Engineering

Mechanics
Continued(6)
National Institute of Technology Calicut
Mohammed Ameen, Ph.D
Professor of Civil Engineering
Rolling Resistance
Consider a hard roller, supporting a load

P
W
r
N

a
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Consider a hard roller, supporting a load
Wat the centre, moving without slipping
along a horizontal surface.
A force P is needed to maintain uniform
motion.
This can be explained by considering
the deformation of the surface.
The reaction N is thus oriented at any
angle .
As is small,
Coulomb suggested that a depends on
the materials, irrespective of Wand r.
cos N W =
sin N P =
W
P
= tan
r
a
sin tan
r
a
W
P
=
r
Wa
P or =
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There are other opinions too in this
regard.
Coef. of Rolling Resistance (a mm)
Steel on steel 0.18 0.38
Steel on wood 1.52 2.54
Tyre on smooth road 0.50 0.76
Tyre on mud road 1.00 1.50
Hardened steel on h.s 0.005 0.01
Example: What is the rolling resistance
of a railway coach weighing 1500 kN?
The wheels are of 750 mm diameter,
and the coefficient of rolling resistance
between the wheel and the rail is 0.025
mm.
*
If it were a truck with the same weight,
what is the value of the rolling
N 50
kN 05 . 0
750
025 . 0 1500
=
=

= =
r
Wa
P
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what is the value of the rolling
resistance? The diameter of the tyres
are 1.2 m, and a = 0.62 mm.
(* the number of wheels has no
influence; we divide by n and then
multiply by it again).
N 775 1000
1200
62 . 0 1500
=

= =
r
Wa
P
Example: A block C weighing 10 kN is
being moved on rollers A and B, each
weighing 1 kN. What force P is needed
to maintain steady motion? The
coefficient of rolling resistance between
the rollers and the ground is 0.6 mm,

A B
C
300
P
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between block C and the rollers is 0.4
mm.

10 kN
P
N
2

2
N
2

2

0.6
0.4
N
1
N
2

Properties of Surfaces
A variety of quantitative descriptions of
surfaces are necessary in engineering
work.
First Moment of Area and the
Centroid

y
dA
x
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The first moment of a coplanar surface
of area A about the x-axis is defined as
Similarly, the first moment of the area
about y-axis is

=
A
x
dA y M

=
A
y
dA x M
x
y
These two quantities M
x
and M
y
convey
a certain idea about the shape, size and
orientation of the area which is useful in
mechanics.
We can notice the similarity of this with
the case of a distributed parallel force
system.
In that case, we could replace the force
system by a single resultant force
located at a particular point (x, y).

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located at a particular point (x, y).
Likewise, we can imagine the entire
area to be concentrated at a single point
called the centroid with the coordinates
(x
c
, y
c
).
To compute these coordinates, we
equate the moments of the distributed
area with that of the concentrated area
about both the axes.
Thus,
Therefore,

x
y
centroid
y
c
x
c

=
A
c
dA y y A
M
dA y

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Similarly,
and
A
M
A
y
x A
c
= =

=
A
c
dA x x A
A
M
A
dA x
x
y
A
c
= =

The location of centroid of an area is

independent of the location of the
reference axes.
That is, the centroid is a property only of
the area itself.

centroid
y
c
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x
x
b

y
c

b y b
A
M
A
dA b y
y
c
x A
c
+ = + =
+
=

) (
'
All axes passing through the centroid
are called centroidal axes.
The first moment of an area about any
of its centroidal axes is zero.
Examples: Determine the centroid of the
following areas:

h
(a)

h
(b)
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b
h
b
h

(c)
b
h
x
y

(d)
x
y
R
(c)
At x = b, y = h.
Hence, C = h/b
n

b
h
x
y
y = C x
n
x
dx
1
0 0
+
= = =

n
bh
dx x
b
h
dx y A
b
n
n
b
2

+
h b h
b b
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For a rectangle: n = 0
For a triangle: n = 1
For a parabola: n = 2
) 2 (
2
0
1
0
+
= = =

+
n
h b
dx x
b
h
dx y x x A
b
n
n
b
) 2 (
) 1 (
+
+
=
n
n b
x
(d)

x
y
R

dr
d
r
2
R
d dr r A
R

= =

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2
0 0
R
d dr r A
r

= =

= =
3
2
) sin (
3
0 0
R
r d dr r y A
R
r
= =

= =

3
4 R
y =
Area with One Axis of Symmetry

x
y
x
dA
x
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(as for every +x dA, there exists a x dA)
Hence, the centroid must lie on the axis of
symmetry.
0 = =

A
c
dA x x A
Composite Areas
Example: Determine the centroid of the
following area:
(a)

30 mm
30 mm 20 mm
A
B
C
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Area A = 30
2
+ 30 20/2 = 1200 mm
2
Taking moment about AB,
Similarly, taking moments about AC
30 mm 20 mm
mm 75 . 13 1200 500 , 16
) 30 ( ) 20 30 ( 15 30 30
3
1
2
1
= =
+ =
y
y A
mm 4167 . 20 1200 500 , 24
)] 20 ( 30 [ ) 20 30 ( 15 30 30
3
1
2
1
= =
+ + =
x
x A
Example: Determine the centroid of the
following area (all dimensions shown
are in mm):
50
30
5
12
12
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Area,
Taking moments of area about the
bottom edge
Similarly,
12
2
2
mm 46 . 1421
4
10
30 50 = =

A
mm 1658 . 15 46 . 1421 522 . 557 , 21
12
4
10
15 30 50
2
= =
=
y
y A

mm 7183 . 25 46 . 1421 522 . 557 , 36 = = x
Exercise: Determine the centroid of the
following areas:

50 mm
10 mm
20 mm
A B
C
8 mm
(a)
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20 mm
10
20
(b)
All dimensions
are in mm
Second Moments and
the Product of Area
Second moments of an area A about x
and y coordinates are defined as
I
xx
and I
yy
cannot be negative, in

=
A
xx
dA y I
2

=
A
yy
dA x I
2
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I
xx
and I
yy
cannot be negative, in
contrast to the first moments.
Similar to the concept of centroid, the
entire area is assumed to be
concentrated at (k
x
, k
y
) such that
yy y
xx x
I k A
I k A
=
=
2
2
A
I
k
A
I
k
yy
y
xx
x
=
=
Or
The distances k
x
and k
y
are called radii
of gyration.
They depend on both the shape of the
area and the position of the x, y axes
(unlike centroid).
The product of area is defined as
I
xy
could be positive, negative or zero.

=
A
xy
dA xy I

y
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I
xy
could be positive, negative or zero.

x
y
x
dA
x
If the area has an
axis of symmetry,
the product of area
for this axis and
any axis
orthogonal to this
axis is zero.
Transfer Theorems

x
dA
y
x
d

y
y
y
c
c
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In the above figure, x and y are the
centroidal axis.
2
' '
2 2
2 2
' 2 ) ' (
) ' (
d A I
d A dA y d dA y
dA d y dA y I
x x
A A
A A
xx
+ =
+ + =
+ = =


I about any axis = I about any parallel
axis through centroid + Ad
2
A d c I
dA cd dA x d dA y c dA y x
dA d y c x dA xy I
y x
A A A A
A A
xy
+ =
+ + + =
+ + = =


' '
' ' ' '
) ' )( ' (
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I
xy
about any axis = I
xy
about any
parallel axis through centroid + c d A
Important Note: The distances c and d
are measured from the x and y axes to
the centroid.
Example: Find I
xx
, I
yy
and I
xy
of a
rectangle of size b and d about the x
and y axes shown in figure.

x
d

b
y

x
d

b
y
y
dy
b
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3
3
0
2 2
bd
bdy y dA y I
d
A
xx
= = =

3
3
0
2 2
db
dx d x dA x I
b
A
yy
= = =

4
2 2
0 0
d b
dy dx xy dA xy I
b d
A
xy
= = =

Example: Find I
xx
, I
yy
and I
xy
of the
rectangle of size b and d about the
centroidal x and y axes shown in figure.

x
d

b
y
y
dy
b
3
2 /
2 2
bd
bdy y dA y I
d
= = =

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Similarly, we get
and
which is due to the lines of symmetry.
12
2 /
2 2
bdy y dA y I
d A
xx
= = =


12
3
2 /
2 /
2 2
db
dx d x dA x I
b
b A
yy
= = =


0
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
= = =


b
b
d
d A
xy
dy dx xy dA xy I
From the above example, we can see
the validity of transfer theorems. Thus,
we have the second moment I
xx
about
the base is

x
d

b
y
y
dy
b
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b
3 4 12 2
) (
12
3 3 3
2
3
bd bd bd d
bd
bd
I
xx
= + =
|

\
|
+ =
4 4
0
2 2
) (
16
2 2 2 2 2 2
d b d b d b
bd
d b
I
xy
= + =
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ =
and
Example: Find I
xx
of a circle about one
of its diameters.
x
y
d/2

dr
d
r
d

2 / 2
I
xy
= 0 as
there are an
infinite
number of
lines of
symmetry!
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yy
d
A
xx
I
d
d dr r r dA y I
= =
= =

64
) ( ) sin (
4
2 /
0
2
0
2 2

x
sin
2
x
2
1
Example: Determine I
xx
, I
yy
and I
xy
of the
section shown in figure about its
centroidal axes.
x
50
50
y
10
10
A
1
A
2

Dividing the
area into two
A
1
and A
2
we
get:
A
1
= 500 mm
2
A
2
= 400 mm
2
& A = 900 mm
2
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& A = 900 mm
The centroidal distances x
c
and y
c
are
obtained by taking moments of the
area about the bottom and left side
edges. Thus, we obtain
mm 111 . 16
25 500 5 400 900
=
+ =
c
c
y
y
Due to symmetry, x
c
= y
c
Redraw the figure, now marking the
centroidal distances too. Thus

x
16.111
y
10
10
A
1
A
2

33.889
16.111
33.889
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yy
xx
I
I
= =
+ +
+ =
4 5
2 3
12
1
2 3
12
1
mm 10 96389 . 1
) 5 111 . 16 )( 400 ( ) 10 )( 40 (
) 25 889 . 33 )( 500 ( ) 50 )( 10 (
4 5
mm 10 66667 . 0
) 400 )( 111 . 11 )( 111 . 16 20 (
) 500 )( 889 . 8 )( 111 . 11 (
=
+
=
xy
I
Example: Determine I
xx
, I
yy
and I
xy
of the
section shown in figure about the x and
y axes shown. Also determine the
centroid and calculate the second
moments and the product of the area
about the centroidal axes. Given t is
very small when compared to R.

y
t
xx
t d R R I =

) sin (
2 /
2

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The remaining part is homework.
x
R
t
yy
I
t R
= =

4
3
0

2
) cos )( sin (
3
2 /
0
t R
t d R R R I
xy
= =

Coordinate Transformation
Concept of Cartesian Tensor
A. Scalar (Zeroth order tensor)
A scalar quantity, say the temperature T
at a point, remains invariant when the
coordinate axes are rotated.
B. Vector (First order tensor)
Next, let us consider a vector, say a
force vector F.
Although the vector as such remains the
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Although the vector as such remains the
same, its components keep varying as
the coordinate axes are rotated.
The question is this: If F
x
and F
y
components of F are known with
respect to x and y coordinates,
determine the components F
x
and F
y
with respect to x and y coordinates,
which are obtained by rotating x and y
by an angle .
From the above, it is easy to verify that

x
y
F
F
x

x
y
F
y

F
x

F
y



+ =
F
x
F
x
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and
which can be written using matrix
notation as
sin cos
y x x
F F F + =

cos sin
y x y
F F F + =

)
`

=
)
`

y
x
y
x
F
F
F
F


cos sin
sin cos
The above transformation can be
written more concisely as
where
is called the rotation transformation
matrix. It is an orthogonal matrix (which
means that R
1
= R
T
as RR
T
= I).
{ } { } F F ] [ ' R =
(

=


cos sin
sin cos
] [R
A
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Eq. [A] represents the transformation
law for vectors (in other words, all the
quantities that transform according to
Eq. [A] are called vectors).
The position vector at a point also
transforms according to the same law
which can be written as
)
`

=
)
`

y
x
y
x


cos sin
sin cos
'
'
B. Second Order TensorDyadic
The second moment of area and the
product of area put together for a given
area at a point can be written as follows:
which is a symmetric matrix. Now the
question is this:
(

=
yy xy
xy xx
x
I I
I I
I ] [
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question is this:
Given the above components of the
second moment area tensor with
respect to x and y coordinates,
determine the components (I
xx
, I
yy
and
I
xy
) with respect to x and y
coordinates, which are obtained by
rotating x and y by an angle .
We proceed as follows.

x
y
P
x
x
y
y
x
y


) ' (
2
' '
A
x x
dA y I =

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which is written as


cos sin 2 cos sin
) cos sin (
2 2
2
xy xx yy
A
A
I I I
dA y x
+ =
+ =

2 sin 2 cos
2 2
' ' xy
yy xx yy xx
x x
I
I I I I
I

+
+
=
I
yy
is obtained from the above by
replacing by + /2. Thus, we obtain
Similarly, we obtain I
xy
as
The above three results can be
represented using matrix notation as
2 sin 2 cos
2 2
' ' xy
yy xx yy xx
y y
I
I I I I
I +

+
=
2 cos 2 sin
2
' ' xy
yy xx
y x
I
I I
I +

=
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represented using matrix notation as
Or
(

=
(

cos sin
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
' ' ' '
' ' ' '
yy xy
xy xx
y y y x
y x x x
I I
I I
I I
I I
T
x x
R I R I ] ][ ][ [ ] [
'
=
Principal Axes
Thus, we have seen that as the angle
changes, we start getting different
components for the area tensor.
Now the question arises: Is there any
value of at which I
xx
takes on a
maximum (or minimum value)?
I
xx
is maximum when
0 2 cos 2 ) 2 sin 2 (
' '
=

yy xx
x x
I
I I
I
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or
where corresponds to an extreme
value of I
xx
.
There are two possible values of
which are /2 radians apart.
0 2 cos 2 ) 2 sin 2 (
2
' '
=

xy
yy xx
x x
I
I I
I
xx yy
xy
I I
I

=
2
2 tan

The axes corresponding to these angles

are called the principal axes.
The second moments of area about
these axes are called the principal
moments of areaone being the major
principal moment and the other the
minor principal moment.
Next, let us determine the product of
area about the principal axes.
2 cos 2 sin
yy xx
I
I I
I +

=
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Dividing the above by cos 2 we get
Thus, we see that the product of area is
zero about the principal axes.
2 cos 2 sin
2
' ' xy
yy xx
y x
I
I I
I +

=
0 2 tan
2 2 cos
' '
= +

=
xy
yy xx y x
I
I I I

Moreover, we see that

is a constant.
Now, for any orthogonal set of axes we
have
yy xx y y x x
I I I I + = +
' ' ' '

x
y
r
dA
y
x
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I
xx
+ I
yy
is called the polar moment of
area denoted by J or I
P
and is
independent of the orientation of the
axes.
x

= + = +
A A
yy xx
dA r dA x y I I
2 2 2
) (
Since I
xx
+ I
yy
= a constant, it is termed
as an invariant. We can also show that
I
xx
I
yy
I
xy
2
is also an invariant under
rotation of axes.
Example: Determine the principal
moments of area of the plane area
shown below about the centroidal axes.

y
10
We have seen
earlier that the
area, the
centroidal
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x
50
50
10
A
1
A
2

mm 111 . 16
mm 900
2
= =
=
c c
y x
A
centroidal
distances and
the moment
area tensor
are
4 5
mm 10 96389 . 1 = =
yy xx
I I
4 5
mm 10 66667 . 0 =
xy
I
The principal axes are given by
or, 2 = /2.
That is,
1
= /4 and
2
= 3 /4.
The principal moments of area are:
= =

=
0
2 2
2 tan
xy
xx yy
xy
I
I I
I

' '
2 sin 2 cos
2 2

+
+
=
xy
yy xx yy xx
x x
I
I I I I
I
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and
4 5
5
5
mm 10 6306 . 2
) 4 / ( 2 sin ) 10 6667 . 0 (
0 10 96389 . 1
2 2
=

+ =

4 5
5 5
' '
mm 10 2972 . 1
10 6667 . 0 10 96389 . 1
2 sin 2 cos
2 2
=
=
+

+
=
xy
yy xx yy xx
y y
I
I I I I
I
It may be verified that
4 5
' ' ' '
mm 10 9278 . 3 = + = +
yy xx y y x x
I I I I
0 2 cos 2 sin
2
' '
= +

=
xy
yy xx
y x
I
I I
I
(
(

(
=
(

45 sin 45 cos 45 sin 45 cos

' ' ' '
' ' ' '
xy xx
y y y x
y x x x
I I
I I
I I
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(

45 cos 45 sin
45 sin 45 cos
45 cos 45 sin
45 sin 45 cos
yy xy
xy xx
I I
I I
I
xx
I
yy
I
xy
2
can also be verified to remain
unchanged during the transformation.

x
50
50
y
10
10
A
1
A
2

x
y
Principal Moments of Area as an
Eigenvalue Problem
Find the direction cosines l and m of the
principal axis (the axis which
corresponds to an extreme value for I
xx
.
Let
Then, the equation for I
xx
is given by
Let us maximise this with respect to the
sin and cos = = m l
m l I m I l I I
xy yy xx x x
2
2 2
' '
+ =
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Let us maximise this with respect to the
constraint that
This can be done using the Lagrange
multiplier technique: Thus, maximise
which leads to
1
2 2
= + m l
) 1 ( 2
2 2 2 2
+ + = m l m l I m I l I F
xy yy xx

0 2 2 2 = =

l m I l I
l
F
xy xx

That is
Similarly, equating derivative of F with
respect to m to zero and putting them
together, we get
which is a matrix eigenvalue problem of
the form
As the matrix [I
x
] is symmetric, the
l m I l I
xy xx
2 2 =
)
`

=
)
`

m
l
m
l
I I
I I
yy xy
xy xx

} { } ]{ [ X X A =
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As the matrix [I
x
] is symmetric, the
eigenvalues are always real (and not
complex).
Hence, the principal moments of area
are always real.
Exercise: Determine the principal axes
and the principal moments of area of
the following plane area at the point A:

50
30
5
15
10
x
y
A
2 3
) 15 )( 30 50 ( ) 30 )( 50 (
12
1
+ =
xx
I
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4 6 2
2 4
mm 10 441655 . 0 ) 10 (
4
) 10 (
64
) 10 (
=

4 6 2
2 4
2 3
mm 10 23184 . 1 ) 15 (
4
) 10 (
64
) 10 (
) 25 )( 30 50 ( ) 50 )( 30 (
12
1
=
+ =

yy
I
4 6
2
mm 10 550719 . 0
) 10 )( 15 (
4
) 10 (
) 15 )( 25 )( 30 50 (
=
=

xy
I
Thus the area tensor is given by:
Solving the eigenvalue problem, we get
which corresponds to the characteristic
equation given by
6
10
23184 . 1 55072 . 0
55072 . 0 44166 . 0
] [
(

=
x
I
0 10
23184 . 1 55072 . 0
55072 . 0 44166 . 0
6
=

0
2 1
2
= + I I
[A]
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where
and
The solution of equation [A] gives the
eigenvalues.
0
2 1
= + I I
4 6
6
1
mm 10 6735 . 1
10 ) 23184 . 1 44166 . 0 ( ) (
=
+ = =
x
I tr I
4 6
12 2
2
mm 10 240762 . 0
10 ) 55072 . 0 23184 . 1 44166 . 0 ( ) det(
=
= =
x
I I
[A]
6
2
6
1
10 158968 . 0 and 10 5145 . 1 = =
Determine the principal axes and the
principal moments of areas for the
following sections at A.

x
10
y
10
10
8
60
80
A

10
10
10
8
60
80
A
National Institute of Technology Calicut
60
A
60
A

10
10
40
8
40
80
A