Byzantine and Islamic Engineering Picking Up the Fallen Torch After the fall of the Western Roman Empire,

, six power locks developed in Europe/Middle East/Africa o France/Germany o Spain o Italy o Africa o Eastern Roman (Byzantine Empire) Constantinople, the capital of Byzantine Empire, was the CIVILIZED CENTER OF THE WORLD o For a brief time the engineers, architects, and scientists who were heirs to this tradition added to it but as the centuries mounted scientific and technologic innovation waned as the torch lit anew by Justinian guttered and went out. Garrison, 97 o The final disappearance of the Roman Empire did not suddenly fall as the Byzantine Empire thrived for almost a millennium after the fall of the west. They were able to survive because of Diplomacy Out-right deceit Military preparedness. o The heart of their military strength lay with the engineers 700 fortifications were constructed or rebuilt by engineers with the walls of Constantinople rising over 12 meters and were built with a core of CONCRETE. PERSONAL COMMENTARY AND FACTS: The used ashlar on the outside for aesthetic beauty while utilizing concrete as the base for strength that kept enemies out. The design combined beauty and structural stability. They also developed a design, used in Nicea, in which two walls, and outer wall 2 meters thick and an inner-wall 4.5 meters thick, were used. These great walls of Constantinople could keep invaders out, but theyre ultimate purpose was to force thirst and starvation upon those attacking the city by having a defensive strategy when people tried to attack the city. Justinian, having been ruler of such a wealthy and powerful empire, naturally established structures and monuments to lay honor to the society. One of these structures was the Haghia Sophia a church that was built by two mechanike and mechanaporos directly translated to engineer. The church was famous for several reasons (Garrison, 98-99) o It was noted for its especially large dome. At the time of its construction it was the largest building in the world.[7] It remained the world's largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years thereafter, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. The current building was originally constructed as a church between 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian and was the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to

occupy the site, the previous two having both been destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greek scientists Isidore of Miletus, a physicist, and Anthemius of Tralles, a mathematician. o Particularly interesting was the invention of the pendentive a device used to allow byzantine architects to erect a dome on a square central area. This was a revolutionary technique that shaped the development of architecture as a field of study for some time after. The Arab armies attempted to besiege Constaninople, but were warded off by Greek Fire which showed that they still had learning to do. Howeer, in a couple hundred years from 900-1100 AD (known as the Golden Age of Islam), they were able to translate Greek texts into Arabic and developed o The horse collar o The windmill o The waterwheel o The astrolabe o Arabic numerals including zero and the decimal point The Arabian concept of travelling light without heavy artillery was one that allowed them to make it through Byzantine fortifications and the concept became quite understandable. The entire philosophy of science and engineering in Islam was to process the translated texts from Greek society and make improvements on the technical specifications that existed in order to conquer. o Empirical experimentation was encouraged rather than discouraged as it was by the Greeks and even Romans. o The development of zero and the decimal system as well as having workshops and labs specifically set to test and utilize the concepts of algebra to develop engineering designs was revolutionary. o They made some pretty remarkable discoveries in measuring angles and celestial positions that allowed them to develop theories on optics, meteorology, and force in the 9th century! The Arabs didnt do much with Geometry, but they develop spherical trigonometry, INVENTED THE SINE, COSINE, AND TANGENT FUNCTIONS. o They also studied optics, astronomy, and developed the pendulum. It is also quite apparent that the Arabs were the developers of modern chemistry

They developed rudimentary fertilizers, allowing them to master what other civilizations such as the Romans and Greeks failed to AGRICULTUREEEEE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! o Arabs invented a chemistry that can recognize with evaporation, filtration, sublimation, melting, distillation, and crystallization. o They developed sugar refineries, alcohol, sulfuric and nitric acids, and produced gasoline. ALL OF THE DEVELOPMENTS ARE ESSENTIAL TO OUR CURRENT STANDARD OF LIVING WOW!!!!! In terms of water/agricultural irrigation o The arabs developed windmills that actually pumped water. Buildes attached shutters to the openings to control the airflow and regulate rotary speed of the mill. The rudimentary air conditioning unit was also developed by the arabs with the same technology used in the windmills with the addition of wetted sails of cloth to control humidity and provide cool air to larger buildings. They revolutionized water mills and focused a great deal on hydraulics because they understood the importance of irrigation. Philo, Hero, and Vitruvius come back into the equation here because the arabs read their works in the translations and worked with their teachings to master the technology of generations prior. o Arabs appreciated the wheel. They used ship and tidal mills. To increase the rate of flow to the wheel, he engineer would set the mill between bridge piers to take advantage of the higher current velocity through the opening. THEY APPRECIATED DYNAMICSSSS!!!!! DAMS TO CEATE RESERVIORS FOR WATER SUPPLY WERE AN ISLAMIC INNOVATIONS (Garrison 102) o Arabs used the broken dams of greeks and romans to improve and make awesome dams and reservoirs o These engineers built dams on rivers in all the areas of their realm from Iran to Spain The Band-i-Amir in 960 was built with concrete and reinforced with lead dowels (pegs) The dowels were lead poured into grooves that held the blocks together This dam provided irrigation supplies to over 300 villages and still stands today 10 meters high by 70 long.

Islamics did no separate water supplies between irrigation and other use like the Romans did with their aqueducts. Churches and mosques were a big deal for both the Byzantines and the Islamics. o Religious upset with the Christians generally benefited the Islamics because they were able to flourish as the Christians battled it out and were preoccupied. INDIAN-HINDU THINKERS o The Islams owed more to India than just the development of wootz process with metallurgy that allowed them to develop sophisticated and effective sword weaponry With mathematics Solutions to indeterminate equations Arithmetical and algebratic notation as well as decimals Trigonometry. All these were derived from similar concepts developed in India that were then perfected by the Islams. The intellect and innovation of the arabs was considered only second to the Greeks, but they used many of the philosophies of the Romans as well by borrowing and perfecting ideas that allowed them to flourish.