Rotary Wings

Aerodynamics
Like fixed wing aircraft, the helicopter flies because of its airfoils. The airfoils of the fixed wings are primarily their wings. However, the tail surfaces and sometimes the fuselage, as well as the propeller may also be airfoils. The primary airfoil of the helicopter is the main rotor. For this reason the helicopter is often referred to as a rotary wing aircraft. Figure 1: Rotor Blade
Tip

Figure 2: Actual Rotor Blade

Relative Wind
As the rotor blade moves, it is subjected to relative wind. This is always opposite the flight path of the blade.
Root Span

Figure 3: Relative Wind on the Rotor

The span of the blade is the distance from the root of the blade to the tip of the blade, measured along the center line (see Figure 1 on page 25). The airfoils which are used for helicopters are usually reffered to as symmetrical airfoils. Some successful designs have been built with an unsymmetrical airfoil. Some efforts are being made to change the airfoil shape along the span to achieve better flight characteristics in the blade (see Figure 2 on page 25).
Relative Wind

Relative wind is considered in relation to the nose of the helicopter. For this reason the forward moving blade is referred to as the advancing blade, while the backward blade is called the retreating blade. The relative wind may be affected by several factors such as movement of the rotor blades, horizontal movement of the

helicopter, flapping of the rotor blade, wind speed, and direction. The relative wind of the helicopter is the flow of air with respect to the rotor blade. For example: when the rotor is stopped, the wind blowing over the rotor blades creates a relative wind. When the helicopter is hovering in a no-wind condition, the relative wind is created by the motion of the rotor blades. If the helicopter is hovering in a wind, the relative wind is a combination of the wind and the rotor blade movement. When the helicopter is in forward flight, the relative wind is created by the rotor blades, the movement of the helicopter, and possibly a wind factor.

The pilot can increase or decrease the angle of attack by moving the pitch angle of the rotor. When the pitch angle is increased, the angle of attack is increased and when the pitch angle is decreased, the angle of attack is also decreased. Figure 5: Angle of Attack

Pitch Angle
Pitch angle is the acute angle between the rotor blade chord and a reference plane. The reference plane of the helicopter will be determined by the main rotor hub. The pitch angle is varied by movement of the collective control which will rotate the blade about the hub axis, increasing or decreasing the pitch (see Figure 4 on page 26). Figure 4: Pitch Angle
Axis of Rotation

Angle of Attack Direction of Relative Wind

Center of Pressure
The center of pressure is an imaginary point where the result of all the aerodynamic forces of the airfoil are considered to be concentrated. This center of pressure can move as forces change.
Pitch Angle

On some unsymmetrical airfoils, this movement can cover a great distance of the chord of the airfoil. On helicopters, because the rotor blades are moved from a fixed axis (the hub), this situation could lead to instability in the rotor, with the rotor blades constantly

changing pitch. For this reason, the preferred airfoil is symmetrical where the center of pressure has very little movement. Accompanying lift and drag is stall.

Angle of Attack
The angle of attack is the acute angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the relativ wind.

Figure 6: Rotor Blade Airfoils

Figure 7: Relationship between Vertical Forces

Thrust Lift

Unsymmetrical Weight Drag Vertical Ascent

Thrust Lift Symmetrical

Effects on Lift
The lift development by the helicopter has to be sufficient to overcome the weight. The heavier the weight, the greater the pitch angle and power requirement to overcome the weight vs. lift action. Also acting on the helicopter will be thrust and drag. Thrust is the force moving the helicopter in the desired direction, while drag is the force which tends to resist thrust. Therefore, before any movement may take place thrust must overcome drag (see Figure 7 on page 27).
Hover

Weight Drag

Thrust Lift

Weight Drag Vertical Descent

Thrust
Thus far we have discussed the flight of the helicopter only in regards to obtaining lift, with little mention of thrust. Since the rotor will produced lift force and at the same time propel the helicopter directionally, thrust is most important. It is thrust that gives this directional movement. Thrust is obtained by movement of the tip path plane of the rotor or rotor disc. If the helicopter is ascending vertically or at a hover, lift and thrust are both in the same direction, vertical. However, in order to obtain forward, backward, or sideward directional flight, the rotor disc will be tilted in the direction of the movement desired. This will result in lift and thrust being perpendicular to each other, giving the helicopter the ability to maintain flight and move directionally (see Figure 8 on page 28).

Figure 8: Thrust and Flight Directions

Lift Resultant Thrust

Drag Lift Helicopter Movement Resultant Thrust

Weight

Drag Resultant Thrust Lift Weight Helicopter Movement

Drag Helicopter Movement Weight Lift Resultant Thrust

Drag

Weight

Helicopter Movement

Movement of the tip path plane to change the direction of the helicopter is accomplished by changing the angle of attack of the individual blades as they pass along the disc. In order to accomplish this the hub must have provisions for a feathering axis, which simply allows the pitch to be moved as shown in Figure 9 on page 29. Figure 9: Feathering Axis

Figure 10: Swash Plate

Direction of Rotation

De

cre

d se

Pit

ch
Rotor Blade

rea Inc h c Pit

se

d
Swash Plate Tilted Forward

Rotor Shaft

Upper Scissor

Feathering Axis

Collective and Cyclic Pitch

By changing the pitch angle of the blade, more or less lift will be created. This pitch change can be accomplished by the pilot by use of the collective to raise or lower the helicopter in the air. This raises or lowers the pitch angle of all the blades the same amount throughout the tip path plane. If this lift is increased at one point and decreased at another point 180 apart, the blades will climb and dive, thus moving the disc. This is accomplished as the pilot moves the cyclic control, which in turn moves each blade a predetermined and equal amount as shown in Figure 10 on page 29.
Rotor Mast

Lower Scisser

Control Input

Collective Pitch Movement

Cyclic Pitch Movement

Gyroscopic Forces Precession

Another property of the rotor must be discussed before the total directional control can be understood. Since the rotor path is considered as a disc, it has the same properties as that of any other rotating mass. The property of most interest is gyroscopic precession which means that action occurs 90 from the force applied in Figure 11: Precession

the same direction as rotation. This means that the blades do not raise and lower the maximum deflection until a point 90 later than the input (see Figure 11 on page 30). For this reason a device which is called a washplate or star assembly is used to place the input of the cyclic to main rotor at the location required for the movement of the helicopter in the desired direction.

High Flap Result Low Pitch Applied

High Pitch Applied

Low Flap Result

90

Torque
Newtons third law states that for every action there is an opposite and equal reaction. Therefore when power is applied to the rotor system the fuselage of the helicopter will tend to move in the opposite direction of the rotor. This tendency is referred to as torque. The torque problem has plagued designers since the inception of the helicopter. Several designs of rotor systems were tried to eliminate this problem. One such design was the coaxial helicopter in which two main rotors were placed on top of each other rotating in opposite directions. Another design requires two main rotors placed side by side. Some of these designs actually used intermeshing rotors turning in opposite directions. Still other designs have used single rotors powered at the tip by ramjets or hot air passing through the blade and ejected through nozzles at the tip. The disadvantages of these systems seem to outweigh the advantages to the point that most helicopters use one main rotor with an auxiliary rotor on the tail to counteract torque. This system, however, absorbs a great percentage of the power available. To give the helicopter fuselage this directional control, a variable pitch rotor is vertically mounted on the tail. In order to keep the fuselage straight when increasing power, the pitch of the tail rotor is increased to counteract the torque. This is accomplished by foot pedals moved by the pilot (see Figure 12 on page 31).

Figure 12: Principle of Tail Rotor

Rotation of the Rotor

Counter Rotation of the Fuselage

Tail Rotor Force Tail Rotor

Many of the conventional helicopters using tail rotors have found methods to help reduce this power requirement in flight. One of these methods is a vertical fin, which is offset in order to keep the fuselage straight during forward flight. This in turn unloads the tail rotor.