decomposition. Not surprisingly, the amount of primary production varies a great deal from place to place, due to differences in the amount of solar radiation and the availability of nutrients and water. For reasons that we will explore more fully in subsequent lectures, energy transfer through the food chain is inefficient. This means that less energy is available at the herbivore level than at the primary producer level, less yet at the carnivore level, and so on. The result is a pyramid of energy, with important implications for understanding the quantity of life that can be supported. Usually when we think of food chains we visualize green plants, herbivores, and so on. These are referred to asgrazer food chains, because living plants are directly consumed. In many circumstances the principal energy input is not green plants but dead organic matter. These are called detritus food chains. Examples include the forest floor or a woodland stream in a forested area, a salt marsh, and most obviously, the ocean floor in very deep areas where all sunlight is extinguished 1000's of meters above. In subsequent lectures we shall return to these important issues concerning energy flow. Finally, although we have been talking about food chains, in reality the organization of biological systems is much more complicated than can be represented by a simple "chain". There are many food links and chains in an ecosystem, and we refer to all of these linkages as a food web. Food webs can be very complicated, where it appears that "everything is connected to everything else", and it is important to understand what are the most

important linkages in any particular food web.

Biogeochemistry
How can we study which of these linkages in a food web are most important? One obvious way is to study the flow of energy or the cycling of elements. For example, the cycling of elements is controlled in part by organisms, which store or transform elements, and in part by the chemistry and geology of the natural world. The term Biogeochemistry is defined as the study of how living systems influence, and are controlled by, the geology and chemistry of the earth. Thus biogeochemistry encompasses many aspects of the abiotic and biotic world that we live in. There are several main principles and tools that biogeochemists use to study earth systems. Most of the major environmental problems that we face in our world toady can be analyzed using biogeochemical principles and tools. These problems include global warming, acid rain, environmental pollution, and increasing greenhouse gases. The principles and tools that we use can be broken down into 3 major components: element ratios, mass balance, and element cycling. 1. Element ratios In biological systems, we refer to important elements as "conservative". These elements are often nutrients. By "conservative" we mean that an organism can change only slightly the amount of these elements in their tissues if they are to remain in good health. It is easiest to think of these conservative elements in relation to other important elements in the organism. For example, in healthy algae the elements C, N, P, and Fe have the following ratio, called theRedfield ratio after the oceanographer who discovered it: C : N : P : Fe = 106 : 16 : 1 : 0.01 Once we know these ratios, we can compare them to the ratios that we measure in a sample of algae to determine if the algae are lacking in one of these limiting nutrients.

2. Mass Balance Another important tool that biogeochemists use is a simple mass balance equation to describe the state of a system. The system could be a snake, a tree, a lake, or the entire globe. Using a mass balance approach we can determine whether the system is changing and how fast it is changing. The equation is: NET CHANGE = INPUT + OUTPUT + INTERNAL CHANGE In this equation the net change in the system from one time period to another is determined by what the inputs are, what the outputs are, and what the internal change in the system was. The example given in class is of the acidification of a lake, considering the inputs and outputs and internal change of acid in the lake.

3. Element Cycling Element cycling describes where and how fast elements move in a system. There are two general classes of systems that we can analyze, as mentioned above: closed and open systems. A closed system refers to a system where the inputs and outputs are negligible compared to the internal changes. Examples of such systems would include a bottle, or our entire globe. There are two ways we can describe the cycling of materials within this closed system, either by looking at the rate of movement or at the pathways of movement.

1. 2.

Rate = number of cycles / time * as rate increases, productivity increases Pathways-important because of different reactions that may occur

In an open system there are inputs and outputs as well as the internal cycling. Thus we can describe the rates of movement and the pathways, just as we did for the closed system, but we can also define a new concept called the residence time. The residence time indicates how long on average an element remains within the system before leaving the system.

1. 2. 3.

Rate Pathways Residence time, Rt

Rt = total amount of matter / output rate of matter (Note that the "units" in this calculation must cancel properly)

Controls on Ecosystem Function

Now that we have learned something about how ecosystems are put together and how materials and energy flow through ecosystems, we can better address the question of "what controls ecosystem function"? There are two dominant theories of the control of ecosystems. The first, called bottom-up control, states that it is the nutrient supply to the primary producers that ultimately controls how ecosystems function. If the nutrient supply is increased, the resulting increase in production of autotrophs is propagated through the food web and all of the other trophic levels will respond to the increased availability of food (energy and materials will cycle faster). The second theory, called top-down control, states that predation and grazing by higher trophic levels on lower trophic levels ultimately controls ecosystem function. For example, if you have an increase in predators, that increase will result in fewer grazers, and that decrease in grazers will result in turn in more primary producers because fewer of them are being eaten by the grazers. Thus the control of population numbers and overall productivity "cascades" from the top levels of the food chain down to the bottom trophic levels. So, which theory is correct? Well, as is often the case when there is a clear dichotomy to choose from, the answer lies somewhere in the middle. There is evidence from many ecosystem studies that BOTH controls are operating to some degree, but that NEITHER control is complete. For example, the "top-down" effect is often very strong at trophic levels

near to the top predators, but the control weakens as you move further down the food chain. Similarly, the "bottom-up" effect of adding nutrients usually stimulates primary production, but the stimulation of secondary production further up the food chain is less strong or is absent. Thus we find that both of these controls are operating in any system at any time, and we must understand the relative importance of each control in order to help us to predict how an ecosystem will behave or change under different circumstances, such as in the face of a changing climate.

The Geography of Ecosystems

There are many different ecosystems: rain forests and tundra, coral reefs and ponds, grasslands and deserts. Climate differences from place to place largely determine the types of ecosystems we see. How terrestrial ecosystems appear to us is influenced mainly by the dominant vegetation. The word "biome" is used to describe a major vegetation type such as tropical rain forest, grassland, tundra, etc., extending over a large geographic area (Figure 3). It is never used for aquatic systems, such as ponds or coral reefs. It always refers to a vegetation category that is dominant over a very large geographic scale, and so is somewhat broader than an ecosystem.

Figure 3: The distribution of biomes.

We can draw upon previous lectures to remember that temperature and rainfall patterns for a region are distinctive. Every place on earth gets the same total number of hours of sunlight each year, but not the same amount of heat. The sun's rays strike low latitudes directly but high latitudes obliquely. This uneven distribution of heat sets up not just temperature differences, but global wind and ocean currents that in turn have a great deal to do with where rainfall occurs. Add in the cooling effects of elevation and the effects of land masses on temperature and rainfall, and we get a complicated global pattern of climate. A schematic view of the earth shows that, complicated though climate may be, many aspects are predictable (Figure 4). High solar energy striking near the equator ensures nearly constant high temperatures and high rates of evaporation and plant transpiration. Warm air rises, cools, and sheds its moisture, creating just the conditions for a tropical rain forest. Contrast the stable temperature but varying rainfall of a site in Panama with the relatively constant precipitation but seasonally changing temperature of a site in New York State. Every location has a rainfall- temperature graph that is typical of a broader region.

Figure 4. Climate patterns affect biome distributions. We can draw upon plant physiology to know that certain plants are distinctive of certain climates, creating the vegetation appearance that we call biomes. Note how well the distribution of biomes plots on the distribution of climates (Figure 5). Note also that some climates are impossible, at least on our planet. High precipitation is not possible at low temperatures -- there is not enough solar energy to power the water cycle, and most water

is frozen and thus biologically unavailable throughout the year. The high tundra is as much a desert as is the Sahara.

Figure 5. The distribution of biomes related to temperature and precipitation.

Summary
Ecosystems are made up of abiotic (non-living, environmental) and biotic components, and these basic components are important to nearly all types of ecosystems. Ecosystem Ecology looks at energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling within ecosystems. Energy is continually input into an ecosystem in the form of light energy, and some energy is lost with each transfer to a higher trophic level. Nutrients, on the other hand, are recycled within an ecosystem, and their supply normally limits biological activity. So, "energy flows, elements cycle". Energy is moved through an ecosystem via a food web, which is made up of interlocking food chains. Energy is first captured by photosynthesis (primary production). The amount of primary production determines the amount of energy available to higher trophic levels. The study of how chemical elements cycle through an ecosystem is termed biogeochemistry. A biogeochemical cycle can be expressed as a set of stores (pools) and transfers, and can be studied using the concepts of "stoichiometry", "mass balance", and "residence time". Ecosystem function is controlled mainly by two processes, "top-down" and "bottomup" controls. A biome is a major vegetation type extending over a large area. Biome distributions are determined largely by temperature and precipitation patterns on the Earth's surface.

Review and Self Test

Types of Rocks
Rocks come in many different colors, shapes, and sizes. Because no two rocks are exactly alike, they are a lot of fun to collect. Your rock collection will be truly unique, so start collecting rocks today! No one else in the world will have a rock collection just like yours. Although, because many rocks have similar properties, we can compare our rocks with those of other collectors if we categorize them into specific types. The foundation of a great rock collection is to identify your rocks by type. Geologist classify rocks into three basic groups based on how they were formed in nature. The types of rocks are:

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

To help you identify the types of rocks in your collection, lets look at the characteristics that make up the three types. First, we will look at igneous rocks.
Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed from melted rock that has cooled and solidified. When rocks are buried deep within the Earth, they melt because of the high pressure and temperature; the molten rock (called magma) can then flow upward or even be erupted from a volcano onto the Earth's surface. When magma cools slowly, usually at depths of thousands of feet, crystals grow from the molten liquid, and a coarse-grained rock forms. When magma cools rapidly, usually at or near the Earth's surface, the crystals are extremely small, and a fine-grained rock results. A wide variety of rocks are formed by different cooling rates and different chemical compositions of the original magma. Obsidian (volcanic glass), granite, basalt, and andesite porphyry are four of the many types of igneous rock. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)

Igneous Rock Specimen: Serpentine

A family of silicate minerals rich in magnesium and water, derived from low-temperature alteration or metamorphism of the minerals in ultramafic rocks. Rocks made up of serpentine minerals are called serpentinite. Serpentine minerals are light to dark green, commonly varied in hue, and greasy looking; the mineral feels slippery. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the Earth, either in water or on land. They are layered accumulations of sediments-fragments of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material. Temperatures and pressures are low at the Earth's surface, and sedimentary rocks show this fact by their appearance and the minerals they contain. Most sedimentary rocks become cemented together by minerals and chemicals or are held together by electrical attraction; some, however, remain loose and unconsolidated. The layers are normally parallel or nearly parallel to the Earth's surface; if they are at high angles to the surface or are twisted or broken, some kind of Earth movement has occurred since the rock was formed. Sedimentary rocks are forming around us all the time. Sand and gravel on beaches or in river bars look like the sandstone and conglomerate they will become. Compacted and dried mud flats harden into shale. Scuba divers who have seen mud and shells settling on the floors of lagoons find it easy to understand how sedimentary rocks form. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)

Sedimentary Rock Specimen:

Shale
Sedimentary rock derived from mud. Commonly finely laminated (bedded). Particles in shale are commonly clay minerals mixed with tiny grains of quartz eroded from pre-existing rocks. Shaley means like a shale or having some shale component, as in shaley sandstone. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)

Metamorphic Rocks

Sometimes sedimentary and igneous rocks are subjected to pressures so intense or heat so high that they are completely changed. They become metamorphic rocks, which form while deeply buried within the Earth's crust. The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into denser, more compact rocks. New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks. Some kinds of metamorphic rocks--granite gneiss and biotite schist are two examples--are strongly banded or foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain mineral grains that gives the rock a striped appearance.) Anyone who wishes to collect rocks should become familiar with the characteristics of these three rock groups. Knowing how a geologist classifies rocks is important if you want to transform a random group of rock specimens into a true collection. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)

Metamorphic Rock Specimen: Slate

Slate is a metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks are formed when sedimentary or igneous rocks are exposed to conditions of very high pressure or temperature, or are exposed to large amounts of very hot water. Slate is formed when finegrained sedimentary rock (shale) is buried and exposed to high pressure deep beneath the Earth's surface. Slate, like many, but not all, metamorphic rocks is characterized by the way it breaks, along closely spaced parallel fractures. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other things make food. It is a chemical process that turns carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars using sunlight. As well as plants, many kinds of algae, protists and bacteria use it to get food. Photosynthesis is very important for life on Earth. Most plants either directly or indirectly depend on it. The exception are certain organisms that directly get their energy from chemical reactions; these organisms are called chemoautotrophs. Photosynthesis can happen in different ways, but there are some parts that are common. 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) + photons C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g) carbon dioxide + water + light energy glucose + oxygen

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PRIMER ON NITROGEN What is Nitrogen? Nitrogen is a naturally occurring element that is essential for growth and reproduction in both plants and animals. It is found in amino acids that make up proteins, in nucleic acids, that comprise the hereditary material and lifes blueprint for all cells, and in many other organic and inorganic compounds. In addition, nitrogen comprises about 80% of the Earth's atmosphere. The Forms of Nitrogen To appreciate the intricacies of nitrogen loading to coastal waters, some understanding of how nitrogen reacts chemically in the environment may be useful. Nitrogen is an element that can combine with itself or with other elements to make different compounds. For instance nitrogen gas, N2, is a compound made when two nitrogen atoms form a chemical bond. It makes up about 80% of the atmosphere, while oxygen gas, O2, makes up a little less than 20% of the atmosphere. So nitrogen gas is very common and plentiful. However, only a specialized group of bacteria, and industrial fertilizer manufacture, can "fix" this largely inert compound into biologically useful nitrogen compounds. Fertilizer production now exceeds natural nitrogen fixation in making N2 available to the biosphere. Nitrogen in Living Things Nitrogen is a component of amino acids and urea. Amino acids are the building blocks of all proteins. Proteins comprise not only structural components such as muscle, tissue and organs, but also enzymes and hormones essential for the functioning of all living things. Urea is a byproduct of protein digestion. We use the term "organic nitrogen" to describe a nitrogen compound that had its origin in living material. The nitrogen in protein and urea is organic nitrogen. Organic nitrogen can enter septic systems as bodily wastes, discarded food material, or as components of cleaning agents. Ammonification Many of the transformations of nitrogen are mediated by bacteria that use different forms of nitrogen to fuel some of their metabolic processes. During the processes of decomposition, the nitrogen in proteins is transformed

eventually to ammonia, (NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) by certain kinds of bacteria. These processes are called ammonification. Nitrogen leaves the septic tank primarily as ammonium in leachate. Some of the ammonium becomes adsorbed to soil particles and is effectively immobilized from further transport. Nitrification Other kinds of bacteria change ammonia to nitrite. And still other kinds of bacteria can change nitrite to nitrate. These processes are called nitrification. Nitrification is an aerobic process. That means nitrification can occur only in the presence of oxygen. The septic tank ammonium that escapes adsorption is subject to nitrification in aerobic leaching field soils. Denitrification And yet still other bacterial species can take nitrate and change it back to nitrogen gas through a process called denitrification. Denitrification is an anaerobic process. This means it only takes place when no oxygen or extremely low concentrations of oxygen are available. Denitrification also requires a source of carbon. Some of the nitrate escaping the leaching field soils is denitrified in the unconsolidated soils and groundwater as it flows to the estuary. Determining the amounts of nitrogen lost in this way is an important area of ongoing research. Simplified Nitrogen Cycle In summary, nitrogen cycles through the air, water and soils, with many transformations mediated by the actions of specialized bacteria. Some of these transformations require aerobic conditions while others occur only under anaerobic conditions. The best wastewater disposal systems take advantage of the metabolic needs of these bacteria to reduce the amount of nitrogen in the effluent.

Simplified Nitrogen cycle, italics denote processes and bold the different forms of nitrogen.
Hurricanes: Large scale storm systems that may range in diameter from 100-1000 miles. They are intense low pressure systems that feed off of warm water of the ocean. If wind shear (varying wind speeds and directions high in the atmosphere) is not present, not considering other factors, the hurricane will likely continue to intensify. They occur in the Atlantic as well as the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Eastern Pacific hurricanes rarely hit land due to winds high in the atmosphere directing them westward away from the American continent. Atlantic hurricanes tend to form in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and the "InterTropical Convergence Zone" (an area between the western coast of Africa and the Leeward Islands near Puerto Rico at 5 degrees north of the equator). They produce torrential rains, winds from 74 to up to 160 mph. Heavy flooding is often associated with hurricanes. Typhoon: Exactly the same as a hurricane except that they occur in the western Pacific Ocean and tend to be more intense than hurricanes because typhoons have more open water to cover in order to help then intensify since the Pacific is a larger ocean than the Atlantic. Tornado: A far more localized storm whose diameter ranges from 50 meters to up to 1.5 miles. Often occur in the central United States where cold air from Canada, warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, a boundary between dry and moist air, a pocket of moisture in the atmosphere and varying wind

speeds and directions in the atmosphere must be present to form tornadoes. Winds can range from 60 to up to 320 mph., causing far more damage to a local area than a hurricane can. Tornadoes may be accompanied by large hail and frequent lightning originating from the parent thunderstorm. Much more difficult to predict due to their short duration compared to hurricanes as well as their relatively small size.