EnergyAuditandImprovementofan UpdraughtPotteryKiln

M.R.Ravi,P.L.DharandSangeetaKohli DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering, IndianInstituteofTechnologyDelhi, HauzKhas,NewDelhi110016.

Abstract
Potteryindustryishighlyenergyintensive.Mostruralpottersdependupontraditionalkilnsburning firewoodwithpoorenergyutilization.Thispaperpresentstheworkdonebytheauthorstowards providingthetechnicalinputsrequiredbyaruralindustry,suchaspotterymaking,inreducing theirenergycosts.Energyauditoftwoupdraughtkilnsinthefieldwascarriedouttoidentifythe causes for their low energy utilization. On the basis of the assessment, an improved kiln was developedwhichresultedinabout50%savingsinfuelascomparedtotheoriginalkilnofthesame volume. Thenewdesignalsoshowedareductionincapitalcostofconstruction.Thekilnisvery wellreceivedbypottersinthefield. Keywords:PotteryKilns,EnergyAudit,RuralIndustry,Updraughtkilns,HeatTransferAnalysis, Terracotta.

Introduction
Upgradationofruralindustrialsectoristhekeytothedevelopmentofourruralmassesandforthis, technological inputs are crucial for cutting down the costs, improving the productivity and the qualityoftheproducts.Potteryisaproductwithasubstantialpotentialforincomegenerationforthe ruralpottersduetoitsappealintheurbanareas.However,itisanenergyintensivetechnologyand mostofthepotterykilnsusedtraditionallyinruralareashaveaverypoorefficiency.Thehigh efficiencypotterykilnsusedintheorganisedsectoraretooexpensivetobeaffordablebythesmall scale sector. There is a need for improving the traditional kilns so as to reduce their energy consumptionperunitofloadsubstantiallywithoutanysignificantincreaseincost. TraditionalPotteryKilns Thetraditionalkilnsareprimarilybasedonwoodasfuelandcanbeofdifferenttypes:bonfirekilns, updraughtkilnsordowndraughtkilns[1].Bonfirekilns,datingbackto10000years,involveopen firing in a shallowpit.Despiteflexibilityof fuelthatcanbeused, thesekilnssufferfrom low 1

temperatures of firing, poor ware strength and extensive breakage. An updraught kiln is a cylindricalstructureopenatthetop.Fuelisfiredbelowaperforatedplatformonwhichpotteryis arranged,andthefirepassesupwardthroughthewares,escapingfromthetop.Updraughtkilns exhibitbetteruniformityoftemperatureandbetterretentionofheatascomparedtobonfirekilns. Potterytemperaturesupto900Ccanbeattainedinthistypeofkilns,whenfiredwithwood.Inthese kilns, there is no control over air flow rate, while fuel burning rate is controlled by skilful manipulationoffuelfeedrate.Theabovedrawbacksoftheupdraughtkilnsledtodevelopmentof downdraughtkilns.Inthistypeofkilns,hotgasesproducedinafireboxflowupwardstothetopof kilnchamber,andarethenpulleddownwardsthroughthestackofwaresbychimneydraught,since achimneyisconnectedtothebottomofthekiln.Adamperisprovidedinthefluechannelinorder tocontroltherateoffiringandexcessair.Thesekilnsexhibitabetteruniformityoftemperatureand lessertendencyforhotspotsthanupdraughtkilns.Theresidencetimeofgasesishigher,andthere isbettercontroloffiringowingtothepresenceofchimneyanddamper.Hightemperaturesupto 15001600oCareachievableinsuchkilns.Thecostofconstructionismuchhigherthanthatofan updraughtkiln,owingtotheheightofchimneyandmassofmasonryinthekiln. Whiletheabovearebatchkilns,mostmodernindustrialkilnsarecontinuoustunnelkilnsusingoilor gas.Thesearetypically1030mlongtunnelsthroughwhichtheceramictobefiredistraversedat constantspeedonrails,passingthroughdifferenttemperaturezones.Theefficiencyofthesekilnsis veryhigh.Electrickilnsareotherhighefficiencyalternativesavailableinurbanareasmainlyfor studiopottery.Thesekilnsarequiteexpensiveandneedensuredsupplyofelectricityforoperation. Theindustrialandstudiokilnsaregenerallyusedforglazedpottery,whichrequirestemperatures above1000oCforfiring.Whileruralpottersalsomakeglazedpottery,alargerpercentageofrural pottersmaketerracottapottery,whichcanbefiredtogoodqualityattemperaturesofupto900oC. Thepresentworkdealswithfiringofonlyterracottapottery. TheFiringProcessforTerracotta Afterthepayloadisplacedinthekiln,thegapsinthevolumearefilledwithbrokentilesandpottery soastoprovideareasonablyuniformporositytothebedandimprovethecontactbetweentheflue gasesandthepottery.Brokentilesandpotteryarealsoplacedforcoveringthetopofthepayloadto acertaindepth,soastoenclosethepayloadcompletely.Beforethefinalstageoffiring,athinlayer ofwetclayisplasteredontopofthebrokentilelayerabovethepayloadtofurtherreducethearea availableforescapeofthefluegases,therebyretainingmoreheat. All terracotta potteryisfired at temperatures ranging from700 oCto900oC. Firingconsists of variousstages,namely,smoking,slowfiring,rapidfiringandsoaking. In smoking,theheatingis veryslow,andpotterytemperaturesarebelow150oC.Asthenamesuggests,thefuelisallowedto burnwithoutalargeflame,atverylowrates.Thisisthephaseduringwhichtheremainingmoisture inthepotteryisallowedtoevaporate,andthelowheatingratesensurenocracksduetoviolent eruptionsofwatervapourfromthepottery. Thedurationofsmokingdependsonthebulkofthe warestobefired:thebulkiertheware,longerthesmoking.Typicalheatingratesinsmokingrange from0.5to1oCperminute. In slowfiring,volatilematterotherthanmoistureareremovedat 2

temperaturesbelow450500oC,atmoderateratesofheatingwithtypicaltemperatureriseratesof1.5 to2oCperminute.Afterallthevolatilematterisgone,rapidfiringisdoneatahighratesoasto raisethetemperatureofthewaresrapidlyto800950oC.Typicaltemperatureriseratesare34oCper minute.Insoaking,firingisdoneataratesufficienttomaintainthetemperatureofthewaresatthe requiredvalueoveraperiodoftime. Thetotaldurationoffiringforterracottawaresnormally rangesfromabout5to10hours. Ruralpotterykilnsareinvariablybatchkilns.Tunnelkilnsarenotsuitableatsmallscaleleveldueto thehighercostofconstruction,aswellasfuelandtheneedforcontinuousoperationforthemtobe economical.Amongthebatchkilns,downdraughtkilnsaremostenergyefficientbutmostexpensive inconstruction.Thus,updraughtkilnsappeartobeofmuchgreaterappealamongthesmallpotters duetotheirmoderatecostwithmuchbetterperformanceascomparedtolowcostbonfirekilns. Thesekilnsarecommonlyusedforfiringterracottaware,andarethefocusofthepresentstudy.The work presented here involves energy audit studies conducted on two updraught kilns, one at Gramodaya Sangh, Bhadrawati, Maharashtra, and the other at Saathi Samajsewi Sansthan, Kondagaon,Bastar,ChhattisgarhfollowedbyimprovementsinthekilnatKondagaonforenergy savings.

DescriptionofStudiedKilns
TheupdraughtterracottakilnusedinKondagaonhasacylindricalvolumeofdiameter1.83mand depthof1.21mwherethepotterypayloadcanbeplacedforfiringonstandsoronagrateasshown inFigure1.IntheKondagaonkiln,nogratewasused,andwareswereloadedontemporarysupports made up of fired terracotta pipes andtiles.A cylindricalwallof the kiln isconstructedout of commonbricks,andisabout0.46m(18)inthickness.Thefloorofthekilnismadeofonelayerof firebrick.Fuelisfiredfromfireboxesplacedaroundtheperipheryofthecylindricalwallasshown inthefigure.IntheKondagaonkiln,thereweresixsuchfiremouths,at60otoeachother. The updraught kiln studied in Bhadrawati is very similar to that in Kondagaon with a few differences.Ithasadiameterof1.52manddepthof1.17m.Afireclaygrateisplaced0.5mabove thegroundlevel.Thecylindricalwallhasathicknessof0.43mandthereareonlythreefireboxesat 120otoeachother.Thefireboxesextendoutsidethecylindricalwall,andarelargeenoughforlarge piecesoffirewoodtobeburnedcomfortablyinthem.Thereareacoupleofmetallicbarsplaced acrossthefireboxesactingasagrateinordertosupportthefirewood,providingspaceunderneath forcombustionairtoenter.Thecylindricalwallaswellasthefireboxaremadeofaninnerlayerof fireclaybricksabout10cm(4)thick,andanouterlayerbuiltofcommonbrickswitha10cmspace betweenthetwolayersfilledwithcoalashasaninsulation.

Grate

Firemouth Ground

Floor

Figure1.Schematicdiagramofanupdraughtterracottakiln

MethodologyofEnergyAuditofPotteryKilns
Acleardefinitionoftheenergyrequirementisdifficultinthepotterykilnenergyanalysis. The amountofenergyrequiredforaparticularfiringoperationincludesthesensibleenergyrequiredto raisethetemperatureofthewarefromroomtemperaturetothemaximumfiringtemperature,aswell as the latent energy needed for the removal of moisture, volatiles and the various phase transformationsoccurringduringfiring.Literaturedoesnotcontainquantitativeinformationonthe latentcomponentsofenergyandhence,theaccuratequantificationofenergyrequiredforfiringis difficult.Inthepresentwork,therefore,onlythesensiblefractionofenergyabsorbedbythepottery andtheenergyneededtoremovemoistureareaccountedfor. Anattemptismadetodetermine wherealltheenergygeneratedduetocombustionofthefuelgoesduringfiring. Althoughthis analysis would produce an underestimate of kiln efficiency values, it would throw light on the factorscontributingtotheincreaseinfuelconsumptionandthemeansthatcouldbeattemptedto mitigatethesefactors. Inthepresentanalysis,onlytheperiodoffiringhasbeenconsidered,andthequantityofenergy absorbedinthevarioussolidpartsofthekiln,theenergylossesfromtheflameandotherhotpartsof thekilntotheambientandtheenergylostthroughfluegasesandashhavebeenestimatedforthis period.Duringthecoolingperiodafterfiring,someoftheenergyabsorbedbythesolidpartsofthe kilnislikelytobetransferredtothepayload,butnoattempthasbeenmadetoestimatethisheat transfer. Ideally,anenergyauditshouldbecarriedoutbymeasurementofallthecomponentsofenergyflow inasystem.Sinceboththekilnsinvestigatedherearenaturaldraughtsystems,measurementofair andfluegasflowrateswasdifficult: thiswouldhavebeenmucheasierinforcedflowsystems whereairflowcoulddirectlybemeasuredattheblowerinletoroutlet.Also,itwasnotfeasibleto insertthermocouplesatallthepointswheretemperaturemeasurementswouldbedesirable.Hence, 4

somequantitiesweremeasured,whilesomeothershadtobeestimated.Thephysicalsystemsand phenomenabeingascomplexastheyare,severalsimplifyingapproximationshavetobemade,even toestimatevariousparametersthatarerequiredfortheenergybalance. Theonlyquantitythatwasmeasuredwastemperatureatvariouspoints,viz.,atthebottomofthe payloadvolumeincontactwiththefireclaygrate,atthetopofthepayloadwherethefluegases escapetotheambient,theflametemperatureinthefirebox,andthebrickwalltemperaturesinside thefireboxandontheouterperipheryofthecylindricalwall,atintervalsof15minutes. Theenergytermscanbegroupedunderfourmajorheads:(a)Energyreleasedbycombustionofthe fuel;(b)Energyabsorbedbythepottery;(c)Energyabsorbedbythefurnace,includingthefloor belowthefurnace,thewallsofthefurnace,thegrate,thepackingandplasteringmaterials,etc.and (d)Energylostdirectlytothesurroundingsthroughfluegasesandash,directradiationfromflame andconvectionfromtheoutersurfaceofkilnwalls. Ifthemeasurementsandtheestimationsare accurate, the sum of items(b), (c)and (d) shouldaccountforallthe energy initem(a). The discrepancy islistedasenergy unaccountedfor,whichwasuptoabout5.3%of item(a)in the presentstudy.

EnergyAuditofUpdraughtTerracottaKiln,Kondagaon
FiringandMeasurements The firing of the updraught kiln was started at 1500 hrs on the day of observation. Smoking operationtook180minutestoraisethetemperatureto150oC,afterwhichslowfiringphasestarted. Temperaturesroseuptoabout300Cinthisphase,andthisphaselasted120minutes.Rapidfiring lasted135minutestoraisethetemperatureto660oC,andthekilnwasallowedtocoolonitsownby naturalconvectionafterclosingthefiremouthswithtinsheetstopreventdirectdraughtsofwind fromaffectingthecoolingrates. Fortemperaturemeasurement,sixthermocoupleswereused.One2mlongthermocoupleplacedat thecenterofthegrategavethetemperatureatthatlocation,i.e.,thebottomlayerofthepotteryware. OneceramicshieldedRtypethermocouplewasplacedoverthefireboxtomeasurethetemperature ofthefirebox.Four15cmlongthermocoupleswereplacedatdifferentlocationsonthewallofthe kiln to measure the temperature of the kiln at different depths and heights of the kiln. One thermocouplewasusedtomeasurethefluegastemperature.Thethermocoupleswereattachedtoa digitalindicatorthroughaselectorswitch. Thepayloadwaretobefiredwasweighedbeforeandafterfiringusingabalance.Thedifference wasassumedtobethemoisturecontentofthepayload,andtheothermodesofmasslosswere neglected. Woodwasweighedandbatchesof10kgwereprepared. Everytimeonebatchwas consumed,thetimewasnotedsoastomonitorthefeedingrateofwood.Everytimefiringratewas changed(fromsmokingtoslowfiringandrapidfiring),themassofwoodconsumedduringthat 5

phaseoffiringwasrecorded.Asampleofwoodwastestedinabombcalorimetertoobtainitshigher calorificvaluetobe15MJ/kg.Airflowratewascalculatedusingthisvalueassumingthefirebox temperaturetobetheadiabaticflametemperatureateveryinstantoftime.About367kgofwood wasusedinthefiring.Table1summarizessomeofthedetailspertainingtothekilndimensionsand firing,besidesthematerialpropertiesrelevanttothecalculations.

Table1KilnandPayloadDetails:OriginalKondagaonKiln Kiln Internaldiameter Externaldiameter Heightaboveground Widthoffiremouth Heightoffiremouth Firing Massofthepotteryafterfiring Moisturecontentinthepottery Massofwoodusedduringthefiring AmbientTemperature Deadmass Propertiesofnormalbrickand ware Density Thermalconductivity Specificheat Propertiesofthesoil Density Thermalconductivity Specificheat Propertiesofwood LowerCalorificValue(asreceived) Chemicalformula 13.545MJ/kg C6H10O5 2050kg/m3 0.52W/mK 1840J/kgK 1997kg/m3 1.25W/mk 880J/kgk 509.7kg 8%ofabove 367kg 25oC 280kg 1.83m 2.5m 1.21m 0.33m 0.33m

EnergyCalculations Thefollowingstepsshowhowthevarioustermspertainingtotheenergybalanceofthekilnare calculated.Asummaryofthevariousenergytermsresultingfromthecalculationsispresentedin Table2.DetaileddatacollectedduringtheenergyauditofthiskilncanbefoundinChoudhary[2]1. (a)Totalheatreleasedbyfuel Thehighercalorificvalueofthefuelwasmeasuredinthelaboratoryusingabombcalorimeterand wasfoundtobe15MJ/kgonasreceivedbasis.Duringthefiring,themoistureformedduetothe hydrogenpresentinthefuelescapesinthevapourformandsodoesthemoisturecontainedinthe fuel.Thus,theheatreleasedbythefuelevenfor100%combustionefficiencywillbelowerthan15 MJ/kg.Assumingthemoisturecontentinfuelwoodtobe10%(asreceivedbasis),andthehydrogen contentofthefueltobeasperthechemicalformulagiveninTable1,thelowercalorificvalue (LCV)onasreceivedbasisisfoundtobe13.545MJ/kg.Thetotalheatreleasedduetocombustion ofthefuelisthuscomputedinastraightforwardmannerbymultiplyingthetotalfuelconsumption bythisLCV.Thisvalueof4971.0MJconstitutes100%oftheenergytermsinthesecalculations. Totalheatreleasedbyfuel=4971.0MJ(100%) (b)Heatabsorbedbythepottery Sensibleheatabsorbedbypottery Thetemperatureriseinthepotteryisnotgenerallyuniform.Itisobservedthatgenerallyattheend offiringthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthelowermostpotteryandthatatthetopisabout 150oC.Inthepresentcase,thehighestpotterytemperatureattheendoffiringinthelowerlayers wasfoundtobe660oCwhichindicatesthetemperaturesatthetoptobearound500oC.Thusthe energyrequiredtoraise509.7kgofdrypotteryfrom25 oCtotheaveragetemperatureof580oC,as calculatedusingthespecificheatofpotteryfromTable1wasfoundtobe248.9MJ. Sensibleandlatentheatabsorbedbymoistureinthepottery Themassofthemoisturefoundbysubtractingthemassoffiredpotteryfromthatofunfiredpottery was8%ofthedrywaremass.Theenergyrequiredtoheatthismoisturetoitsboilingpointandthen toevaporateitworksouttobe104.9MJ. Totalheatabsorbedbythepottery=353.8MJ(7.12%) (c)Heatabsorbedbythekiln Heatabsorbedbythewallsofthekiln Thisisdeterminedbythefinaltemperaturedistributioninthekilnwallattheendoffiring.Sincethe
1

Some inconsistencies in the data presented in [2] have been corrected in this paper by making appropriate assumptions or approximations.

kilntemperaturewasonlymeasuredatafewpoints,cuewastakenfromthesevaluestomakea judiciousestimateoftheheatabsorbedbythewalls.Thetemperaturemeasuredontheoutersurface ofthekilnwallshowedhardlymuchriseoverambienttemperature,andthissuggeststhatthekiln wallcanbetreatedassemiinfinite.Tobeabletousestandardresultsfortransientconductionin semiinfinite solids,the inner wall temperature must be assumed constant during the concerned period.Sincetheinnerwalltemperaturesweremuchlowerinthesmokingphaseascomparedtothe slowandfastfiringphases,theestimationoftheheatabsorbedbythewallwasdoneseparatelyfor thesmokingperiod. Duringthesmokingperiod,thewalltemperaturerisesfrom25to150 oC,givinganaveragewall temperatureforsmokingperiodas87.5oC. Usingtheassumptionofasemiinfinitemedium,the temperaturedistributioninthewallatagiveninstantcanbeobtainedintermsoferrorfunction[3]. Thisgivestheinstantaneousheatfluxatthewalltobe qw=kw(TwTi)/(t)1/2(1) wherekw isthethermalconductivityofthewallmaterial, isitsthermaldiffusivity,T w isthe temperatureoftheinnersurfaceofthewall,assumedconstantduringthetimeintervalt,andTiisthe initialtemperatureofthewallbeforetheheatingbegan.Theabovecanbeintegratedoverthetime periodtandwhenmultipliedbytheareaofthewall,itgivesthecumulativeheattransfertothewall duringtheconcernedtimeperiodas Qw=2kw(TwTi)Aw[t/()]1/2(2) Theabovegivesthewallheatabsorptionduringsmokingperiodtobe68.5MJ. Duringtheslowandfastfiringperiods,theinnersurfaceofthewallwasatahighertemperature. Whilethewalltemperatureinthefireboxwas900oC,inthepackedregion,thewalltemperature variedbetween660oCnearthegratetoabout500oCnearthetop.Theareaweightedaveragewall temperaturewascalculatedtobe721.9oCandusedasTwinequation(2)forthisperiodwhichlasted 255min.StrictlyspeakingtheentirewallatthebeginningoftheslowfiringphasewasnotatTi . Thisaspecthasbeenneglectedinthisanalysisandthewallheattransferduringthesmokingphase andtheslowandfastfiringphasehasbeenjustsummeduptoobtainthetotalheatabsorbedbythe wall.Fortheslowandfastfiringphase,theheattransfertothewallwasfoundtobe908.9MJ.Thus thetotalheatabsorbedbythewallwas977.4MJ. Heatabsorbedbythekilnfloor Forcalculatingtheheatabsorbedbythekilnfloor,onecantreatthegroundbelowthekilnasaone dimensionalsemiinfinitebody.Again,theheattransferwasfoundseparatelyforthesmokingphase whenthegroundsurfacetemperaturecouldbetakenas87.5oC.Forthisphase,theareaofthefloor consideredwaslimitedtothefloorundertheinnerdiameterplusaregionunderthekilnwallupto halfthewallthickness,sincetheheatisnotexpectedtospreadbeyondthisspace.Thisgaveavalue 8

of42.3MJ.Fortheslowandfastfiringphasethegroundsurfacetemperaturewastakenas900 oC, andtheentireareaunderthekilnwallwasincluded,sincetheheataffectedregionislargerduring thisphase.Thisgivestheheatabsorbedbythefloorduringthisphaseoffiringtobe705.2MJ.Thus thetotalheatabsorbedbythegroundwasestimatedtobe747.5MJ.Thepropertiesoftheground weretakentobethatofthesoillistedinTable1. Heatabsorbedbydeadmassinthekiln Asmentionedearlier,brokentilesareusedaspackingmaterialtofillthegapsbetweenwaresand ensureuniformporosityofthebedofwares. Brokentileswerealsousedtocoverthetopofthe waresloadedinthekilntoretainheatandpreventsuddengradientsintemperatureofthewaredueto contactwithatmosphereabove.Since280kgofdeadmasswasalsobeingheatedupfromtheroom temperaturetothatattheendofthefiring,assumingtheiraveragetemperaturetobe580oC,weget theenergyabsorbedbythedeadmasstobe136.7MJ. Totalheatabsorbedbythekiln=1861.6MJ(37.45%) (d)Directlossofenergytoatmosphere Heatcarriedawaybythefluegases Duringfiringthemassflowratesoffuelandairaswellasthetemperatureofthefluegaseswere continuouslychanging.Duringthesmokingphase,thewoodisnotallowedtoburnwithaflame. Mostofthevolatilesreleasedfromwoodinthisphaseleaveunburnt.Thustheamountofenergy releasedinthisphaseismuchlessthanthatcorrespondingtotheLCVofthewood.Also,inthis phase,thefluegasesleavingtheupperpartofthefurnacearenearlyatroomtemperature.Thus,to accountfortheaboveobservationsintheenergybalance,ithasbeenassumedthatduringthisphase, theamountofenergyreleasedduetocombustionisequaltotheenergyabsorbedbythepayloadand packings(198.7MJ),wall(68.5MJ)andthefloor(42.3MJ)totalingto309.5MJ.Restoftheenergy correspondingtothefuelLCVisdirectlylosttotheambient.50kgoffuelisusedduringthisphase whoseheatreleasepotentialis5013.545=677.2MJ.Thusthedirectheatlosstotheambient duringthisphaseis677.2309.5=367.7MJ. Fortheslowandfastfiringphases,itisassumedthatfuelundergoescompletecombustioninthe firebox.Thisisafairassumptiongiventhatthefiremouthareasarequitelargeandcombustionis seentobevigorousduringthefiringprocess.Nosolidresiduesbutashisfoundintheremainsafter combustion.Exceptduringsmoking,thecombustionisalsosmokeless. Toaccountforthechangeinfluegastemperatureswithtime,theanalysisfortheslowandfastfiring is done separately. Flame temperature measured during slow firing phase was around 800oC. Estimatingtheradiationcorrectioninsuchanenvironmenttobeabout150oC,theflametemperature canbetakentobe950oC.Afirstlawanalysisofthecombustionprocessassumingittobeadiabatic inthehottestpartofthefurnacewherethetemperatureismeasured,theaverageairfuelratiocanbe calculatedforthisphase.Theamountoffuelusedintheslowfiringphase,whichlasted120minwas 9

80kg.Takingthespecificheatofcombustionproductsattheflametemperaturetobe1.3kJ/kgK [4],thefluegasflowrateisfoundtobe0.125kg/s.Frommeasurementstheaveragefluegasexit temperatureduringthisphasewasfoundtobearound275 oC.Usingspecificheatatthistemperature as1.122kJ/kgK,theenergylosswithfluegasesforthisperiodisfoundtobe252.7MJ.Similarly, duringrapidfiring,theaverageflametemperatureafterradiationcorrectiontothemeasurementsis takentobe1300oC.Thefuelusedis237kgin135min.Thisgivesthefluegaslossinthisphaseto be1168MJ.Thusthetotalenergylossthroughfluegasesis1788.4MJ(35.98%). Heatlostfromtheuppersurfaceofthekiln Theflowoffluegasesdoesnothappenuniformlyoverthetopsurface,butisrestrictedtosome preferredpathsduetocracksthatoccurontheplastermadeonthetop.Theremainingsurfaceloses heatdirectlytotheatmospherebyconvectionandradiation. Forconvection,thetopsurfaceheat transfercoefficientiscomputedusingthecorrelationfornaturalconvectionoverheatedhorizontal uppersurfaces.Theaveragesurfacetemperatureofthetopsurfacemeasuredovertheentireperiod offiringisusedforcalculationofconvectivelosses.Forradiativelosses,thetopsurfaceofthekiln istakentoremainat500oCduringrapidfiringphase,andradiativelossesduringthisphasealoneare accountedfor,sincethetopsurfacetemperaturesaremuchlowerduringtheothertwophasesof firingandradiationisnegligible.Withthese,thetotalheatlossfromthetopsurfacecomesoutto 268.5MJbyconvectionand417.9MJbyradiation. Heatlostfromtheoutersurfaceofkilnwalls Asmentionedearlier,theoutersurfaceofthekilnwallshardlyrisetosignificanttemperaturesabove roomtemperature,andthus,theheatlossfromthekilnwallstoatmospherebyconvectionand radiationaresmall.Sincethedurationofthefiringprocessislongandtheoutersurfaceareaofthe kilnislarge,thislosshasbeenaccountedfortocompletetheenergybalance.Usingcorrelationsfor naturalconvectionfromaverticalcylinder[3]forconvectionandneglectingradiation,thetotalheat lossfromtheoutersurfaceofkilnwallsisestimatedtobe31.2MJ. Directradiationheatlossfromtheflames Directradiationheatlossfromtheflamestothesurroundingsisobtainedusingthemeanbeam length method [3] applicableto isothermal gray gas emissions.Taking the sootygas to have a volumetricabsorptioncoefficientof0.05,flametemperaturetobe1000oC,andthegaseousvolume oftheflametobeasphereof0.33mdiameter,theheatleavingthroughthefrontalareaofthe fireboxesiscomputedtobe16.3MJ. Totalheatlostdirectlytoatmosphere=2394.7MJ(48.17%) Thesumofalltheitems(b,candd)aboveaccountsfor95.31%oftheheatreleasedbycombustion (itema). Unaccountedlosses=4.69%

10

EnergyAuditofUpdraughtKiln,Bhadrawati
An experimentsimilarto thatreported above was carried outonanupdraught kiln installed at GramodayaSangh,Bhadrawati.Inthiskiln,thesmokingoperationtookabouttwoandahalfhours raisingthetemperaturetoabout150oC.Subsequentlytheslowfiringphasestartedwhichcontinued fortwoandahalfhoursraisingthetemperatureto400oC.Thiswasfollowedbyrapidfiringwhich continuedfor70minutes.Afterthis,thekilnwasallowedtocoolonitsownbynaturalconvection aswasthecasewiththekilninKondagaon. TheenergyauditoftheBhadrawatikilnwascarriedoutbeforethatoftheKondagaonkiln,andthe calculationsthatweredoneusedmethodslessrigorousandmoreintuitivethanthatoutlinedabove. TheenergydistributioninvariouscomponentsforthiskilnisgiveninTable2.Inthiskiln,therewas aseparatefireclaygrateweighingabout365kg,whichabsorbedasubstantialpartoftheenergy released.Thefractionoftheenergyabsorbedbythepotterywaslowerinthiskilnascomparedtothe Kondagaonkiln. Theenergyabsorbedbythefloorinthiskilnismuchhigherthanthatinthe Kondagaonkiln.Thisisbecauseoftheextrabrickslaidonthefloortomakechannelsforfluegases fromeveryfiremouthtothepayload.Thedetaileddataandcalculationsfortheenergyauditofthis kilncanbefoundelsewhere[5]. Table2:ComparisonbetweenEnergyDistributioninDifferentKilns
ComponentofEnergyFlow Massofpayload(afterfiring) Massofwoodused Massofwoodperkgofpayload Totalheatreleasedbyfuel Heatabsorbedbythepottery (a)SensibleHeatabsorbedbypottery (b)Sensible&LatentHeatabsorbedbymoisture inthepottery Heatabsorbedbythekiln (a)Heatabsorbedbythewallsofthekiln (b)Heatabsorbedbythekilnfloor (c)Heatabsorbedbydeadmassinthekiln (d)Heatabsorbedbythefireclaygrate KondagaonKiln 509.7kg 367kg 0.72kg 4971.0MJ 248.9MJ(5.01%) 104.9MJ(2.11%) BhadrawatiKiln 182kg 200kg 1.10kg 3200.0MJ 80.1MJ(2.50%) 52.0MJ(1.62%) ImprovedKiln 1000kg 350kg 0.35kg 4740.8MJ 599.3MJ(12.64%) 204.1MJ(4.31%)

977.4MJ(19.66%) 747.5MJ(15.04%) 136.7MJ(2.75%)

858.0MJ(26.81%) 1183.2MJ(36.97%) 39.5MJ(1.23%) 293.0MJ(9.16%)

729.8MJ(15.39%) 717.5MJ(15.13%) 124.1MJ(2.62%)

Directlossofenergytoatmosphere (a)Heatcarriedawaybythefluegas (b)Heatlostfromtheuppersurfaceofthekiln Convective Radiative

1788.4MJ(35.98%) 268.5MJ(5.40%) 417.9MJ(8.41%)

646.4MJ(20.20%)

1441.6MJ(30.41%) 211.2MJ(4.45%) 417.9MJ(8.82%)

11

(c)Heatlostfromtheoutersurfaceofkilnwalls (d)Directradiationheatlossfromtheflames Totalenergyaccountedfor Lossesunaccountedfor Energysuppliedperkgofpayload

31.2MJ(0.63%) 16.3MJ(0.33%) 4737.7(95.31%) 233.3MJ(4.69%) 9.75MJ

42.9MJ(1.34%) 3195.1MJ(99.8%) 4.9(0.16%) 17.58MJ

30.3MJ(0.64%) 16.3MJ(0.34%) 4492.4MJ(94.76%) 248.4MJ(5.24%) 4.74MJ

Discussion ThedistributionoftheenergyduringfiringinthetwokilnsshownintheTable2andfigures2(a) and(b)clearlyshowthattheheatabsorbedbythepotteryisthesmallestfractionoftheenergy accountedfor,andthatthestructureandfloortogetheraccountforabout35%oftheenergyreleased intheKondagaonkilnandabout72%oftheenergyreleasedintheBhadrawatikiln.Hence,the followingneedtobeconsideredforimprovingtheenergyutilizationofanupdraughtkiln. 1. The thermal massof thestructureneeds tobedecreased. This ispossible byreducing the thicknessofthewallsofthekilnandthedensityofthematerialusedtobuildthekiln. 2. Thekilnneedsisolationfromthefloor,andfiringshouldbedoneongratesratherthanonthe floor. 3. Theweightofpackingtilesandwareswasabout50%oftheweightofthepayloadinboththe kilns.Thiscanbereducedbyalteringthesizedistributionofthewarestobefiredineachbatch. Nonetheless,inthepresentscenario,thisonlycontributestoasmallincreaseinfuelconsumption sincetheenergyabsorbedbythepayloadisalsosmall.Ifthelatterincreasesinanimprovedkiln, asdesired,theenergyabsorbedbythepackingwillalsoincreaseproportionatelyunlesstheir amountisreduced. 4. Ensuringalessopenflameandbettercontrolonprimaryandsecondaryairinletareas,abetter control on excess airand flametemperatures could beachieved,whichwouldensure better combustionandheatreleasefromthefuel. Inboththekilns,theflameswerealmostentirely opentoatmosphere,andtheairinletareasinthefireboxareverylarge. Suggestions1&2madeabovehavebeenaddressedinthedesignofanupdraughtkilnconstructedat Kondagaonaspartofthepresentwork.Thefollowingsectiondescribesindetail,theworkonthe improvedupdraughtkiln.

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Kilnsurfaces 15%

Unaccounted 5%

Pottery 7% Kilnwall 20%

Unaccounted 0% Grate 9% FlueGases 20%

Kilnsurfaces 1% Pottery 4% Kilnwall 27%

FlueGases 35%

Kilnfloor 15% Deadmass 3%

Deadmass 1%

Kilnfloor 38%

(a)Kondagaonkiln(b)Bhadrawatikiln Figure2.Energydistributionduringfiringinthetwoupdraughtkilns TheImprovedUpdraughtKiln Thenewkilnwasdevelopedwiththeprimeobjectiveofdecreasingtheenergylossesduetostorage inwallsandheatconductiontotheground.Theenergyabsorbedbythewallsandfloorcanbe reducedbydecreasingthemassofthewallandfloorcomingincontactwithhightemperature.This canbeachievedbyprovidingalowcostinsulationbetweenthefirstlayerofbricksfacingthefire, andtheremainingpartofthewallorthefloor.Severaltraditionalkilnsuseashastheinsulator.In thenewdesign,theinsulationisprovidedbytheairgapsintheflooraswellasthewall.Thewallis constructed usingarattrapbondedstructure,whichprovidessubstantialairgapsinthewall as showninfigures3and4.Figure3givesaschematicoftherattrapbondandfigures4aand4bshow the construction of an actual kiln wall using this structure. The improved kiln was built in KondagaonwiththesameinteriordimensionsasthoseoftheoriginalkilngiveninTable1.

Figure3:Schematicofrattrapbonding

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(a)

(b) Figure4.Kilnwallduringconstruction

Inthiskilntheinnerlayersofthewallareconstructedusingtherattrapbond.Theairgapafterthe innermostrowofbricksinsulatestherestofthebrickstructurefromthehotinnerlayer,thereby preventingalargepartofthewallfromabsorbingenergy. Therattrapbondedstructurehasa thicknessof22.5cm,correspondingtothelengthofabrick.Thewidthofthebrickis7.5cm,hence thestructuregivesairgapsof22.5cm7.5cm7.5cmseparatedby7.5cmbrickwidthintheentire wall.Thisconstructionreducesthemassofthewallindirectthermalcontactwiththehotgases. Whileairgappreventsheattransferduetoconduction,discontinuousgapskeeptheconvectiveheat transferinthesegapslow.Toincreasethestrengthofthewall,asolidlayerof7.5cmthicknessis providedontheoutersideofthewall.Thetotalthicknessofthewallinthekilnisthus30cmin contrastto46cmintheoriginalkiln. Similarly,thelossesfromthefloorarereducedbymakingchannelsofbrickstructureonthefloor. Firstacontinuouslayerofbricksislaidonthefloor.Ontopofthis,channelsareconstructedwith alternatingrowsofbricksandairgapasshowninfigure5.Abovethis,anothercontinuouslayerof bricksisprovidedtomakethefloorofthekiln.Thisconstructionreducesthecontactbetweenthe floorofthekilnwherefuelisfiredandtheground,hencereducingthelossessubstantially.Figure6 showsthecompletedkilnduringfiring.

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Figure5Kilnfloorduringconstruction

Figure6.Improvedkilnduringfiring

Thereductioninthethicknessofthewallresultsinsignificantsavings.However,ifcareisnottaken, the reduced thickness can cause development of cracks at the firemouths. This is owing to the traditional practice of firing wood at the firemouths. The part of the wall directly above the firemouthsissubjectedtoveryhightemperaturepracticallyallthroughthefiring,andassoonasthe firingiscomplete,itexperiencessuddencooling. This,compoundedwithrattrapstructureofthe wallwhichisbothinsulatingandstructurallyweaker,experienceshighertemperaturegradientsand hencecracksup.Thisproblemhasbeenovercomebyprovidingaliningoffireclaybricksatthe firemouthroof. Inaddition,threesteelbeltsaretightenedaroundthecircumferenceofthekilnat threeheights,fromthefiremouthtothetopasshowninfigure7.

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Figure7.Belttoimprovestructuralstrengthofkiln

EnergyCalculations Oncethekilnwasconstructed,itwasfiredwithadequatemeasuringinstrumentsforenergyanalysis. Apayloadofdrymassof1000kgwasputinitforfiring.Themassofpayloadinthekilndepends onthesizeofthewaresfired.Inthefiringwiththenewkiln,mostofthewaresweresmallerinsize, andsothepackingwasdenser,andthetotalmassofwareswasnearlydoubleofthatinthefiringof theoriginalkilnreportedinthispaper.Thedurationofthefiringwasthesameasbefore,i.e.,180 minutesofsmoking,120minutesofslowfiringand135minutesofrapidfiring.Dimensionsofthe kilnandfiringparametersareshowninTable3.Thedetailsoftheenergycalculations,whichwere doneinamannersimilartotheproceduredescribedearlierinthispaper,arepresentedinTable2. Table3KilnandPayloadDetails:ImprovedKiln Kiln Internaldiameter Externaldiameter Heightaboveground Widthoffiremouth Heightoffiremouth Firing Massofthepotteryafterfiring Moisturecontentinthepottery Massofwoodusedduringthefiring AmbientTemperature Deadmass 1000kg 8%ofabove 350kg 30oC 230kg 1.83m 2.43m 1.21m 0.33m 0.33m

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Thewallsandfloorofthenewkiln,asmentionedearlier,arenotsolidbrickwallsbutcomposite wallswithairgapsinthebrick.Hence,incomputingtheheatabsorbedbythewallsandfloorofthe newkilnusing1Danalysisformulae(equation2),effectivevaluesofthermalconductivityand densityneedtobecalculated.Inthewalls,theinnermostlayerof7.5cmthicknessandtheoutermost layerof15cmthicknessaremadeofsolidbricks,whileinthelayerbetweenthesetwo,whichis7.5 cmthick,bricksoccupyonly25%ofthevolume.Thefloor,ontheotherhand,hastheuppermost layer(7.5cmthick)andthelowermostlayer(7.5cmthick)madeofsolidbrick,whileinthemiddle layer(12.5cmthick),bricksoccupyonly50%ofitsvolume.Thermalresistanceofferedbyalayer ofsoil12.5cmthickbelowthelowermostlayerofbrickswasincludedforcalculationofequivalent properties. Equivalentthermalconductivitywascomputedbyconsideringthetotalthermalresistanceofthe compositewallandevaluatingtheequivalentconductivityofasolidwallofsamedimensionsthat offersthesamethermalresistance.Equivalentdensityisevaluatedbydividingthemassofbricks perunitlengthofthewallbyitstotalvolume.Thespecificheatistakentobethesameasthatof bricks, since themassweighting of energy absorbedisensured bytheequivalent density. The equivalent thermal conductivities of the wall and floor work out to 0.7053 and 0.6890 W/mK respectively,whileequivalentdensitiesworkoutto1636and1702kg/m3respectively.Thethermal diffusivityvaluesusedincomputationofheatabsorbedbythewallandfloorduringslowfiringand rapidfiringwerecomputedfromthesevalues.Forsmoking,ontheotherhand,sincethepenetration depthisnotlarge,itisassumedthatthepropertiesofbrickalonecanbeusedforcalculationofheat absorbedinthewallandfloorduringthisperiod. Savings Theimproveddesigngivessavingsinboththecapitalcostandtherunningcostofthekiln.The reductionincapitalcostisowingtothereductioninthicknessofthewallandincreasedporosity leadingtoreductioninthenumberofbricksrequiredfortheconstructionofthewall.Theflooringin thenewdesignneeds3layersofbricksasagainstasinglelayerusedintraditionalkilns.However, thesubstantialreductioninthemassofthewallmorethanoffsetstheincreasednumberofbricksfor thefloor.Foratypicalcylindricalupdraughtkilnofdimensionsreportedinthispaper,thesavingsin thenumberofbricksis32%,amountingtoabout1000brickslessthanthetraditionalkiln,leadingto correspondingreductioninconstructioncost. Thetypicalfuelconsumptioninthenewkilnhasbeenfoundtobeabout350kgofwoodper1000kg ofpottery,ascomparedtoabout720kgofwoodper1000kgofpotteryinthetraditionalkilnofthe samesize.Thesavingsinrepeatedfiringshavebeenfoundtorangebetween4060%. Table2givesthecomparisonbetweentheenergydistributionduringfiringofthedifferentkilns.It canbeclearlyseenthatforunitpayload,thenewkilngivesnearly50%savingsinfuelascompared totheoriginalkilninKondagaonanditconsumesnearlyonefourthofthefuelusedinBhadrawati kiln.Figure8showsthebreakupoftheenergydistributioninthenewkiln.Itcanbeseenthatthe proportionofenergygoingtothepotteryhassubstantiallyincreasedfrom7%to17%,whilethose 17

losttowallandfloorhavedecreasedfrom35%to30%. Here,thesefiguresshouldbereadin conjunctionwiththe50%reductioninfuelconsumption.Thus,inrealterms,theamountofenergy absorbedbythewallsandfloorhavedecreasedfrom1725MJfor509.7kgofpotteryto1447.7MJ for1000kgofpottery.Perkgofpayload,thistranslatestoareductioninenergyabsorbedbythe wallandfloorfrom3.38MJto1.45MJ,lessthanhalfoftheoriginalamount.Likewise,fluegas lossesdecreasefrom3.51MJto1.44MJperkgofthepotteryfired.

Unaccounted 5%

Kilnsurfaces 14%

Pottery 17%

Kilnwall 15%

FlueGases 31% Deadmass 3%

Kilnfloor 15%

Figure8.Energybudgetofimprovedkiln

PotentialforImpact Thenewkilnshavebeensufficientlytestedinthefield.ManysuchkilnshavebeenmadebySaathi SamajsewiSansthanintheBastararea.Sofar,11kilnshavebeenmadebytheminBastarregionand 3moreinotherplacesincludingGoa.Inallthesites,pottersreportsubstantialfuelsavingsusingthe newkiln. Savingsof4060%infuelconsumptionascomparedtothetraditionalkilnshavebeenreportedfrom the field. Thus, the new design offers a promising alternative for substantial conservation of fuelwoodatthenationallevel.JusttheBastarandthesurroundingbelthaveabout5000kilns.Ifall of them are converted to new design, it can mean an annual saving of about 75000 tonnes of firewoodinthatareaasestimatedfromtypicalnumberoffiringsthepottersinthisareadoannually. Onanaverage,onepottercan,thus,saveaboutRs15000everyyearamountingtototalrevenue savingofRs750lakhsperyearintheregion.Fuelwoodisthemainfuelusedforpotteryfiring primarilyinthetribalareasclosetotheforests.Thus,whendisseminatednationwide,theimproved kilncanresultinmanifoldssavinginfirewoodforthecountrybesidesprovidingfinancialbenefitsto thepotters.Withthecommunityofpottersconstitutingthesecondpoorestgroupinthecountry,this canhelpagreatdealinraisingtheireconomiclevel.

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Limitations Whilethe improvedkilndescribedhereisasubstantial improvement overtheoriginalone, the structureisnotasrobustasdesired.Ithasbeenobservedthatthecracksinthewallfirstdevelop abovethefiremouthwherethetemperaturegradientsarehigh.Thisisparticularlyduetotheburning fuelwoodbeingplacedjustbelowthefiremouth.Thishasbeenovercomeinthelaterversionsofthe improvedkilnconstructedatothersitesthantheonereportedhere,bymakinganarchoffireclay bricksintheareawheretheflameimpinges.Also,theopeningupofcracksispreventedbyusing steelbeltsaroundthekilnbody.Theenergylossthroughfluegasesisstillquitehigh.Ifthefiring rate can be controlled by altering the feeding rates and air fuel ratios, this energy loss can be reduced.

Conclusions

Energyauditoftwotraditionalupdraughtpotterykilnshasbeenconducted.Theresultsshowthata verylarge fractionofenergygetsabsorbedbythekilnwallsandthefloor,andanothermajor fractionoftheenergyescapesthroughthefluegases. Onlyasmallfractionisabsorbedbythe potterytobefired.Improvementsinthekilnhavebeenmadeforreducingtheenergyabsorbedin thekilnwallandthefloorbyintroducingairgapsandalsoreducingthethicknessofthewall.Use ofrattrapbondinginthewallhashelpedachievethis.Thecomparisonoftheimprovedkilnwith theoriginalkilnshowsasavingofabout50%inthefuelconsumptionperkgofpotteryfired.The costofconstructionoftheimprovedkilnislowerthanthatofthetraditionalkilnowingtoless materialrequiredforconstruction.Thekilnhasbeenverywellreceivedinthefield.

References
1. MirmiraSK,1973,IndianPottery,GramodayaSangh,Bhadrawati. 2. ChoudharyAK,2003,SimulationandDesignofanEfficientPotteryKiln,M.Tech.thesis, DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,IITDelhi. 3. IncroperaFPandDeWittDE,2002,FundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer,JohnWiley &Sons,NewYork. 4. Kothandaraman,C.P.andSubramanyan,S.,2007,HeatandMassTransferDataBook,Sixth edition,NewAgeInternationalPublishers,NewDelhi. 5. Ravi M R, Dhar P L, Kohli S and Arora L, 2002, Energy Audit of Pottery Kilns in GramodayaSanghBhadrawati,NIRIProjectReport,IITDelhi. Acknowledgments ThecontributionsofMr.LalitAroraandMr.AnandKumarChoudharyinconductingsomeofthe experimentsreportedherearegratefullyacknowledged.TheauthorsarealsogratefultotheSaathi Samajsewi Sansthan, Kondagaon, Chhattisgarh for providing all the necessary support for facilitating the energy audit as well as construction of the new kiln in their premises. The encouragementofLateSh.S.K.MirmiraofGramodayaSangh,Bhadrawatiresultedintheinitiation 19

ofthiseffort.ThefinancialsupportprovidedbyKVICforcarryingoutthisworkisalsosincerely acknowledged.

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