BIODIVERSITY AND

Grading (Integrated Programme)

CLASSIFICATION
7 points = ≥ 80
6 points = 70-79
5 points = 60-69
4ppoints = 50-59
3 points = 40-49
2 points = 20-39
1 point = 0-19

Max. no. of points for 6 relevant subjects

= 45 (including +3 for ISO and POD)

Grading (Integrated Programme) WHY STUDY BIOLOGY?

Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4

15 % 20 % 15 % 50 %

Common Test 1:
Term 1, Week 6 - 8

BIOLOGY EARTH’S BIODIVERSITY

1
 HOW MANY SPECIES ARE
THERE?
About 1.5 million named species
Estimated to have about 5 – 30 million species of
organisms on Earth.

Diversity of Life The Living Organism

Living things have several characteristics which
makes them different from non-living objects:

ƒ Nutrition
ƒ Growth
ƒ R
Respiration
i ti
ƒ Excretion
ƒ Movement (Locomotion)
ƒ Ability to respond to a stimulus
ƒ Reproduction
ƒ Adaptability

KINGDOMS AND DOMAINS

The three-domain system

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

The six-kingdom system

Bacteria Archaea Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

The traditional five-kingdom system

Monera Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

2

Topic 1:
Cell Structure and Organisation
*Use knowledge gained in new situations or to solve related problems.
Learning Outcomes
Identify organelles of typical plant and animal cells from diagrams,
photomicrographs and as seen under light microscope using prepared
slides and fresh material treated with an appropriate temporary staining
technique:
ƒ chloroplasts, cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, cell vacuoles and
nucleus.
Identify the following membrane systems and organelles from diagrams
and electron micrographs:
ƒ Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi body and ribosomes.
State the functions of the various membrane systems and organelles.
Compare and contrast the structure of typical animal and plant cells.
State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell
structure for the following:
ƒ Absorption – Root hair cells
ƒ Conduction and support – Xylem Vessels
ƒ Transport of oxygen – Red Blood Cells
Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system.

A Brief History Some Terms and Definitions

A cell is a unit of life. It consists of protoplasm.
1635 – 1703 Robert Hooke
Protoplasm:
ƒ A mass of living matter in which endless
chemical activities are carried out
out.

Protoplasm of a cell comprise:

o Nucleus, Cytoplasm and Cell surface membrane

Animal Cells

3
 Structure of an Animal Cell Structure of an Animal Cell

The Nucleus The Nucleus

Found in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Contains the organism’s genetic material in
the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Nucleolus – plays
Functions a role in formation Nucleus
of ribosomes in the
Controls all cellular activities e.g. the cell.
synthesis of proteins.
Chromatin – contains hereditary material
Is involved in cell division. (DNA). During cell division, chromatin threads
condense into chromosomes during cell division

Organisation of Genetic Material The Nucleus

Chromatin Æ Chromosome Nuclear
In the human cell, there are 23 pairs of Envelope/membrane
chromosomes (except sex cells/gametes). – separates the nucleus
from the surrounding
cytoplasm
DNA
Nucleus

Chromosome
Nuclear Pore – allows some substances to pass
through (e.g. RNA) but not others (e.g. DNA)
A Triple Helix Pte Ltd Presentation 2005
Chromatin

4
 Nucleus

Structure of an Animal Cell

The Cytoplasm Organelles

The region where most cell activities occur.
Consists of
o Cytosol (semi-fluid medium) surrounding the
nucleus and organelles
Organelles:
ƒ Nucleus (not part of cytoplasm)
ƒ Mitochondria
ƒ Chloroplasts
ƒ Vacuoles
ƒ Endoplasmic reticulum
ƒ Golgi Body/Apparatus
ƒ Ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Comprise a network of membrane-enclosed
spaces.
Originates from outer membrane of the nucleus
Two types of ER:

Rough ER Smooth ER
• Ribosomes • Lacks ribosomes.
attached to outer *Functions include
surface. synthesis of lipids and
*Site of synthesis cholesterol and
of proteins. detoxification of drugs
and poisons.

5
 Smooth ER and Rough ER Formation of ER vesicles

Golgi Body/Apparatus Golgi Body/Apparatus

Comprise a stack of membrane-enclosed sacs and
vesicles.

Function
Receives lipids and proteins
made by the endoplasmic
reticulum and modifies them
chemically before repacking
them into vesicles which are
then transported to other parts
of the cell.

Golgi Body Golgi Body/Apparatus

6
 What are lysosomes? Mitochondria (mitochondrion)
A double-membraned organelle.
Function
Involved in the release of energy from sugar
molecules during cellular respiration.
Energy
gy is released in the form of molecules called
ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Vacuoles An Animal Cell

Fluid-filled sacs enclosed by a membrane (known as
tonoplast in plants).
Can be found in both plant and animal cells.
Functions?
vesicles

Cell surface membrane or

Animal Cell Plasma membrane
Surrounds cytoplasm externally
Partially permeable membrane.

Functions
ƒ Controls substances entering or leaving the cell.
ƒ Transfer chemical messages from cell exterior to
interior.
ƒ Keeps the cell contains in place

O2

H2O

CO2

7
 The Plasma Membrane is a
Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid Bilayer

A Fluid-
Fluid-Mosaic Model Plant Cells

Cell Wall

Composed of mainly of cellulose

Plasmodesmata present

Functions
Protects the cell from injury
Helps the cell to maintain its shape
Prevent the cell from absorbing too much
water.

8
 Chloroplast

Contains chlorophyll
Site of photosynthesis
in plant cells.

Quiz Quiz

Comparison between plant and

Mitochondria & Chloroplast
animal cells
The Endosymbiont Theory List the similarities and differences between
plant and animal cells

9
 Similarities Differences

Both have Animal Plant

ƒ A cell surface membrane
Cell wall absent present
ƒ Cytoplasm
ƒ Nucleus Chl
Chloroplasts
l t absent
b t presentt
ƒ Mitochondria
ƒ Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes Vacuoles small and many usually large
and central
Stores food glycogen granules starch granules
as

Specialised cells
Cells may undergo differentiation to
become specialised for a specific function.

Th develop
They d l distinct
di ti t shapes
h and
d undergo
d
chemical changes in their cytoplasm.

Specialised cells (I) – Root hair Specialised cells (I) – Root hair
cells cells
Structural feature Adaptation of Structural feature Adaptation of feature to
feature to function function

Root hair Is long and This increases Root hair cell Root hair cell has Provide ATP for active
cell narrow.
narrow surface area to numerous transport
mitochondria
volume ratio for
efficient absorption Cell sap contains Cell sap is more
Æ Is an
of water and mineral sugars, amino acids concentrated than soil
extension of a
and salts. solution, thus facilitating
root epidermal salts from the soil
entry of water via
cell
osmosis

10
 Specialised cells (I) – Root hair
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
cells
1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

Y
X

Shape X Y

Surface Area (2 x 1 x 4) + (1 x 4 x 4) +
(2 x 2 x 2) = 16 (1 x 1 x 2) = 18
Volume (1 x 1 x 1) x 4 = 4 (1 x 1 x 1) x 4 = 4

Surface area to
16/4 = 4 18/4 = 4.5
Volume ratio

Specialised cells (II) – Xylem

Xylem vessels
vessels
Structural feature Adaptation of feature
to function
Xylem Composed of long allows a continuous
Vessels cells joined end to flow of water up the
end plant
End walls between
adjacent cells are
broken down
There is absence
of protoplasm Æ
mature vessels are
non-living

Specialised cells (II) – Xylem

Xylem Vessels
vessels
Structural Adaptation of
feature feature to function
Xylem Deposition of To provide
Vessels lignin
g on the cell pp
mechanical support
wall. to the plant and
prevent collapse of
the vessels

11
Specialised cells (III) – Red Blood Specialised cells–
cells– Red Blood
Cells Cells
Structural feature Adaptation of feature to
function
Red Circular and This increases surface area to
Blood biconcave in shape volume ratio for the diffusion of
oxygen into and out of the cell at
Cell
a higher rate.

Does not have a Enables cytoplasm of red

nucleus blood cells to contain more
haemoglobin molecules to
maximise oxygen carrying
capacity
Provides flexibility, allowing
Has a thin and elastic the cell to squeeze through
plasma membrane narrow blood capillaries

Levels of organisation Cells Æ A Tissue

muscle cell

muscle tissue made epithelial cell epithelial

up of muscle cells cell
gland cell

neurones epithelium in the trachea epithelium in the lungs

(tissue) made up of epithelial (tissue) made up of
cells
ll andd gland
l d cells
ll epithelial
i h li l cells
ll
nervous tissue made up of
neurones (nerve cells)
connective
connective tissue cell
intestinal
tissue cell
epithelial cell

cartilage in the trachea connective tissue in the

intestinal epithelium (tissue) made (tissue) made up of lungs made up of
up of intestinal epithelial cells connective tissue cells connective tissue cells

A group of cells work together to form a tissue.

Tissues Æ An Organ Organs Æ An Organ System

muscle tissue
epithelium (tissue)
stomach trachea stomach trachea
(organ) (organ) (organ) (organ)
nervous tissue cartilage (tissue)

respiratory system
intestinal epithelium epithelium (tissue)
(organ system)
(tissue) digestive system
lungs lungs
intestine (organ system)
intestine (organs) (organs)
(organ)
muscle tissue (organ) connective tissue
Several organs work together to make up an
Different tissues combine to form an organ. organ system.

12
Organ Systems Æ An Organism

digestive system respiratory system

(organ system) (organ system)

human
(organism)
Various organ systems work together to make
up an organism.

Additional Exploration
Significant information:
ƒ Why are most cells so small?
http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/cells/basiccell.html
#size

Other websites
ƒ http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/
BIOBK/BioBookCELL2.html
ƒ http://www.cellsalive.com

Enrichment Enrichment
Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

13
 Enrichment
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Websites to Explore

Some basic differences Centre of the Cell http://www.centreofthecell.org/

The Virtual Cell

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells http://www.ibiblio.org/virtualcell/tour/cell/cell.htm
Bacteria Protists, fungi
Protists fungi, plants
plants,
animals Videos Online
No distinct nucleus Distinct nucleus
Cellular Visions: The Inner Life of a Cell
~1-10µm in size ~10-100µm in size http://www.studiodaily.com/main/searchlist/6850.
html
Absence of membrane- Presence of membrane-
Inside Cancer http://www.insidecancer.org/
bound organelles bound organelles

14