Sufism and the Indonesian Islamic Revival Author(s): Julia Day Howell Reviewed work(s): Source: The Journal

of Asian Studies, Vol. 60, No. 3 (Aug., 2001), pp. 701-729 Published by: Association for Asian Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2700107 . Accessed: 04/11/2012 16:08
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and Sufism theIndonesian

Islamic Revival
JULIA DAY HOWELL
an LIKE OTHER PARTS OF THE MUSLIM WORLD, Indonesiahas experienced Islamic sincethe 1970s (cf.Hefner1997; Jones1980; Liddle 1996, 622-25; Muzaffar revival of 1986; Schwarz1994, 173-76; Tessler.andJesse 1996). To date, representations formsof religiouspracticeand political Indonesia's Islamic revivalhave featured activityconcernedwith what in the Sufi traditionis called the "outer" (lahir) A. of law for of expression Islam: support and observance religious (I. syariah, syari'at), as mentioned evidence rituals.Thus commonly includingthe practiceof obligatory of a revivalin Indonesiaare such thingsas the growingnumbersof mosques and of jilbab) among (kerudung, popularity head coverings houses,the increasing prayer the usage ofIslamicgreetings, more Muslim womenand schoolgirls,the increasing services and themselves dailyprayers attending for common sightofMuslimsexcusing at theirworkplaces,the appearanceof new formsof Islamic studentactivityon actions seen as campuses,strongpopular agitationagainst government university in and prejudicialto the Muslim community, the establishment 1991 of an Islamic bank. failsto call however, of This kind of representation Indonesia'sIslamic revival, spiritual expression, of popularity Islam's "inner"(batin)1 to attention the increasing usage, the popular Indonesiancontemporary that is, to what I will call, following
in is a JuliaDay Howell (J.Howell@mailbox.gu.edu.au) SeniorLecturer theSchoolofAsian Australia. in University Brisbane, Studiesat Griffith and International The author Grants. Research University by was supported Griffith for Research thisproject and personalknowledge, wishesto thankthosewho have providedinvaluableintroductions, Azra, Azyumardi especiallyDjohan Effendi, IndonesianSufism, insightsinto contemporary Dhofier, NasruddinUmar, Bambang Pranowo,Ace ParKomaruddinHidayat,Zamakhsyari ParticuJamesJ. Fox, and the late AbdullahCiptoprawiro. Abdul MunirMulkhan, tadiredja, research early on of has larlysignificant been theassistance Subandi,a collaborator theauthor's Helpful sourceofongoingsupport. and Naqsyabandiyyah generous on theTarekatQodiriyyah mounted Perkotaan" the "SeminarSufisme for to information revisions thispaper came from as in January 2000 by Djohan Effendi, head of the AgencyforReligiousResearchand Devel2000 "Reand of opmentat the IndonesianMinistry Religious Affairs, fromthe September for and by organized Griffith theStateInstitute searchPlanningWorkshopon Urban Sufism" under the directionof its Rector,Azyumardi Jakarta, Hidayatullah, Islamic Studies Syarif to The authoris also grateful the from AustraliaIndonesiaInstitute. the Azra, with funding and readers theJAS fortheirperceptive detailedcomments. of anonymous A. betweenlahir (I., J., fromA. zahir) and batin(I., J., from batin) 'On the distinction see Woodward(1989, 71-73). 60, of TheJournal Asian Studies no. 3 (August 2001):701-729. for C) 2001 by the Association Asian Studies,Inc.
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with forms pietycan be seen as complementary of revival's "Sufi"side.2Sufi-inspired being practicedas additionsto or of "outer"(lahir)expressions Muslim religiosity, but of of of enhancements the fulfillment the minimalrequirements the faith,3 they them. because of the polemic that surrounds may go unnoticedor be disregarded in a AlthoughSufipietyhas attracted greatdeal ofmedia attention Indonesia,it has Indonesian in accountsof contemporary unremarked Westernscholarly gone largely that as has Indonesia'sIslamicrevival beenportrayed "scripturalist," Islam. In effect, thatrejects Sufitraditions Muslimpractice to of is, as conforming a conception proper of as idolatrous faithand insteadmakes the execution the to accretions the pristine path. of and obligatory prayers observance the law the whole of a Muslim'sspiritual pietyis onlypartof thepictureofIslamic In thisessay,I arguethatscripturalist and century, so the natureof Indonesian revivalin Indonesiain the lattertwentieth to misunderstood. Contrary expectations Islam at century's end has been seriously of at that formed mid-century werebasedon assessments thelikelyimpacts reasonably devotional reformism, and of Muslim Modernist of the changingeducationalsystem -have of and mysticalintensifications core Islamic practice-in short "Sufism" and notonlyby theelderly pursued, survived. Indeed,theyare beingenthusiastically of in sole refuge the twilight its existence. village men once thoughtto be Sufism's includingmysticalpractice,is alive and well in both Rather,Sufi devotionalism, the of and country cityand has captured interest peoplewho are well educatedin the in of Sufism, generaleducationsystem-even members the nationalelite. Moreover, engaged diversemanifestations, attracted has people of bothsexeswho are still fully power.These new in theircareers, includingsome now in positionsof considerable for as are aficionados reinterpreting thought a sourceofinspiration contemporary Sufi Sufi religious practice and are even becoming involved with long-established
senseshave been attachedto the term"Sufi,"in Indonesiaas elsewhere. 2Manydifferent Indeed,as explainedbelow, the term"Sufi"did not come into commonIndonesianlanguage thatadvocated until the 1970s. My usage of the termhereis quite broad and approximates Islamic Encyclopediathe of Modern under"Sufism"in the Oxford by Chittick(1995) in his entry onlywith "Islamic the There he resists commonWesternpracticeof equating Sufism World. and it and or mysticism" "Islamic esotericism" insteaddescribes as "the interiorization intenthatdevotional of and practice" (1995, 102). This allowsus to recognize sification Islamicfaith employed Muslims by are concepts associatedwithSufitraditions often and religious practices a are everyday lives,evenwhenthey notundertaking mystical of enhancements their as spiritual of in path of dramaticpersonaltransformation hopes of directexperience the divine. It also as of independent Sufiorders(tarekat) well as thosepracticing Muslim mystics encompasses Islamic whichhave transmitted (A. Sufiorders tariqah,I. tarekat), withinthem.Nonetheless, the throughout Muslim world, textualand practicalinstruction knowledgethrough mystical in Also, theemphasison personal will feature prominently thisaccountofIndonesianSufism. my usage of "Sufism"here froman even of intensificationfaithand practicesdistinguishes thatcan culturalpractice anyconventional broader usage (e.g., by Woodward 1989) covering to with Sufitraditions scholars(forexample,pilgrimages saints'gravesand by be identified but by described "Hindu-Javanese" identified as ritualmeal often evenselamatan, Javanese the seen in manyMuslim cultures). Sufi Woodwardas manifesting elements in of 3It mustbe notedherebriefly, anticipation subsequentdiscussionofMuslim Modof practices in thatnotall Muslimshaveacceptedthisconstruction Sufi ernist critiques thetext, century, the Even before twentieth of as complementary theperformance coreobligations. with are over therehas been muchcontroversy whichSufipractices lawful(cf.Drewes 1954; 1966; 1968; Florida 1995; Ricklefs1998; Sartono1966; Soebardi 1971; Zoetmulder1995). Genteachers to of relating theveneration spiritual however, onlythoseSufipractices erally speaking, likelihoodofviolatingthedoctrine have raisedvehement objectionsbecauseoftheirperceived and on ofthe onenessofGod. Regimesofspecialprayers fasting theirown havenot raisedthe with"Sufism" of todayin Indonesia. and sameconcerns arethemostpopularforms engagement

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or In institutions (the Sufiorders, tarekeat). the townsand cities,thereis also avid formsdesigned to engage cosmopolitan experimentation with new institutional fromthe social milieu of traditional Sufism, with Sufilearning Muslims,estranged between and practice.These adaptationsof Sufismare helping to softencontrasts and of (a feature of styles Islamicreligiosity muchremarked Modernist Traditionalist component the liberal of but the Islamic revival)and are an important little-noted "Neo-Modernist" movement now enjoyingprominence the resultof the election as of Abdurrahman Wahid, to the Presidency the of one of its leading proponents, Republic. This essayproceedsby sketching parloussituationof IndonesianSufismin the of like century, accounting thepredictions scholars for the first partof the twentieth of years theRepublicthat Clifford Geertz(1960) and Soedjatmoko (1965) in theearly Sufismwould fade fromthe social landscape,along with the "traditional"rural I modernizes. society as religiousscholars who wereits main proponents, Indonesian and newvitality traditional institutions, of Sufi thenprovideevidenceof thesurvival or homes, the pesantren, the tarekeat, associationwith their usual institutional in of schools.Thereafter essaygivesattention the re-engagement urban this to religious an in it New Orderperiod.Finally, offers overview intellectuals withSufism theearly of which the middle of the institutional innovations the 1980s and 1990s through "Neo-Sufism." and upperclassesare now exploring

Sufism:Never Lost but Twentieth-Century Newly Found

Sufismand the Pesantren It is generally century was agreed that IndonesianIslam beforethe twentieth orientations (Dhofier 1980, 30;Johns albeitofdiverse theological predominantly Sufi,4 1961, 14; 1995, 177; Ricklefs1979, 107; 1998; Woodward 1989, 59), and that as remembered thelegendary indeedthefirst of proselytizers Islam in Java,popularly Ghazalianmold (Feener1998). wereSufisin the orthodox Nine Saints(Wali Songo),
of playeda prominent (1961; 1995) has arguedthatexponents Sufiorders 4Anthony Johns the role in the earlypropagationof Islam in SoutheastAsia. Regardlessof how important soon becamecommoninpesantren. and practices Sufi tarekat werein earlyconversions, learning tasawwuf (esotericsciences),both practicaland theo"Ngelmu Thus Nancy Floridaobserves, Islamic educationin Java (as well as in most otherareas of the retical,pervadedpremodern Sufi Islamic world)" (1995, 346). Fromthepesantren, conceptsand devotionalpractices (such of contrast, the possibilityof self-realization the divine, the ideal of the as the lahir-batin of "Perfect Man," or insankamil,and the veneration saints) spread into the courtsand the of into villagesphere, wheretheybecameincorporated local renditions Islam,albeitwithmuch of variation over time and place (see Woodward 1989; Pelras 1993). The pervasiveness Sufi underscored has century been repeatedly influences IndonesianIslam priorto the twentieth in on of in recentreappraisals Dutch colonial and later "Orientalist"scholarship premodern 1998; Sears1996; Simuh 1987; 1988; Wood(cf. Javanese courtculture Florida1995; Ricklefs of that carriers so-called"Hindu-Javanese" ward1996). This workhasdemonstrated thecourts, and distant culturally socially werenot,as often portrayed, pre-Islamic times, highculture from intensification Dutch colonial of at the from pesantren, leastbefore laternineteenth-century the occurred there interactions, intimate court-pesantren To through administration. the contrary, recognizethat These reassessments a deep Islamicizationof Javanesecultureand literature. "Hindu-Javanese" "Hindu-Buddhist"reor as much of what had been identified essentially Islamic. ligious cultureis actuallySufi,and thusemphatically

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Since perhapsthe sixteenth century,5 focalMuslim educationalinstitutions the in whatis now Indonesiahave beenpesantren.6 These are teachingcomplexes consisting of(1) thedomicileofa Muslim scholar(ulama,kyai)havingat leastsomeknowledge of theology, classicalinterpretations the law, and Sufiknowledge(tasawuf); a of (2) mosque; and (3) some residential facilitiesfor those wishing to join the kyai in collective prayer and to enjoyhis tutelage. form pesantren thatdescribed Geertz'sinfluential of is in Today themostfamiliar that and work,TheReligion ofJava(1960): it is thepesantren educateschildren youths and therefore providesaccommodation primarily them.Dhofier(1980, 30) and for wereprimarily arguethatthe earliest pesantren places Madjid (1988, 104), however, forSufi ritualpracticesby adults. People we could call "Sufis"(even thoughthey of would attendthepesantren perform to mightnotbe members particular orders) Sufi together boththeobligatory prayers required all Muslimsand certain of optionalbut meritorious students weregiven prayers (dzikirand wirid).iOnly a fewexceptional in instructions the sacred texts. Over time, however,the emphasis on textual of in instruction youthsincreased until thatcame to be the primary activity mostof thepesantren. the whichhad servedas the Thus, by the eighteenth century pesantren, A. physicalloci and social hubs of Sufiorders tare/kat, tariqah),in manycases also (I. took on as a major function educationof youngpeople in the basics of Islamic the A. scholarship, includingstudiesof the law (I. syariah, syari'at). In the mid-nineteenth the easing of restrictions the haj and the century, on of the of and improved availability transport greatly increased number Meccan-trained of to well-qualified ulama,and so contributed the rapid proliferation bothpesantren schoolsforchildrenand the tare/eat associatedwith them(Kartodirdjo1966, 155). was in of Particularly important the rapidlate nineteenth-century growth thetare/eat the large numberof ulama returning the Indies afterhaving studied with the to charismatic Syekh KhatibSambas,leaderoftheQodiriyyah order, Syekh and Sulaiman
by (1994, (1980, 31) and followed Zulkifli by date is suggested Dhofier 5Thisapproximate from historical evidence. of and 3) but dependson a looseconstruction theinstitution inference thantheeighteenth no (1992a, 76-77) puts theoriginsofthepesantren earlier Van Bruinessen untiltheninewere and (1966, 155) holds thatpesantren not widespread century, Kartodirdjo the of pilgrimsincreased numbers ulamain of whenlargernumbers returning teenth century, Indonesia. "bamboo hut"). In West Sumatra, ( 6In Java,pesantren also called pondok literally, are theyare called rangkang institutions called surauand in Aceh,NorthSumatra, are comparable meunasah. progresthe of 7Dzikirconsistsof repetitions phrasescontaining name of God, typically of syllable.Beinghighly repetitive rhythmical, and to sively shortened rapidrepetition thefinal In circumstances. thisway,it can stimulate alteredstatesof consciousness undercertain dzikir podo which generally not have the same psychological prayers, differs fromthe obligatory quest (for as tential.Thus, althoughdzikiris by no meansalwaysperformed partofa mystical by performed the constitutes part of the Idul Fitri holy day prayers example,it commonly at whole community the mosque), it is especiallysuited to thatpurpose.Wirid(I.) are short often repetitively. or the the passagesfrom Qur'an, recitedin Sufipracticebefore after dzikir, may be assignedto asnumbersof repetitions of wiridin specified The recitation particular for times,whether to pirantsby theirspiritualdirector meet theirindividualneedsat certain in spiritualinspiration theirmysticquest or fora mundanepurposesuch as healingor proconnects accessdivineinspiration tection.The notionthatthe wiridcan help the practitioner to the use of wiridin Javaneseto mean "teaching"or "guidance." However,the wiridmay of also be given,much like an amulet,to anyoneneedingpracticalhelp, regardless whether and so in debased usages it gradesinto magical he or she has "higher"spiritualaspirations, practices.

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Effendi, leader of the Naqsyabandiyyah order(Dhofier1982, 141; Van Bruinessen 1992b). Dhofier (1980, 42-47), In theearlytwentieth century, according Zamakhsyari to both the numbers pesantren of studentsenrolledin themcontinuedto grow. of and century of However,the increasingavailabilityover the course of the twentieth Western-style schooling and an expanding range of occupations available to the as Indonesians withsuch schoolingin the longerrunthreatened pesantren centers of youtheducation.Althoughtraditionally majorpesantren taughtliteracy (in the the skillsassociated Arabicand Malay)and,for moreadvancedstudents, analytical the with Muslim jurisprudence, the none taughtmathematics before twentieth century and science.8 started expandtheircurriculum includemore to to By the 1910s, many pesantren This secularsubjectsin a gradedsystem education of education). (i.e., to add madrasah provedattractive throughthe late colonial period when, despite the expansionof werestillbeyondthereach government primary education, higher levelsofschooling of most nativechildren then, (Kahin 1969, 31). The real challengeto thepesantren, came afterIndependence, when the new Republic startedto develop governmentwithsmaller educationat all levels.The impactwas severe, supported Western-style in pesantren disappearing the 1950s and 1960s, leavingonlythe majorones (Dhofier of 1980, 45; 1982, 133). There has thus been reasonto questionthe prospects the in and pesantren the lattertwentieth century beyond(cf.Abdullah 1986). The Challenge of Modernist Reformism as have also had implications the tarekat, for Threatsto thepesantren necessarily of thepesantren beenboththeloci ofthetarekat important have and sources recruitment forthem, laterin lifeto their pesantren, to another old or withformer pupils returning in thepesantren to moreweighty But probably spiritual regimes. network, undertake has moresignificant the continued to of vitality the tare/kat been thedirectchallenge to Sufismposed by the reformist of movements the late colonial and republican was Wahabism, a reform movementaimed at periods.9Of particularimportance the purifying faithof local accretionsand eliminatingdeviationsfroma narrow conceptionof the Oneness of God. Wahabism swept throughthe Indies in the nineteenth century, challengingmanySufipractices.Then, in the earlytwentieth the cametheMuslimModernist linkingthetaskofpurifying faith century challenge, to thatof adaptingit to moderntimes(Boland 1971; Hassan 1975, 19; Noer 1973; have Geertz(1960, 183; 1968), and others Peacock 1978). As Gellner(1984, 56ff), has posed the most seriouschallengeto Sufismacrossthe pointedout, Modernism folk not of have seen in Sufism onlytoleration idolatrous Muslim world.Modernists (to rituals and the hereticalassumptionof divine powers by syekhs which older hierarchical reformists objected),but also offensively also old-fashioned relationships
of did 8According Florida,manypesantren teacha variety othersubjectsthatcould be to and writingin Malay to from Javaneseliterature said to formpart of a secularcurriculum: and finearts"(1995, 346). None"practical arts(includingtradeskillsand magic practices), was theless,thepesantren curriculum limitedin subjectsneededto enterthe expandingrange positions. of twentieth-century white-collar the moved through Indies by of 9As demonstrated Azra (1992), currents Islamic reform century, beginningas earlyas the second halfof the seventeenth well priorto the nineteenth at and redirection wereefforts therenewal movements, however, century. Manyoftheseearlier of Sufism, whichAzra calls "Neo-Sufi."

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that stifle independentthought in young studentsand impose unquestioning cameto be known of (Noer 1973, 300). Sufism obedience adultmembers theorders on Islam). as "the Islam whichis not Islam" (Islamyangbukan of rejection Sufismhas the century, reformist Over the courseof the twentieth spread widely, promoted through such Modernist organizations as the withthe Muslimsassociated (sometimes calledsantri) Those "strict" Muhammadiyah. in to came increasingly definethemselves oppositionto less Modernistmovement as Muslims)10 the committedand nominal Muslims (in Java, abanganor kej'awen theminto by religiousidentities incorporating sharpened politicsof nation-building politicalparties(Jay1963; Boland 1971). As conceptionsof acceptableMuslim practiceshiftedover the course of the groupswith thatemerged was themystical another oftension site twentieth century, with Islam. Some were not even identified roots in Sufismbut only precariously with Islam at all. Latent within Sufismhas always been the explicitlyidentified in communion withthe Lord,would thatthe Lord's "servant," rapturous possibility identity withthe Divine. Giving of lose all awareness selfand Otherand experience
and abanganin representing modesofIslamic religiosity santri '0The utilityof the terms has in awkwardly, Indonesiamorebroadly) been the subjectofmuch in Java(and sometimes, Geertz's debate since the termswere made popular in Westernacademicdiscoursethrough santri and abanganalong withpriyayi of The Religion Java (1960). In thatwork,he presented people who wereMuslims.(More thannineout amongJavanese as threereligiousorientations Muslim views,he characModernist wereMuslims at that time.) Reflecting of ten Javanese as orientations drawingfarmoreheavilyon Java's Indic and terizedthe abanganand priyayi enstressed in orientation, contrast, than on Islam. The santri indigenousreligiousheritages as werecharacteristic, These orientations understood). with"strict" Islam (variously gagement designatedby thosesame terms.Thus the abanganwere Geertzsaw it, of groupscommonly in from priyayi, this the of peasantsand thevastmajority thepopulation.Theydiffered mostly in typology, being more focusedon ritual formsand magical practicesderivingfromthe strata, and occupyingthe aristocratic bureaucratic "Hindu-Buddhist"heritage.The priyayi, aspectsofthe"Indic" heritage. the and hencestressed mystical style had moreofan intellectual as placed littleemphasison Islamicorthodoxy, Geertzsaw Since both theabanganandpriyayi in (concentrated the as it, theircredentials Muslimsappearedquestionable.In contrast, santri sent in but communities also foundin small numbers thecountryside) trading urbanJavanese to degreesattempted follow to to theirchildren thepesantren studywithulamaand to varying withlocal custom. Islamic law, evenwhenit came into conflict of (1985) havepointedout thatGeertz'sconflation Bachtiar(1973) and Koentjaraningrat Muslims" in with statusgroupsobscuresthe factthattherewere"strict culturalorientations schemaand retainabandoningthe tripartite recommended all social strata.Koentjaraningrat the withfollowing core concerned (moreovertly betweensantri ing onlythe culturalcontrast abanwho would includebothGeertz's Javanese, ("Javanist") of obligations Islam) and kejawen of and challengesthe construction Woodward (1989; 1996) goes further gan and priyayi. the cultureas "not reallyIslamic." He identifies Islamic sources(largelySufi)ofboth kejawen mysticism. villageand courtritualand ofJavanese consense of santriand abanganto indicateroughly I have adopted Koentjaraningrat's on the morefocused perforin stylesofIslamic religiosity, former variations Javanese trasting the to mance of core obligationsand attempting honorthe syariah, latterless so. This still to that santrimay be more or less sympathetic specializedSufilearning allows recognition ritualsassociatedwith nonobligatory and that theymay accept or rejectparticular (tasawuf), in of whether pursuit mystical and dzikir wirid), (especially of devotionalism tarekats theintense that not all of thosepeople who have gnosis or not. We can then more readilyunderstand and withtheModernist movement that as haveassociatedthemselves been characterized santri or movement have not. Santriwho have rejectedthe Modernist the to the contrary majority as or characterized kolot, and increasingly, unfairly, remaineduntouchedby it (sometimes, have forthe mostpartbeen associatedwiththeNahdlatulUlama, thenation"old-fashioned) of wide association ulama,foundedin 1926.

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voice to such an experience, tenth-century the PersianSufimystic al-Hallaj declared, "I am God!" His spiritual brothers, regarding ecstatic the affirmation heresy as against the cardinaltenetthattherecan be "no seconds"to the One God, had him executed (cf.Massignon1982). The Javanese thatone of the first tradition Seh walis,a certain Siti Jenar, achievedsuch an ecstaticunionwith God and was similarly punishedfor the sin of speakingopenlyof it (Soebardi1971; Florida 1995, 355-66; Sears 1996, 71-73) has beena reference pointforheterodox Sufis generations." for The hallmarks of theirheterodoxy, from perspective Ghazalian Sufis, theiracceptanceof the of are thepossibility or intimation they of, that personally haveachieved, withGod; identity theirconsequent elevation themystical of experience abovethe "outer"expressions of devotionto God, evento theextent considering law (syariah) a of the merely starting and pointforbeginners; an incomplete spiritual which "genealogy" (silsilah) through each teacherconnectshimselfwith his predecessors orthodoxSufism,in an (in unbroken ofproperly line initiated masters back to theProphet Muhammedhimself). In Java such heterodox Sufismightwell tracetheirline of initiation back to one of thefounding saints, particularly Seh SitiJenar, notbeyond;and pilgrimage to but to the gravesof thosesaintson the northern coast ofJavawas held to be as good as a to pilgrimage Mecca (Woodward1989, 101-08). FracturingIdentities fromModernistreformist Under pressure (that is, scripturalist) Muslims,such heterodoxSufis in the early decades of the twentieth centuryeitherabandoned with Islam (cf. Steenbrink1996, 171) or claimed the independent identification of superiority "Islam Jawa" (JavaneseIslam).12 Numerous so-called kebatinan (or to mystical) groupsbegan to form aroundgurus,'3 some withpast connections Sufiin and othersinformally schooledby parents and through stylemasters participation in life thereligious ofthecommunity looselySufi of and Javanese practices asceticism meditation. The imagery and philosophies the mystical of groupsof the periodalso revealtheirfounders' and engagement with Christianity (throughDutch churches the indigenous schools),and with the archipelago's ancientIndic heritage (through theater arts, especially puppettheatre; the through study groupsliketheTheosophical Society;and throughbooks lHadiwijono1967; Stange 19861). This eclecticism, withpolytheism, also offensive Muslim reformists. was to associated Aftermid-century, under the new IndonesianRepublic, the mysticalgroups proliferated rapidly (Hadiwijono 1967, 216-17; Ricklefs1979, 124; Van der Kroef an and to theirinterests 1961). Not onlythat,but theyformed association promote as began to press foracknowledgment fully-fledged "religions"(agama) underthe on and whichhad already, Constitution, a parwithIslam,Protestantism, Catholicism,
withSeh Sitijenar "For a twentieth-century example,see Howell (1977). The fascination (for is not confined heterodox to Sufis, however. Books on thiswali appearregularly example, in at even Mulkhan 1985). In 1989 a groupofscholars the StateIslamicInstitute Yogyakarta trial,withtheeminent Prof.Dr. Simuhplaying plannedto stagea re-enactment SitiJenar's of Sufi Emha Ainun Nadjib appearing the head of the religiouscourtand the self-styled writer for 1996, as Siti Jenar.The police, however, refused permission the performance (Steenbrink 174). of '2An exampleof the latterwas the last guru of the founder theJavaneseHindu sect SadharMapan. See Howell (1977, 25-31, 71-72). "inwardness;" henceke"3Kebatinan(I., J.), fromthe rootbatin("inner") meansliterally to spirituality." batinan refers "inwardspirituality" "mystical or

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in effect, received government acknowledgment the establishment departments by of in theMinistry Religiondedicatedto their of support Howell 1982; Stange1986). (cf. Some kebatinan groups,like Agama Adam Makrifat (The Religion of the PerfectlyRealized Adam) and Agama Sapta Dharma, went ahead and declared themselves "religions" regardless.'4 Demise of the Tarekat?Images of Decline and Signs of Renewal It is from this time, when rapid growth and increasingconfidence the of independent mystical (kebatinan) groupscoincidedwith the disappearance many of that on pesantren, Geertz'sethnographies Javanesereligiondate. This, then,is the in context whichwe mustinterpret picture pesantren and Sufism. tarekat, his of life The of and so the institutional coreof the Sufitradition, appearas withering vestiges the past,clinging lifethrough persons a fewelderly to the of peasantmenand in imminent of dangerofdyingout withthem(Geertz1960, 182-84). Underthepressure decades in ofModernist Sufiform seemed Muslim reformism, Islamicmysticism its orthodox to be disappearing, leaving"good Muslims" exclusively scripturalists. Those with a mystical bent,otherthanthosefadingrustics, longersoughtto developit within no Islam as Islam had cometo be understood; the instead myriad mystical groups, mostly centeredin cities,were attracting those who in times past would have been Sufi seekers. This pictureof the lifeofpesantren the tarekat associated withthemis under and revision, however. has becomeapparent It thatbothofthoseinstitutions havea good deal morevigorthanwas oncesupposedbyWestern scholars. The continuing strength in and adaptiveness thepesantren reported a seriesof Indonesian of was governmentin thoseofPrasodjoet al. (1974), sponsored publications the1970s and 1980s, notably Rahardjo(1974, 1985), Madjid (1977), and Dhofier (1982), and in severalthesesby Indonesians themselves closelylinked to thepesantren (e.g., Dhofier1980; Pranowo an 1991a; Zulkifli1994). Dhofier(1982, 40, 43) even reported absolutegrowthin in numbers pesantren Javabetween1942 and 1978, from of 1,871 to 4,195. Similarly, justunder140,000 to justover677,000, enrollments grewoverthesameperiodfrom fromthe slump of the 1950s and 1960s. The Departmentof showinga recovery at of of Religionnow puts the number pesantren 9,388 and thetotalnumber students at over1,770,000 (Departmen Agama R.I. 1997, ii). first Also, the journalPesantren, publishedin 1984, providedan academicforum fortakingstockofthestateofpesantren considering whatcould be done to assure and and thema valued rolein modern society. Magazineslike Pesantren's Linkage"5 papers
Kebatinan,Kerohanian, Kejiwaan" (List Kepercayaan: '4Subagya's"DaftarAliran-Aliran Groups), of Faith Movements: MysticalGroups,SpiritualGroups,and SpiritualPsychology groupscalling first publishedin theearly1970s ([19731 1976, 129-38), stillshowsthirty-one themselves "Agama(or Igama)x, y, z ...." He even listssevenstill using "Islam" in the title (e.g., Islam Rasa Tunggal, and moreboldly,Agama Islam Sebenarnya [The True Religionof it Islam)). By this time, however, had become illegal forspiritualgroups to claim the full dangerousto do so. It is likelythatby the statusof a religion(agama),and it was extremely undernamesusingtheword disappeared no longeroperated or 1970s thosegroupshad already Agama Sapta Darma becamesimplySapta Darma, acagama. Thus, forexample,the former of by as ("faith"group administered the Department Educepted registration a kepercayaan cationand Culture),and survived through the end of the century. to (P3M) and Society Pesantren Community for "5Published The Indonesian by Development in Jakarta in from1985 (titleoriginally English).

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that were adding a graded with articleson the numerousinstitutions pesantren,

to sympathetic "Traditionalist"Islam featuredarticleson the "modern" face of

leveland undertaking and up curriculum to thesecondary in somecaseseventertiary trials creditentrepreneurship, (rotating activities development a rangeofcommunity have pesantren agents, etc.). As community development methods, of newagricultural partof the NGO sector. becomean important a More recently, growing body of researchon the Nahdlatul Ulama, the has called pesantren, Muslim scholarsand their coordinating body fortraditionalist not society, just as a of of strength thissector Indonesian to attention the continuing from politicsin 1984, party sincetheNU's withdrawal but,especially politicalforce (cf. and culturalrevitalization Jones1984; strength as a sourceof local community Barton and Fealy 1996). Following the recent election of the NU's chairman, freely and of Wahid, to thepresidency theRepublic(itsfourth, thefirst Abdurrahman New Ordergovernment), Suharto's President sincethefallofformer electedpresident attention. morescholarly considerably are the NU and thepesantren likelyto attract twentieth-centurypesantren on focusoftheliterature latter Althoughtheprimary and of has been on theirrole as providers schoolingforyoungsters on theirrole,via in the NU and partysystem, nationalpolitics,severalauthorshave emphasizedthe are Most notablein thisregard of withinthepesantren. importance Sufism continuing workdemonstrates and ethnographic Dhofier(1980; 1982), whosepivotalhistorical life (if part Sufism not alwaysSufiorders)has playedin pesantren from the intimate (1992b; 1995), who has chronicled daysin Indonesia,and Van Bruinessen its earliest in thespreadofbothmajorand minorSufiorders Indonesia.Pranowo(1991a; 1991b) the case studies demonstrating ethnographic and Zulkifli (1994) providefurther in Zulkifliarguesthatthiscan bestbe of importance Sufism thepesantren. continuing appreciatedwhen it is recognizedthat Sufismconsistsin ascetic and devotional regimesthat need not be part of a mysticalpath nor accompaniedby advanced of studies.Many who join in the collectiveperformance the optional metaphysical prayersassociatedwith Sufism(dzikirand wirid) may not be but recommended branch withouta tarekat of members a Sufiorder.It thenfollowsthatevenpesantren on and so carry Sufitraditions. conductSufidevotions may since the 1970s and 1980s shows on appearing In sum,scholarship thepesantren far and thatSufism, vitality in and organizational thattheyare recovering numbers as continues a valuedpart standards improve, out as educational from beingsqueezed of withinthepesantren of indication the survival Sufism life. ofpesantren One further leaderswithin of committee tarekat in is the founding 1957 of an executive context themforthe Sufiordersand to monitor Ulama to accreditorthodox the Nahdlatul Nor was this a marginalbody withinthe NU: of ethicalstandards.'6 maintenance its to according Dhofier "top electedleaders. . . havebeen the leadingKyai ofmajor the demonstrates positive place oftheSufitarekat (1980, 270). This clearly pesantren" Muslim organization. withinIndonesia'slargest

Mu'tabarah; Ahli Thoriqoh 'iyyah called thePucuk was '6The committee first Pimpinanjami after faction one Mu Nahdiyyin Thoriqqoh 'tabarah from1979 it becametheJam'iyyah splitoff and began working the and formed JATMI (jam 'iyahAhli ThariqahMu 'tabarahIndonesia) Sufi of GOLKAR (Dhofier1980, 270; Syam1998, 41-43). Otherprincipals orthodox through Suryalaya, (or like KH Sahibul Wafa Tajul 'Arifin "Abah Anom") ofTQN Pesantren orders, have neverjoined eitherbody.

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Sufismas Part of the Islamic Revival: New Forms and Interpretations

orthodox within pathundertaken and Sufism, bothas a ritualactivity as a mystical partofthe twentieth Islam in the latter has place in Indonesian clearly a firm orders, to Verymuch a contributor the survive. But it has done morethanmerely century. revitalization. partofthebroader As too Sufism has undergone Islamicrevival, broader that have helped break down revival, it has been subject to reinterpretations have distinctionsbetween "Traditionalists"and "Modernists";numeroustarekat new growth,and new kinds of people have joined them, including experienced cosmopolitanurbanites;and finally,Sufism has found expressionthroughnew in forms urbanenvironments. institutional The Urban Rehabilitation of Sufism in the Early New Order from and of forms Modernism Islamistideologiesemanating As withscripturalist intellectuals, among students, interest considerable attracted the Near East, Sufism scene,Abdul Hadi announcedin 1970 fromthe 1970s. On the literary and artists (Aveling2001, the eclipse of socialistrealismwith a new genreof "Sufiliterature" 1991; Nurullah1989).17 And in thelater 229-33; Baidlawi 1987; Muhawar-Rahman moved out of the like otheraspectsof Islamic thought, 1970s and 1980s, Sufism, (the IAIN), and founda even mosque and pesantren, beyondthe Islamic universities campuses.It was a populartopicin the student-organized place on secularuniversity Islamic studygroups at the Bandung Instituteof Technologyand Gadjah Mada thatplayedan important part in the Islamic revivalamong the younger University to and the urbanmiddle classes.The new appeal of Sufism thesegroups generation becametop sellersamong wheretitleson Sufism was also evidentin the bookshops, 1985; Abdullah 1996, 60; Mohammadet al. 2000). bookson Islam (cf.Effendi of interpretations Sufism thepopulartitleswereappreciative among Remarkably, intellectuals. among thesewere severalbooks on Notable by Muslim "Modernist" in and a major figure the Muslim Modernist Sufism Hamka, a highlyrespected by movement.In these he disengagesthe concept of tasawuf(in this Independence from concept the of devotional practices) the underpinnings Sufi context, philosophical
'7Aveling(2001, 229-33) creditssuch "established"New Order poets as Abdul Hadi, IndonesianIslamic the first Taufiq Ismail, and Sutardji Caljoum Bachri with introducing sincethe 1970s. drawnintotheIslamicrevival of for poetry thegrowingnumbers Indonesians of the Hadi also translated mysticalIslamic writings Rumi, Hafiz, and otherPersianpoets IndonesianIndeof generation poets bornafter into Indonesian.However,it was a younger and mostly after 1960 (forexample,Emha AinunNadjib, AhmadunYosi Herfanda, pendence, expethe interiority mystical of conveyed and Acep Zamzam Noor) who most compellingly they riencein theirpoetry.Explicitlycalled "Sufis"by Indonesiancontemporaries, "wrotea as at light,playful, ease with Koranic references well as the typeof versethatwas youthful, .... There was almost a radianceto their names of the prophetsand the Persian mystics who worship, spontaneous of descriptions a worldfilledwiththe God whosebeautyattracted to and was everywhere yet'nearer you thanyourjugularvein' " (Aveling2001, 233). Through had . .. become by theirwork,Aveling observes, the 1980s "religiousbeliefand experience (2001, 230). topic ofpoetic expression" ... the mostcharacteristic

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a Thus in his classic Tasauf form, Sufiorder).'8 of tarekat (takenas the institutional dan 1990) and Tasauf:Perkembangan Pemurniannya Moderen (Modern [19391 Tasawuf, aimed at the 1984), he warnsthat reforms and (Tasawuf'Development Purification, the of purification the faith,particularly expungingof devotionssuspectedof not with the Qur'an and Hadiths, have for many resultedin a being in conformity themselves local customs, people find of Eschewingidolatrous desiccation theirfaith. but paid, haj undertaken, simply prayers said, poor-tax leftwith emptyformalism: in without finding thema deeperspiritual withimposedrequirements, in compliance of meaning.Hamka thus advocatescultivation an innerspirituallifethatis guided Muslimreligiosity thathas a deeperemotional but of by theouterforms conventional Tasawuf is ethicalsubtlety. a introspection,greater cultivating richness and, through that innerlife.In as represented a body of Muslim knowledgethat can help foster of this way, he offersa construction Sufism that rehabilitatesit for modern and vows of obedienceto with theirmysteries waryof the tarekat cosmopolitans spiritualdirectors.Tasawuf,classicallytaught only to advanced devotees in the of availablein bookshops to becomes setting principally members tarekat, and pesantren the in the cityand can be absorbedwhenever readeris able to devotetime-perhaps or at home,perhapswithfriends fellowstudents-to quiet reflection.19 Similarthemes weredevelopedin the 1970s and 1980s in theworkofa younger of then emerginginto prominence (Hassan 1975, generation Muslim intellectuals 117-77; Howell, Subandi, and Nelson 1997, 279; Woodward 1989, 137-40).2o
like nonAusterities senseto mean "austerities." 18Tarekatcan also be used in a broader but of by practiced members Sufiorders mayalso be practiced are fasting commonly obligatory (cf. outsidethatcontext Woodward 1989, 171). in in thattheseworks,publishedoriginally the 1930s and continually 19Note, however, printsince, do not use the word "Sufism"(I. "Sufisme").That termdid not enterpopular usage until the 1970s, when Europeanand North Americanpublications(e.g., Nasr 1966; equivalents) 1973) using the word"Sufism" Germanic (or Nicholson 1975; and Trimingham in appeared quantities and had withwhatIndonesians beencallingtasawuf tarekat in connection of sectionof the IndonesianDepartment in Indonesianbookshops.Thus, when the research ("Sufism di Sufisme Indonesia Religionpublisheda special editionof its journalDialog entitled for in Indonesia")in March 1978, theopeningessaybegan witha justification usingtheterm the (Mursyid1978, 5). Interestingly, use of and withtasawuf tarekat "Sufisme" connection in "Sufisme MoeslimAbdurrahman's essays thevolume, in in thatterm thetitleofone oftheother in of some ofits subjects,members tarekats di Kediri" ("Sufismin Kediri" [19781), provoked (personal odd Kediri,to challengehim on thatusage,whichtheyconsidered and inappropriate communication). Bukan Ialah Rationalisasi Madjid's Modernisasi Nurcholish 20An examplecan be takenfrom emotionwe can in Westernisasi, which he writes:"The most beautifuland most profound It of is experience the sensation themystical. is the sowerofall truescience.He to whomthis who can no longerstandraptin awe, is as good as dead. To knowthat emotionis a stranger, manifesting itself thehighestwisdomand themost as to whatis impenetrable us reallyexists, formsonlyin theirmostprimitive can radiantbeautywhichour dull faculties comprehend (1968, 5, citedand translated of is thisfeeling at thecenter truereligiousness" thisknowledge, FahamKeagamaanDikalanganUmmat in Hassan 1975, 33). See also Madjid's "Menyegarkan in ReligiousUnderstanding theIndonesianMuslim ComIslam Indonesia"("Reinvigorating Taman Ismail Marzukion 30 October talk given at the culturalcenter an munity"), historic p. in 1972 and translated fullin Hassan (1975, 315-30). See especially 317, wherehe refers kawulalan "manunggaling mystics, used byJavanese commonly to approvingly an expression of Gusti" or the "unification a [sic] slave with his Lord," and speaksof faith(iman)as being was In (inter alia) dzikir. themid-'80s,whentasawuf gainingmore through cultivated properly (anotherof the earlyand noticeamong the generalpublic, both Madjid and Djohan Effendi in Wahid's governState Secretary Abdurrahman and presently Neo-Modernists prominent Pesantren. Madjid (1985) wrote to on articles tasawuf thejournal appreciative ment)contributed

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and "Neo-Modernists"since they Variously identifiedas "Neo-Traditionalists" theyincludedpeople of anew both reform tradition, and reassessed and appreciated most notablythe '60s Modernist backgrounds, both Modernistand Traditionalist Wahid, leaderof Madjid and Abdurrahman student group(HMI) leaderNurcholish the TraditionalistMuslim Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) (now Indonesian President). of liberalinterpretations Islamic for Perhapsbestknownin Westernscholarship their also have encourageda new nonetheless law, these (let us say) "Neo-Modernists" or of as appreciation Sufism a wayto developthe spiritual "inner"(batin)meaningof by religion(agama),verymuchalong the lines suggested Hamka.2' represented Neo-Modernist by avant-garde Moving up behind the intellectual reform movement embodiedin the Madjid has come themain bodyoftheModernist in a According Abdul MunirMulkhan, leadingfigure thedakwah to Muhammadiyah. notable, of (proselytizing) movement the earlyNew Order and a Muhammadiyah That organization, has towards Sufism" theMuhammadiyah. in there been "a turning nonetheless recorded and "still allergic"to thetarekat, once the main criticofSufism at side ofthefaith its national of spiritual its affirmation theimportance theinner, of has in said Mulkhan,23 come partlyfroma conference 1995.22 This appreciation, lax in realization the shortcomings the dakwahmovement convincing Muslims of of to set aside what reformists viewed as nonconforming customs,like the Sufidzikir it to formalism, was failing provide and wirid.By channeling Muslimsintoa narrow people look to theirfaithfor.Mulkhan also them with the emotionalsustenance of own young alluded to a crisis in retainingthe commitment Muhammadiyah's in numbers youthsgained access to universities significant people. When the santri thattheir found approach for first the timein the 1980s,he observed, scripturalist they should their careers: to religion clashedwiththecircumstances facedin pursuing they you ride the bus to class when you will be assaultedby the sight of women with
and on "Tasawuf theEssenceofReligiosity" ("TasawufSebagaiIntiKeberagamaan"), Effendi as to the (1985) introduced volumewithhis essay"Returning Tasawuf' ("Kembali ke Tasawuf'). the betweenmodernization, on A decade laterTaufikAbdullah commented the connection and the post-1965 situationof young Indonesianintellectuals, Neo-Modernistmovement, "Islam may have to depend on its Sufism,noting that under the evolvingcircumstances, messagesofthe Qur'an" (1996, 177). He goes on to and on the theological mystical tradition seeks to to say, "By aiming at purityof heartin the effort reachultimateTruth,mysticism never of achieveauthenticity life,includinglifein all its mundaneaspects.As itspractitioners tradition that,while not preaching Sufism a genuineIslamic humanistic is failto emphasize, (1996, 177-78). See also Azra contentment" passivity, putshighvalue on mentaland spiritual ... Wahid's "well-known convictionin Islamic mysticism (2000a, 167) on Abdurrahman "gnostic"J knowledge a/-ma'rifah) (ilm on emphasis agnostic[sic.,probably whichputsa strong in This is illustrated Azra's(2000b) whichin Islamic boardingschoolsis called ilmuladuini." daysofhispresidency, of of Wahid's visit,in thefirst explication thesignificance Abdurrahman as whomAzra characterizes a champion K. to the tombofthe saintly H. Ahmad Mutamakin, of "esotericIslam" followingin the line of SyekhSiti Jenar,Sunan Panggung,and Syekh Among Raga. like in to tookexception thedirection whichNeo-Modernists Madjid 2'Hamka,however, (Hassan 1975, took the contextualapproachto Qur'anic exegesisof the earlierModernists 180). dakwah ke-43,p. 86, where,amongstnumerous Muhammadiyah 22SeeMateriMuktamar "the development community of rituallife endorsed following: the the initiatives, conference (do'a) and dzikiraccordingto the sunnah, by leading prayers [and] leadingshalattahajutand withSufismi for groups, associated especially strategic shalatmalam [namely] [optionalprayers in and managers largecities,along with developingstudyof the the middle class, executives approach." deepermeaningofIslamic law using an intellectual July1999. with the author, 23Interview

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uncovered hair and calves? Perhaps you should walk instead, with eyes the Facingthesedilemmas, . downcast .. and thenbe hit by a carat theintersection! to themselves theirfaithby studentslacked the means to reorient santri university has fromtarekat engagingwith it at a deeperlevel. Hamka's unhingingof tasawuf commonly helped resolvesuch problemsand has now becomea conceptualstrategy Muslims.24 employed cosmopolitan by havealso been not scholars, although as a groupopposedto Sufism, Traditionalist whentakingtheir of negative stereotypes it amongcosmopolitans careful counter to the mediumof popularbooks. Thus, as Woodward messageto the public through of the on NU commentaries the Hadiths stress importance the (1993) shows,recent (appealing to inner spiritual state in which obligatoryprayersare performed formalism) also denouncethe practice but and Modernist cosmopolitans challenging and (technically idolatrous also connected ofaskingblessings spirits saints'graves of at withthe notionof "ignorant superstition"). (including and of by These reassessments Sufism bothModernists Traditionalists have helped win it a place in avant-garde both provenances) of the Neo-Modernist of to Indonesia's latest Islamic revival.They have also contributed the softening and Traditionalist and religiousorientations to distinctions betweenthe Modernist betweenabanganand santri.25The the further erosionof the old culturalcontrasts devotional of has from tarekat made it possibleto incorporate disengagement tasawuf into the Modernistspiritualrepertoire. elementsonce thoughtof as Traditionalist Similarly, adding a deeper spiritualdimensionto ritualand legal observances, by of havehelpedto makeMuslimpietymoreattractive modern reinterpretationsSufism to people outside of committed"strictMuslim" (santri)circles. The "greening" i.e., Islamicizing) of Indonesia's nominal Muslims, then, far from (penghijauan, participation. is becauseof Sufism's excludingSufism, actuallyaccelerating From Theory to Practice: Signs of Growth in the Tarekat form as and defensible of The rehabilitation Sufism an intellectually doctrinally of withtheenthusiasms thewider ofspirituality the"modern" for Muslim,combined in increased participation thatclassicSufi Islamic revival, appearsto be stimulating in the tarekat. media pickedup on thisphenomenon the late 1980s, The institution, on the "rushto join tarekat" ("Kenapa Mesti Tarakat?"(1987, cover;6reporting orders addingweightto thesereports. is on 101).26 More detailedresearch individual orderin East Java Thus Abdurrahman (1978), who made a studyof the Syatariyyah
of public appreciation someaspectsofSufism of are 24Although there indications a greater Nakamura(1980) cautionsthattherehas never in amongstMuslim Modernists recentyears, reason Rather, acrosstheboardin Muhammadiyah. of beena simplerejection theSufitradition by understood Westernscholarsof Islam to be compatibleonly (akal), which is commonly the as is with scripturalism, seen in Muhammadiyah requiring guidanceofa developedcharcan which,accordingto his informants, be cultivated acter(akhlak)and ikhlas(earnestness), like dzikirand wirid. practices devotional through 25Thischange in the culturallandscapeof the nationhas been documentedby, among could and Barton,who statesplainly:"In the fifties sixtiesIndonesianIslamicthought others, be accurately, describedin termsof the two majoraliran,or streams, but reasonably crudely, wereno morethaninadequate, but and ofTraditionalism Modernism, bythe 1980s suchterms IndonesianIslamic thought"(1994, 143). pointsin describing and vaguelypasse,starting see media coverage, themagazineGatra's"specialreport" 26For exampleofmorerecent an in 2000 issue (46[61). on Sufism the 30 September

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the in had been low all through Old Order in 1977, reported thatnumbers thatorder Similarly, Howell,Subandi,and Nelson (1998, but from 1966 beganto growrapidly. 281; 1999) found that membershipsin two centralJavanese branchesof the WestJava, grew on Suryalaya, Qodiriyyah-Naqsyabandiyyah centered Pesantren order from mid-1980s. An analysisof length-of-membership drawn the data dramatically had joined since of from thosebranches 1990 showedthat94.4 percent members in to 1984. The total numberof respondents this survey,when repeatedin 1997, previously surveyed increased from480 to 677, even thoughseverallocal chapters could not participate.27 suggestive, participation tarekat highly in are Althoughthesereports increased of theymust nonetheless takenwith some caution,as the detailedstudiesfocusing be media reports suggesting on individualorders cannotbe read as fullycorroborating role growing numbers acrossthe board.Becauseofthehighlyimportant ofthesyekhs knowledge, spiritual as guides,and as sources as linksin thetransmission spiritual of morevulnerable the of headareprobably ofblessings they (berkah), branches theorders than highly bureaucratizedreligious organizationsto erratic fluctuationsin memberships. Those with great personal appeal can attract large numbers of numbers can but leaderwithdraw anyreason, for participants; shouldthecharismatic meltawayquickly. leadershipin managingits political and financial The adroitness a tarekat's of and can also be of crucialimportance, not all kyai society relations with the broader take advantageof the legitimationand manage this equally well. Many tarekat the protection providedby the nationalulamas'association, Nahdlatul Ulama, and by this may be sufficient. Othershave been able to do equally well, or even better, New Order,the GOLKAR (underSuharto's working outsidetheNU and supporting branch of the dominantvehicle of political mobilization).PesantrenSuryalaya's order (TQN) is one of the best examples of this: Qodiriyyah-Naqsyabandiyyah a history strongsupportforthe centralgovernment underthe Old of building on Darul Islam movement Orderwhenit joinedforces operating againstthe secessionist and in its region,in the New Order TQN became a strongGOLKAR supporter Tarekat enjoyed patronage at the highest levels of the national government.28 not Siddiqiyyah,although lacking a complete spiritualgenealogyand therefore also supported GOLKAR in the 1977 elections recognized the NU, nonetheless by and attracthundredsof followers" (Dhofier and thereafter "began to be important 1980, 40).29 or in It is difficult, tarekat, then,to know if growingmemberships a particular from media, the to comment even in a fewof themwith sufficient visibility attract
reported the thatdid not distribute questionnaires 27In1997 heads of the local chapters of a in an additional745 members theirgroups.This indicates total 1997 membership 1,422, increasein size of to in comparison a 1990 membership 480, amountingto a nearthreefold for survey 1990, are included in the figures of included in the first if theseotherchapters, 1997 (Howell, Subandi,and Nelson 1999). of the articlesfeaturing participation many include newspaper records 28TQN Suryalaya chiefGeneralYoga Soegamais a pracFormer Intelligence at Jakarta dignitaries its functions. principal, of his ticingmemberof the orderand has married son to the daughter thetarekat's Suryalaya theParamadina and between Pesantren Abah Anom.Therearealso closeconnections to weekendretreats Suryalaya organizes Madjid. Paramadina by Institute, founded Nurcholish of For forpeople studying tasawuf the Institute. an accountofthe history theorganization, at see includingits politicalalignments, Zulkifli(1996, 85-116). and electionpolitics betweenthe tarekat 29For detailed discussionof the connections a duringthe 1970s and 1980s, see Syam(1998).

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really betoken generaltrend. do a Nonetheless, is reasonable conclude, it to givenour current understanding the secureplace of the Sufi orderswithincontemporary of "Traditionalist"Islam, combined with Sufism'sgrowing acceptabilityamongst intellectuals the increasing and pietyamong the Muslim populationin general, that have experienced morethana fewtarekat recent growth. A "New Breed" of Sufi: Increasing Diversity among Tarekat Participants Ifevidence growth memberships stillequivocal,a morecompelling of in is picture is emerging new typesof participants the SufIordersin the 1980s and 1990s. of in in of townand hinterland the 1950s portrayed Geertz'sethnography an East Javanese the tarekat "a kindof old men'spondok" as (1960, 182). Dhofier's 1970s observations of tarekat Centraland East Java were still in the main consistent in with Geertz's of characterization. Thus Dhofier that"thevastmajority thepeoplewho join reported the tarekat orders old people who desireto intensify are theirreligiousfaith"(1980, 261). Again,he emphasized, "The ethicaland practical of orders are emphases tarekat the on caringforthe personalreligiousneeds of theJavanese, particularly old who have abandonedtheirworldly . servethe interests .. the regularbrotherly meetings social needsof traditional people" (1980, 272). Unlike Geertz,however, of Dhofierdid not regardthe preponderance elderly withlittleor no formal marker institutional of educationas a demographic peasants decline. Particularly his sketchof the small, provincial in of pesantren Tegalsari in in to of CentralJava,he emphasizedthe importance its tarekat attracting the preeminent and untutored "ReligionoftheBook" a largely unlettered religiously peasant populace. He recalledthe historic role of tarekat, with theirrelatively simplerituals a and camaraderie, involvingsuch people sufficiently give them eventually in to stronger basis in the faith, and he saw an ongoingneed forthis(Dhofier1982, 12634).70 In one remarkable the respect, Dhofierobservedin the however, Suf activities 1970s, bothat thelargeand renowned Pesantren Tebuireng and at theminorpesantren from Tegalsari, differed sharply thoseobserved Geertzin the 1950s. At Tebuireng's by 40 60 weeklytarekat meetings, percent werewomen(1980, 293); at Tegalsari,fully were women (1982, 128). In Geertz's percentof those associatedwith the tarekat for account,therehad been no hintof such femaleenthusiasm tarekat. A similarstrong of representation womenappearedin the 1990s in thebranches of TarekatQodiriyyah-Naqsyabandiyyah, Pesantren Suryalaya, surveyed Howell by of and Subandi. In 1990 no less than44.2 percentof the members the Yogyakarta and Tegal branches(212 out of 480) were women (Howell, Subandi, and Nelson overallincludeda smaller in 1997, 285). When surveyed 1997, thesesame branches or 220 out ofa totalof 677 but still substantial of component women(32.5 percent, members surveyed) (Howell, Subandi,and Nelson, 1999).
out 30Although Dhofier emphasizes importance tarekat reaching to Muslimswith the of in little education in theirfaith,he is at pains to demonstrate that high levels of religious at scholarship sophistication tasawuf and in have been availableforcenturies themajorcenters and oftarekat the archipelago. in The spreadofreligioussophistication, both in tasawuf other and in thecase oftasawuf, branches Islamicknowledge, of has,however, beena gradualprocess normally attempt onlya small innercoreofscholars certain at pesantren specializingin tasawuf with high levels of mastery. The majority tarekat of participants, his view, are concerned in the recommended additionalritualssimplyas forms devotion. of

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fromlimited cases, but thereare Again, caution is needed in extrapolating in good reasonsto suspectthatwomenare now well represented many nevertheless created the whichtraditionally in the presence pesantren, tarekat. one thing, female For has to whichpeoplewererecruited thetarekat, beengrowing. through socialnetworks as as pointsout,although early 1885 L. W. C. Van den Berghad recorded As Dhofier and classes(pengajian) in the religiousinstruction of thepresence girlsin elementary classes in pesantren were thenlimitedto the beginner (1980, 33). In pesantren, they secular began to incorporate pesantren the 1910s, when the more forward-looking somealso began intotheir and withgradededucation, offerings to experiment subjects catering girlsas well to 1980, 38). Pesantren for dormitories girls(Dhofier introducing in represented such eventhoughgirlsare not quite evenly as boysare now common, showed725,089 girlsin of schools.Thus, in 1997 the Department Religionrecords Agama RI 1997, as at attendance pesantren comparedto 906,341 boys(Department ii). may also be related to the growing of The participation women in tarekat This has connections. otherthan via pesantren of importance modes of recruitment clearlybeen the case with TQN Suryalayasince the mid-1980s, with campus, as and workplace, politicalconnections well as newsmediaand publictalksall playing people, both womenand men,to the order(Howell, Subandi, a role in introducing on reporting a 1990 teamstudyoftarekat and Nelson 1997, 283-84). AhmadSyafi'i, of suggeststhe importance Islam, similarly in the northcoast heartland Javanese of in for new modes of recruitment accounting the successof the largerordersin that of through from aboutthebeginning thecentury area.According his periodization, to initiation tarekat, olderheterodox weresupplanting orders the 1960s, whenorthodox wherethekyaiscould determine on intoan orderfollowed priorstudyin a pesantren, the regimeof the order.From of the suitability the candidateto undertake spiritual to the 1970s, the largeorders began to open up and started initiateanyoneregarded "The observed, as havingsome knowledgeof Islam (Syafi'i1996, 25). Thus, Syafi'i groups and resultof this openness. . . was that therewere more and more tarekat of can centers activity. of Now someonewho is interested easilyjoin in the activities as groupbut rather a a tarekat because theyno longeroperatelike a secretmystical mass religiousmovement" (1996, 25). in as as This need not be interpreted a weakeningof standards the tarekat, the coincideswith the time the tarekat by reported Syafi'i period of the openingup of both secular schooling and religious when, under the New Order government, in Increasingly the New Order,one in instruction the secularschoolsspreadrapidly. both a pesantren havea basic educationin Islam. Moreover, to need not haveattended in to religiousinstruction the secularschool boys and girls have had equal access system. thus appear to have facilitated higherlevelsof Changingmodes of recruitment that in Sufiorders. But genderis nottheonlysocialattribute by participation women and 1970s WhereasbothGeertz's1950s fieldwork Dhofier's is changing thetarekat. in the as led observations themto characterize tarekat a place of solace for participant since the 1980s and 1990s well-educated and elderlycountry folk, poorlyeducated have careers livingin urbanenvironments and middle-class peoplestillactivein their too. been joining this The TQN Pesantren surveys illustrate point.More thanhalfofthe Suryalaya in the 1990s wereless thanfifty and Tegal branches of membership the Yogyakarta yearsold (60.5 percentin 1990 and 57.9 percentin 1997); and aroundone in five in in wereunderthirty (22.3 percent 1990 and 19.2 percent 1997) (Howell, Subandi,

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coveredthe and Nelson 1997, 287; 1999). The member'seducationalbackgrounds in studies(8 percent includingsome withuniversity-level remarkably fullspectrum, pedicab driving rangedfrom 1990 and 6.5 percentin 1997), and theiroccupations occupations(Howell, lecturingand other professional and farmingto university with these relatively Subandi, and Nelson 1997, 289-90; 1999). Not surprisingly (actually, of as as and occupation, many a quarter themembers highlevelsofeducation had of wereurbandwellersin 1990; in 1997 theproportion urbanites 26.2 percent) (Howell, Subandi,and Nelson 1997, 288; increased just overa third(34 percent) to branches, in 1999). While citypeople are still clearlyin the minority thesetarekat once thoughtto be presencein an institution an theyare nonetheless impressive confined ruralenvironments. to for attention its high levels of wellAnothertarekat group that has attracted Prof. of tarekat whoseprincipal, is educatedurbanities a branch theNaqsyabandiyyah and of and chemistry an author Dr. KadirunYahya,M.Sc., is also a professor physics (see experience withthesciences Thoyibi mystical ofmetaphysical treatises reconciling for of with a reputation high spiritual erudition 1996). His combination scientific in and students graduates the clearly appealsto themanyuniversity accomplishments and its activities is group.Althoughthisgroup'smode ofinitiation moredemanding thanthoseof manytarekat, recruitment its are less accessibleto casual participation nonare open in thesensethatnewmembers drawnthrough patterns nonetheless are youngmembers contacts. election, enterprising Indeed,in the 1999 national pesantren they new recruits: of thisgrouppioneered one of the morenovelmeansofattracting a a Cinta Damai. While it was hardly seriousbid, its actuallyformed politicalparty, about of weresatisfied withthe largenumber new enquiriestheyreceived organizers as the tarekat a resultofpeople readingCinta Damai brochures.3' in coming from evidenceof middle-class participation tarekat There is further as the of studiesoforders affirming importance Islamiclaw and self-identifying fully Syafi'i "ttarekat" in some other respecthaving a weak claim on orthodoxy. but that the Javanist tarekat regarded casesfrom "old-style" theseborderline distinguishes and a rulebookforbeginners syariah (Islamic law) as merely kind of oversimplified than back no further without apology,tracedtheirline ofinitiation whoseprincipals, in cases is saintsofJava.A commonpointofcontention the borderline the founding the While normally of genealogy (silsilkah). spiritual thevalidity thetarekat principal's silsilahconnectsthe masterto the ProphetMuhammedvia a chain of face-to-face of by the is there a view thattheProphetcan authorize founding an order initiations, is authority called appearingto his chosenvesselin a dream.Such a line of spiritual such case is a "silsilah Zahabiyah"(Syafi'i1996, 21). Perhapsthe most prominent leaders weredebatedby the NU tarekat thatof TarekatTijaniyah,whosecredentials at two successivecongresses 1988 and 1989) (Syafi'i1996, 21). Tijaniyahhas (in attracts in become one of the largesttarekat Java in recentyearsand reportedly of adherents. substantial numbers middle-class on of founded thebasisofan exhortation Moreambiguous is thestatus an order yet of deliveredin a miraculous appearance the Prophetto a devoteein a wakingstate, as happenedto Maulana Syekhof Lombok on a visit to Mecca in the 1960s. This in of eventuated thefounding theTarekatHizid NahdlatulWathan(Aziz 1996, 41). has "hundreds This movement, as whichAziz classifies a "pseudo-tarekat," attracted in of fromall overLombok and elsewhere Indonesia,across of thousands" followers
in to was acknowledged theauthorby organizers the "1Thismotiveforforming party the Yogyakarta branchin July1999.

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people and intellectuals, traders, "youngand old, ordinary thewholesocialspectrum: and professionals" Maulana Syekhas a (Aziz 1996, 43). Aziz portrays civil servants (from education intohispesantren of progressive educator, whoseintroduction madrasah Aziz, and prominence. 1943 forgirls as well as boys) earnedhim greatpopularity to loose entry of however, also relatesthe attractiveness the tarekat its exceptionally (1996, 42). easyregimeof spiritual practice requirements fairly and Tasawuf vs. Tarekat: Institutional Innovation in the 1990s While certain tarekat havebeenable to accommodate seekers withmuch spiritual manyforms social contact of and through morediversesocial attributes now recruit the overcome havenotentirely otherthansimplyshared pesantren background, tarekat withthesecularly educatedmiddleclasses.The rehabilitation their"imageproblems" has ofSufism notableMuslim intellectuals, including Modernists, helpedto create by in remain. a general but amongeducatedurbanites, socialimpediments interest Sufism to againsttarekat, according which Forone thing,there a commonset ofprejudices is imposingdemandingregimesof and secretiveinstitutions they are authoritarian nor always Clearlythis is not the whole story, are thesefeatures spiritual practices. that do seenin a negative light,since,as shownabove,cosmopolitans join tarekat have still deter some or all of thesefeatures. such negativeimagesoftarekat Nonetheless, in Muslims who have an interest Sufism.For some, some middle-and upper-class in direction thereare also problemsof perceivedsocial distancein seekingspiritual like Qodiriyyah Naqsabandiyyah Althoughthe major tarekat, rusticenvironments. have chapters patronizedby the most elite reachesof Indonesian and Syatariyyah, in or accessible and apparent socially society Jakarta othercities,theseare notreadily to everyone. In response thissituation unmetneed,Sufism been adaptedto a variety of has to in of new institutional forms urban settings.Some of them build out fromclassic utilize but themsubstantially; others or institutions, thepengajian tarekat, modify like such international culturalforms the "foundation," as series," 'institute,""seminar The dangerof leavingbehindconven"intensive course,"or "spiritualworkshop." will be tional Muslim institutional formsin this way is that the spiritualactivity that is, a mysticalor spiritualgroup not suspectedof being "really kebatinan," and fullyin accord with the teachingsof a single recognizedreligion identified or has kebatinan relabeled kepercayaan,a "faith") been (strategically (agama).32 Although the undernational law since1973 as a legitimate wayofexpressing "Belief recognized it underthe Constitution, has in One God" to whichall Indonesians committed are not fully escaped associationswith occultism and even suspicion of antisocial tendencies (Howell 1982, 533; 1989, 153; Stange 1986). The new typesof "Sufi" of withkebatinan explicitly institutions the 1990s avoid thisassociation by presenting of as themselves Muslim. Moreover, theyput a clear emphasison the importance
that of withkebatinan once existedin popularconsciousness 32The close association tarekat "Tarekat[in various by is illustrated Subagya'sinclusionof twelvegroupscalling themselves Kepercayaan: and "Aliran-Aliran spellings)x, y,z . . ." in his listofaroundtwohundred eighty Kebatinan, Kerohanian,Kejiwaan" ("List of Faith Movements:MysticalGroups, Spiritual Groups") (1976, 129-38). The list was compiled from Groups, and Spiritual Psychology partlyout of date alreadyby the disparateand not whollyreliablesourcesand was probably and time of its initial publication(1973). Nonetheless,it shows that in the past, tarekat or have been equated,eitherby the groupsthemselves by others. kebatinan

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and terminology, and Islamiclaw as a basis forMuslim spirituality use Islamictexts, in symbolism theiractivities. new adapt to accommodate Muslim institutions An exampleofhow conventional in DaarutTauhid,founded 1987 in BandungbyAbdullah socialneedsis thePesantren (or Gymnastiar "Aa Gym") and studiedby Dindin Solahudin(1996). Daarut Tauhid in pesantren the sense that it has a focal teacher(kyai) of the is a conventional for of fundamentals the faith,a mosque, and dormitories students.It is unusual, himself background in by however, beingfounded a youngkyaiwho lacksa pesantren Aa means.Further, by and, indeed,who acquiredhis advancedknowledge miraculous modernformof Sufidevotionnot foundin other a Gym has instituted distinctly that Aa This is prayer accompaniedby ritualweeping.Solahudinreports pesantren. and is takenas a sign of repentance the weeping,which encourages Gym in effect and devotions, wirid, (bothshalat,theobligatory prayers piety,by leadingcommunal voiceand urgingthattheritual verses) a dolorous in repetitive Sufi-style theoptional, in of state.Likewise, thefreeform emotional be performed a genuineexpression a felt as prayers(doa) following the wirid, Aa Gym also stimulates intense emotional deep congregations and youthful middle-class to by involvement recalling themostly of regretforsuccumbingto the temptations urban societyand fallingaway from can This typeof ritualpractice be said to be "modern"and verymuchin the piety.33 (cf. and spiritof both Hamka's TasaufModeren the NU's recentreligiousliterature state (batin) as Woodward 1993, 571) insofar it places emphasisupon the interior this through that accompaniesthe outer ritual form(lahir). However,expressing Daarut is worship, unique to Pesantren weeping,both in privateand congregational Tauhid.34 and institutions Sufi of Another exampleofthemodification traditional practices is theKelompokMujahadah(MujahadahGroup)studiedbyAziz (1996) in Semarang wirid Sufipractice involving and surrounding towns."Mujahadah"is an easilylearned His in to effort becomecloseto God and receive blessing"(Aziz and dzikir "an intense but rituals notrestricted withfuneral associated traditionally 1996, 44). This practice, on practice itsownbysmall,informal to thatcontext, came to be done as a devotional groups of Muslims (mostlymiddle class) in the mid-1980s. Such groups became popular in the 1990s when theyreceivedthe blessingof a numberof particularly of kyai leadersand enjoyedtheparticipation a charismatic whoseattendance pesantren Despite the occasionalinvolvement at a meetingwould attract crowdsof thousands. repertoire, of a "traditional"charismatic figurein ritualsdrawn fromthe tarekat informal theyremainessentially thesegroupsare quite novel in structure: however, among relationships withhighlyegalitarian together, looselynetworked gatherings, to they Their success,accordingto Aziz, is attributable the freedom participants. to to [and} freedom do the afford: "freedom attendor not to attendgroupactivities, benefit" the or withoutfeeling loss ofspiritual ritualpractices routinely incidentally (1996, 49).
of faculty the StateIslamic 33KH Hamdani BakranAdz Dzaky, a graduateof thesyariah RoudlatulAl Mutaqien,as the has Institute (IAIN) in Yogyakarta, also molded hispesantren, from and teachers to tutelageattractive students of base fora novelform tasawuf institutional little-known Yogya. In additionto teaching in the manyhigh schoolsand universities nearby to of specialprayers his own composition textsby Ibn al-Arabi,Kyai Hamdani also prescribes in timeshe joins some ofhis students prayer and outsideformal the accompany groupdzikir, or playingjazz on keyboard guitar(Mohammadand Rahman 2000). a W. describes parallelsin otherreligioustraditions. A. Christian 34There are, however, of and Roman Catholicconstruction tearsas a giftofgracein his fifteenth- sixteenth-century essay"ProvokedReligiousWeeping in EarlyModernSpain" (1982).

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Musliminstitutional forms, stilldrawing but Moredistantly recalling traditional "institutes," on Islamic scholarshipand devotional forms,are the proliferating courses,''spiritualworkshops,' and the like that "foundations," "clubs," "intensive Perhapsthe standardforms. make Sufi traditions available throughinternationally Foundedin Jakarta mostoutstanding exampleof thisis YayasanWakafParamadina. theologian and University Chicago Ph.D. of in 1986 by the eminent Neo-Modernist activities (cf. NurcholishMadjid, the Paramadinais best knownforits intellectual centerforintellectual exchange Hefner1997). Indeed,it has servedas an important and religiouseducation,offering shortcoursesand public lecturesin the area of "liberal Islam," Islamic studies, politics and Islam, religion and gender issues, comparative religion,and relationsbetweenreligions.Located in the prestigious from middle-classsuburb of Pondok Indah, drawingon the servicesof professors and chargingsubstantialfees for its courses and Jakarta'sleading universities, occasional lectures, Paramadina provides a congenial setting for well-to-do, Muslimsto exploretheirfaith. cosmopolitan thanmight a conception spirituality of Paramadina, however, promotes broader be guessedfrom Modernist background its founder its heavyintellectualist of and the agenda. It also runscourseson "Tasawuf' and "PracticalSufism."Indeed the basic series:"Islam forBeginners" program studyoffered Paramadinais a three-part of by the basic Muslim theological (twelve lectures),"Tawhid" (six lecturesconcerning on principleof the Oneness of God), and "Tasawuf' (six lectures Sufithoughtand policy,tasawufis onlyavailableto thosewho practice). Recallingtraditional pesantren have completedtheirstudyof the othertwo,morebasic, subjects.The inclusionof of nonetheless demonstrates importance the tasawufin the basic program Paramadina in of Sufiinspiration contemporary Neo-Modernist spirituality.35 Other similarvenues forpursuingan interestin Sufismin a semi-academic in environment Jakarta includethe Klub Kaiian Agama (Religion StudyClub), the UniversitasParamadinamulya, and ICNIS (IntensiveCourse and Networkingfor in seminars a convention Islamic Sciences).The Klub Kajian Agama holds monthly at roomwithseatingforseveral hundred theHotel Regentor another majorhotel.It features two speakers(normallyincludingNurcholishMadjid) who talk on both religionand social issuesand discusspointsraisedby the audience.The Universitas was foundedby Madjid, but as a fully-fledged Paramadinamulya, Paramadina, like foundation of with a variety degreeprograms. ICNIS is an independent university out of the State Islamic Institute(IAIN) Syarif Hidayatullah'smosque. operating
has BudhyMunawar-Rahman, also emphadirector programs, of present 35Paramadina's (personal programs offered there are sized thattalkson tasawuf themostpopularofthe lecture fromGatra, he describedthe situationas follows: In communication). speakingto reporters "Usually about 40 people attendthe lectures.But when it comes to talkingabout tasawuf, by you can get as manyas 120 people coming" (Wiranto,et al. 2000, 1). This is reiterated as offerings, well as a range the Hasbullah (2000, 41-43), who describes Paramadinatasawuf of aroundthe studyand practice Sufism, activities centering of othermiddle-and upper-class held at theBanEksekutif" ("ReligiousTrainingforExecutives") forexample,the "Pesantren of dung Giri Gahana Golf & Resortin West Java. The popularity "thingsSufi"among the magazine by urbanmiddle and upperclasses is also illustrated the publicationof a monthly entitledSufibeginningin May 2000, and by the successthat same yearof a weeklyFriday format the for on called Tusawuf the NTV channel.The standard program eveningtelevision who engaged in by television programwas an interview the host with a Muslim layperson spiritual some kind of "Sufi" spiritualpracticeor who had had some kind of impressive who was a Muslim but not a An experience. "expert"with formalacademic qualifications, or syech ulama,would be asked to comment.

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courseson weekendnondegree and Paramadinamulya ICNIS both offer Universitas of The descriptions the lecturetopics in coursebrochures Islam, includingtasawuf. and criticalreflection the value of that give a feelingforthe emphasison informed by of This description a lecture Dr. reflection the basis ofa morevital spirituality. as is YunasrilAlim, M.A., in the 1998 ICNIS lectureserieson tasawuf representative: in at of use legalapproach looking theteachings Islam, [Muslim)jurists a formal that getstheimpression Godis,as itwere, a judge. .. theologians that only such one the that of giving impression God to approach theteachings Islam, takea rational on far But is utterly and transcendent, from wayaboveall His creatures. ifwe rely offers a spiritual fulfillment. feel religious alone, rationality wewillnever real Tasawif so to as of and to approach theteachings Islam, God is pictured ever near humanity, when arebyHis side. we peaceand happiness whogiveswarmth, likethebeloved of this will Under title"TheStructure Tasawuf' lecture lookat theform Sufi the of and 'amali way charity goodworks, [the of and is by teachings . .. what meant tasawuf and akhlak wayof [the and prayers fasting), tasaw;if required meritorious including and and tasawuf [thewayofpiousobservance ethical study self-reflection), ibadah [spiritual to law), and tasawufnazhari rightactionaccording religious (falsafi) enrichment enquiry).36 through philosophical of are formalprograms study of tasawuf offering Alongside these institutions spiritual for practice and support private to others moreoriented devotional numerous Tasawuf These includethe PusatPengembangan based on Sufiteachings. development of Islam(Centerforthe Development PositiveTasawuf Positif KlinikSpiritualitas dan the and Clinic forMuslim Spirituality), Sufi Healing Group operatingout of the FathullahMosque on the IAIN SyarifHidayatullahcampus, and the Indonesian run and Islamic Media Network(1iMAN). The classes,workshops, retreats by these high levels of attract incomesand relatively people with comfortable organizations of education.A similarorganization, YayasanTaskiyaSejati, headed by a relative a high-ranking officials, provides a forumfor government formervice-president, and officers, rich businesspeople to use Sufismas a part of theirMuslim military in on a faith.The anomalousYayasan Salamullahresembles tarekat thatit focuses a statusis shakydue to the extraordinary leader,but its tarekat spiritual remarkable was circumstances its founding of and unusual practices:its head, Lia Aminuddin, since then channelsforhim to her group. As a visitedby the Angel Gabriel and a offers better format yayasan of (foundation) the consequence, neutralinstitutional such as the and articulates otheractivities, for platform the associationof devotees Lentera Islam. of publication theirmagazine, of from To call attention thedistinctiveness thesenewmanifestations Sufism to of Sufi forms,proponentsand observersvariously older, sometimesobjectionable, Sufism." and "Practical "TasawufPositif," like "Neo-Sufi," themwithterms identify to somewhat different the emphases, termsnonetheless Althougheach usage points ritualforms that infuses an suggesta core of commonfeatures: Islamic spirituality of emotionalmeaning;an interpretation Islam's asceticand mystical with personal in social life (hence,a in traditions ways that encouragefull engagement everyday that of attitudeto work in the world); and the innovation social forms "positive"
for p. 36Thisexcerptis from 25 of the brochure "Islamic StudyPackages" (Paket Studi ICNIS (IntensiveCourse and fromMay to August 1998 by the organization Islam) offered were in for Networking Islamic Sciences)Iname originally English). The coursedescriptions web site: www.icnis.or.id. on also carried the organization's

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for without imposingrequirements obedienceto a spiritual support spiritual practice people" and from tarekat usedby"modern the master. is Sufism It thatcan be detached of to cope with the uncertainties a rapidlychangingworld.To the extentthatit is mysticism.37 it mysticism, its advocates, is "thisworldly" say

Conclusions
ruralsector Indonesian of once strongly associatedwiththe "traditional" Sufism, bases of classicalSufism, the has society, clearly not died out. The ruralinstitutional and are pesantren tarekat, intactand even show signs of vigorousgrowthassociated And, styles,and memberships. with adaptive changes in structure, recruitment in ironically, precisely the period of Indonesia'smost rapid economicdevelopment has even in the new enthusiasm, Sufism inspired underthe New Ordergovernment, sectors of Indonesian society most intensely engaged in modernizationand is through the globalization: urbanmiddleand upperclasses.This interest expressed rural-based Sufi orders,the the participation urbanitesin the long-established, of in forms the townsand cities.Further, novel institutional tarekat, also through but by and is theintellectual basisofSufism beingdiscovered cosmopolitans, thetradition reformulated, especiallyby Neo-Modernistintellectuals is being sympathetically better knownfortheirworkon Islamic law in modernsociety. thatheretofore has Sufism, then,is verymucha partofthewiderIslamicrevival in terms.A fervent largelyin scripturalist been characterized Westernscholarship to and backgrounds concern thepartofMuslimsofbothTraditionalist Modernist on with an stressed scripturalism) in of infuse"outward"expressions faith(so strongly tradition richness drawingon Islam's mystical by "inner"meaningand experiential has in manifestations, played Sufism, however, itsvarious has beenlargely overlooked. an important commitment "outer"acts of pietythat to increased part in inspiring in so feature prominently accountsof Indonesia'sIslamic revival.Sufismhas also associated with Islamic contributedto the softeningof contrastsin religiosity and therefore helped createthe commongroundin Traditionalism and Modernism so civil society upon whichpoliticaltensions, acute in theperiodsincethefallofthe in is Suhartoregime,can, it is hoped, be resolved.Neo-Sufism particular strongly not linkedwith Neo-Modernist liberalism, onlybecause it is oftenespousedby the with its emphasison feltconnection same thinkers, because Neo-Sufipractice, but reinforces tolerance withtheDivine as a basisforethicalsocialprescriptions, strongly forreligious pluralism. These findingshave implicationsfor the broadersociologyof Islam, which of is presently dominatedby Gellner'scharacterization Sufismin Muslim majority
of on drawsimportantly the writings the PakistaniintelSufism typeof reformed 37This lectual Fazlur Rahman, who has developed the concept of "Neo-Sufism"and with whom of NurcholishMadjid studiedat the University Chicago (cf. Barton1991, 81; Syukur1999, thatwhat Rahman(1968, 239; 1970, 640), Azra (1992), and Voll 139-44). Note, however, century Voll's view) or even (in datesback to theeighteenth (1994, 27-29) call "Neo-Sufism" of and beyond(in Rachman'sand Azra's constructions) can only be seen as a precursor conthatshare of refer currents Sufithought to These authors Indonesian"Neo-Sufism." temporary withorthodoxy (beingalignedwith the Indonesian Sufism explicitconcern withcontemporary with and than"identity" mysticism) advocating engagement whatis herecalled "unity"rather exemRachman'sand Voll's premodern fromit. Nonetheless, thanwithdrawal societyrather conventional. wereorganizationally plarsof "Neo-Sufism"

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countries fatally as implicatedin disappearing ruralsocial formations.38 validity The of thisview needs to be further examinedthrough reappraisal the recent a of revival experiences otherMuslim countries. so doing,it will be important assessthe of In to extentto which representations Islamic religiosity coloredby the affinity of are of scholars modelsofmodernization foretell demiseofreligion, facedwith for that the or its unexpected persistence, "bookish"and "rational"stylesof religiosity for such as are foundin Islamic Modernism. Returning the Indonesian to case,giventhatthisessayis concerned withtrends, it is appropriate concludewith some speculation to the likelyfuture Sufism to as of there.Bearingin mind theconditions thathave fostered survival untilnow,it its up is reasonable expectthatSufism to will continue be an important ofIndonesian to part lifeas longas certain features thepoliticaland socialenvironment religion of of remain in place. These include the requirement all Indonesiansto practiceone of five for recognized religions (agama)39 a "faith" or with legal (kepercayaan/kebatinan)significant and significant still attachedto kebatinan. supportbehindthe religions opprobrium The relaxation attitudes of towardkebatinan would erodethe attraction Sufism of as the of and "fullylegitimate" mysticism encourage proliferation syncretic highly and forms "alternative" of privatized spirituality. Beyondthe issue of restricted scope for the social construction religiosity that of actual funding.Continuedheavy of is for financial of education and religious government support religious projects all sorts will likely favor Sufism theextent to thatit keepsspiritual to concerns central concepts ofIndonesian and the Islamic citizenship promotes meansto engagewithspecifically for spirituality. Also, since enthusiasm Sufism part of the overallIslamic revival, is the continuedimportance Islam to Indonesians(as to Muslims elsewhere the of in to world) as a cultural counterweight Westernization should be propitious.If, however,sensitivitiesto Westernizationshould escalate, and for other reasons "fundamentalist" Islamistmovements achievepoliticaldominancein Indonesia,the for prospects Sufismwould become decidedlypoor. As forNeo-Sufism, continued it economicand social development likelyto favor overolderSufiexpressions is but not lead to theirreplacement it, since,as we have seen,even the orthodox tarekat by can be attractive well-educated withthe bestprospects to Muslims.Those tarekat for with urban urban supportare those whose principalsare sufficiently comfortable culture put at ease people comingfrom nonreligious to the education and system who of and operaterelatively openly.With the increasing integration pesantren general educationand the increasing of penetration urbancultureinto all areasof life,there should be no shortage such leadership. of

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