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P. Raatikainen
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User data
TLH
error coding/indication octet & frame synchronization addressing medium access & flow control
NLH
LLH
PLH
Physical layer
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2-4
Successful transmission of data requires bit, octet, frame and packet level synchronism Synchronous systems (e.g. PDH and SDH) transfer additional information (embedded into transmitted line signal) for accurate recovery of clock signals Asynchronous systems (e.g. Ethernet) transfer additional bit patterns to synchronize receiver logic
P. Raatikainen
2-5
Timing accuracy
To maintain required timing accuracy network nodes are connected to a hierarchical synchronization network
Universal Time Coordinated (UTC): error in the order of 10-13 Error of Primary Reference Clock (PRC) of the telecom network 10-11
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P. Raatikainen
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Line coding
1 +V Uncoded 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
+V ADI
+V ADI RZ
+V AMI RZ -V ADI - Alternate Digit Inversion ADI RZ - Alternate Digit Inversion Return to Zero AMI RZ - Alternate Mark Inversion Return to Zero
P. Raatikainen
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-V
HDB3
P. Raatikainen
2 - 10
CMI
-V
CMI
P. Raatikainen
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Block coding
Entire blocks of n bits are replaced by other blocks of m bits (m > n) nBmB block codes are usually applied on optical links by using on-off keying Block coding adds variety of 1s and 0s to obtain better clock synchronism and reduced jitter Redundancy in block codes (in the form of extra combinations) enables error recovery to a certain extent When m>n the coded line signal requires larger bandwidth than the original signal Examples: 4B5B (FDDI), 5B6B (E3 optical links) and 8B10B (GbE)
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Coding examples
4B5B coding
Input word 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 Output word 11110 01001 10100 10101 01010 01011 01110 01111 10010 10011 10110 10111 11010 11011 11100 11101 Other output words 00000 11111 00100 11000 10001 01101 00111 11001 00001 00010 00011 00101 00110 01000 01100 10000 Quiet line symbol Idle symbol Halt line symbol Start symbol Start symbol End symbol Reset symbol Set Symbol Invalid Invalid Invalid Invalid Invalid Invalid Invalid Invalid
5B6B coding
Input word 00000 00001 00010 00011 ... 11100 11101 11110 11111 Output word 101011 101010 101001 111000 ... 010011 010111 011011 011100
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Scrambling
Data signal is changed bit by bit according to a separate repetitive sequence (to avoid long sequences of 1s or 0s) Steps of the sequence give information on how to handle bits in the signal being coded A scrambler consists of a feedback shift register described by a polynomial (xN + + xm + + xk + + x + 1) Polynomial specifies from where in the shift register feedback is taken Output bit rate is the same as the input bit rate Scrambling is not as effective as line coding
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Scrambler example
+
x0
D
Preset
x1
D
x2
D
x3
D
x4
D
x5
D
x6
D
x7
D
Data out
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Frame alignment bit pattern Start of frame signal Use of frame check sequence
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Used in bit synchronous networks such as ATM and GFP (Generic Framing Procedures) Example
ATM cells streams can be synchronized to HEC (Header Error Control) field, which is calculated across ATM cell header
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1920 channels
x 4
E3
34.368 Mbit/s
480 channels
x 4
E2
8.448 Mbit/s
120 channels
x 4
E1
2.048 Mbit/s
30 channels
x 32
...
E0
64 kbit/s
1 channel
2 - 20
10
Voice channels 1 - 15
T0 T1 T2 T0
Voice channels 16 - 30
T15 T16 T17
...
...
Signaling time-slot
0 0 0 0 1 A 1 1
Voice channel 28
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8
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Voice channels 1 - 15
T0 T1 T2 T0
Voice channels 16 - 30
T15 T16 T17
...
...
Signaling time-slot
a b c d a b c c
Data bits for management Error indicator bit (CRC-4) Far end alarm indication
Nowadays, time slot 1 used for signaling and time slot 16 for voice
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11
CRC-4 calculation ensures, that the frame alignment function can not lock into a user signal of (x0011011)
2 SMF #1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 SMF #2 11 12 13 14
15 E 1 A Sub-frame #1 (SMF #1): Sa: Spare bit reserved for national use A: Remote Alarm (FAS) indication Frame alignment signal: 0011011 CRC-4 Frame Alignment Signal: 001011 CRC multi-frame not aligned with MFAS TS16
Sa4 Sa5 Sa6 Sa7 Sa8 Sub-frame #2 (SMF #2): E: CRC-4 error indication used by receiving equipment C1, C2, C3, C4: CRC-4 bits
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Multiplexing/PDH
Tributaries have the same nominal bit rate, but with a specified, permitted deviation (100 bit/s for 2.048 Mbit/s) Plesiochronous = tributaries have almost the same bit rate Justification and control bits are used in multiplexed flow First order is octet-interleaved, but higher orders are bit-interleaved
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003
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multiplexer
n channels are multiplexed to a higher capacity link carrying n channels
cross-connect
static multiplexing/switching of user channels
switch
switches incoming TDM/SDM channels to outgoing ones
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Concentrator
n input channels
Cross-connect
...
DXC
n>m m output channels
Switch Multiplexer
4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
n input channels
...
n=m
m output channels
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13
Regeneration Regeneration Regeneration section section section Multiplexing section Multiplexing section Path layer connection
- DXC - MPX -R
P. Raatikainen
STM-64
10 Gbit/s
x 4
STM-16
2.48 Gbit/s
x 4
STM-4
622 Mbit/s
x 4
STM-1
155 Mbit/s
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Multiplexing/SDH
Multiplexing hierarchy for plesiochronous and synchronous tributaries (e.g. E1 and E3) Octet-interleaving, no justification bits - tributaries visible and available in the multiplexed SDH flow SDH hierarchy divided into two groups: multiplexing level (virtual containers, VCs) line signal level (synchronous transport level, STM) Tributaries from E1 (2.048 Mbit/s) to E4 (139.264 Mbit/s) are synchronized (using justification bits if needed) and packed in containers of standardized size Control and supervisory information (POH, path overhead) added to containers => virtual container (VC)
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 29
Multiplexing/SDH (cont.)
Different sized VCs for different tributaries (VC-12/E1, VC-3/E3, VC-4/E4 Smaller VCs can be packed into a larger VC (+ new POH) Section overhead (SOH) added to larger VC => transport module Transport module corresponds to line signal (bit flow transferred on the medium) bit rate is 155.52 Mbit/s or multiples of it transport modules called STM-N (N = 1, 4, 16, 64, ...) bit rate of STM-N is Nx155.52 Mbit/s duration of a module is 125 s (= duration of a PDH frame)
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 30
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multiplexer
terminal multiplexer multiplexes/demultiplexes PDH and SDH tributaries to/from a common STM-n add-drop multiplexer adds or drops tributaries to/from a common STM-n
digital cross-connect
used for rearrangement of connections to meet variations of capacity or for protection switching connections set up and released by operator
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 31
Cross-connect
STM-n STM-n
Add-drop multiplexer
Terminal multiplexer
STM-n STM-n
DXC
STM-n
ADM
STM-n
ADM
STM-n
STM-n
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Justification
PDH/E1
VC-12
MUX
VC-4
STM-1
+ POH
+ POH
+ SOH
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STM-n frame
Three main fields: Regeneration and multiplexer section overhead (RSOH and MSOH) Payload and path overhead (POH) AU (administrative) pointer specifies where payload (VC-4 or VC-3) starts nx9 octets
nx261 octets
P O H
MSOH
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Synchronization of payload
Position of each octet in a STM frame (or VC frame) has a number AU pointer contains position number of the octet in which VC starts lower order VC included as part of a higher order VC (e.g. VC-12 as part of VC-4)
RSOH
VC-4 no. 0
STM-1 no. k
AU-4 PTR
MSOH
VC-4 no. 1
RSOH
AU-4 PTR
MSOH
VC-4 no. 2
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routing/switching
based on VPI and VCI
adaptation
processing of user data into ATM cells
error control
cell header checking and discarding
flow control
no flow control input rate control
congestion control
cell discarded (two priorities)
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 36
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Reference interfaces
UNI
TE
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ATM header
Cell payload
- User Network Interface - Network-to-Network Interface - Virtual Path Identifier - Virtual Channel Identifier - Generic Flow Control - Payload Type Identifier - Cell Loss Priority - Header Error Control
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VCI 1
VCI 1
VPI 1
VCI 2
VPI 1
VCI 2
Physical channel
VCI 1 VCI 1
VPI 2
VCI 2
VPI 2
VCI 2
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Network layer
IP packet
65 535
4 octets
P
UU/ CPI/ LEN
AAL 5 payload
CRC
5 ATM layer
H
48
Cell payload H Cell payload H Cell payload H Cell payload Pad
Physical layer
P UU CPI LEN
- Padding octets - AAL layer user-to-user identifier - Common part identifier - Length indicator
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261 octets
STM-1 frame
SOH
VC-4 frame
J1 B3 C2
AU-4 PTR
... ...
SOH
G1 F2 H4 Z3 Z4 Z5
... ...
...
...
ATM cell
VC-4 POH
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Header
Header
TS0 frame alignment F3 OAM functions loss of frame alignment performance monitoring transmission of FERF and LOC performance reporting
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003
...
TS16 reserved for signaling
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22
...
H ATM layer
PL cells processed on physical layer (not on ATM layer) IDLE cell for cell rate adaptation PL-OAM cells carry physical level OAM information (regenerator (F1) and transmission path (F3) level messages) PL cell identified by a pre-defined header
00000000 00000000 0000000 00000001 (IDLE cell) 00000000 00000000 0000000 00001001 (phys. layer OAM) xxxx0000 00000000 0000000 0000xxxx (reserved for phys. layer) H = ATM cell Header, PL = Physical Layer, OAM = Operation Administration and Maintenance P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 45
Switch
switching of virtual channel (VCs) VC paths are dynamically or statically connected
23
Ethernet
Originally a link layer protocol for LANs (10 and 100 MbE) Upgrade of link speeds => optical versions 1GbE and 10 GbE => suggested for long haul transmission No connections - each data terminal (DTE) sends data when ready - MAC is based on CSMA/CD Synchronization
line coding, preamble pattern and start-of-frame delimiter Manchester code for 10 MbE, 8B6T for 100 MbE, 8B9B for GbE
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 47
Ethernet frame
64 - 1518 octets
S
Preamble F
D
DA 6
SA 6
T/L 2
Payload 46 - 1500
CRC 4
Preamble - AA AA AA AA AA AA AA (Hex) SFD - Start of Frame Delimiter AB (Hex) DA - Destination Address SA - Source Address T/L - Type (RFC894, Ethernet) or Length (RFC1042, IEEE 802.3) indicator CRC - Cyclic Redundance Check Inter-frame gap 12 octets (9,6 s /10 MbE)
P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 48
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1GbE frame
DA
SA
Payload 48 - 1500
CRC Extension
Preamble - AA AA AA AA AA AA AA (Hex) SFD - Start of Frame Delimiter AB (Hex) DA - Destination Address SA - Source Address T/L - Type (RFC894, Ethernet) or Length (RFC1042, IEEE 802.3) indicator CRC - Cyclic Redundancy Check Inter-frame gap 12 octets (96 ns /1 GbE) Extension - for padding short frames to be 512 octets long P. Raatikainen Switching Technology / 2003 2 - 49
Bridge
interconnects LAN segments on link layer (MAC) all received frames are buffered and error free ones are forwarded to another segment (if they are addressed to it)
25
OTS
Optical Channel Optical Amplifier Optical Multiplexing Section Optical Multiplexer Optical Transport Section Switching Technology / 2003
26
SONET/ SDH
ATM
Ethernet
IP
OPU Optical channel payload unit ODU Optical channel data unit OTU Optical channel transport unit
Optical channel
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ATM/FR SONET/SDH
DWDM
Och
FEC
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4 rows
Och overhead
Payload
FEC
.....
.....
14
15 ... 16
1 2 3 4
ODU overhead
OPU overh.
OTU - Optical transport unit ODU - Optical data unit OPU - Optical payload unit FEC - Forward error correction
Frame size remains the same (4x4080) regardless of line rate => frame rate increases as line rate increases Three line rates defined: OTU1 2.666 Gbit/s OTU2 10.709 Gbit/s OTU3 43.014 Gbit/s
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+ OPU-OH
+ OTU-OH + FEC
Client signal
OCh
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optical multiplexer
multiplexes optical wavelengths to OMS signal add-drop multiplexer adds or drops wavelengths to/from a common OMS
optical cross-connect
used to direct optical wavelengths (channels) from an OMS to another connections set up and released by operator
optical switches ?
when technology becomes available optical switches will be used for switching of data packets in optical domain
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