Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 120

Marine diesel engine

A.WORKING PRINCIPLE A diesel engine is a machine which produces power by burning oil in a body of air which has been compressed to a high pressure by a moving piston. For evolving out power continuously, a full series of the separate steps or events are followed and same series of the steps are repeated. This one set of events is called a Cycle. BASIC IDEAL CYCLES Internal combustion engines work on the basis of three fundamental thermodynamic ideal cycles. These are Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion cycles. The cycles are conceived with air as the working substance. The mass of air which is assumed to remain constant is taken though a succession of non-flow processes. The theoretical cycles consider no induction and exhaust processes, only heat being added at one part of the cycle and rejected at another.

Otto cycle

Constant volume cycle 1-2 isentropic compression 2-3 heat addition at constant volume 3-4 isentropic expansion 4-1 heat rejection at constant volume Air standard thermal efficiency = 1-(1/r) 1 , r = comp. Ratio. The working with reference to the P-V diagram and the T-S diagram is as follows; At the beginning of the cycle at the point 1 the cylinder is assumed to be full with a charge of fresh air. The point 1 is called the state point defining pressure and temperature of a certain volume of air. From 1 to 2 the air is compressed isentropically following the law PV =C. From 2 to 3 heat is added to the same mass of air at constant volume. Point 3 represents maximum pressure and temperature in the cycle. From 3 to 4 air is expanded isentropically. From 4 to 1 heat is rejected at constant volume. No rejection of the working substance is considered to have taken place. Finally the same mass of air is brought back to its initial state at 1 and is ready to repeat the cycle. For this cycle per unit mass of air the quantity of heat added Q a= C v ( T3 T 2 ) C v is the specific heat of air at constant volume. Thermal efficiency th = Heat converted to work/ heat added. =( Q a Q r ) / Q a = 1 {(T 4 T 1)/ (T 3 T2)} Using the relationship for perfect gas laws : T 2 / T 1= (V 1 / V 2) -1 = (r) -1. Since V 1 / V 2 = r, the compression ratio. T 2 = T 1 x (r) -1 Again, T 3/ T 4 = ( V 4/ V 3 ) 1 = ( r ) 1, since V 4 = V 1 and V 3 = V 2 Substituting these values th = 1 - T3 / (r) 1 - T2 / (r) 1 T3 T2 = 1 {( 1/r ) 1 x (T3-T2)/ (T3-T2) = 1 ( 1/r ) 1 ..(1) This equation is known as the air standard thermal efficiency of Otto cycle in terms of compression ratio and the properties of working substance (). The equation shows that the thermal efficiency depends on compression ratio for a given working fluid.

Diesel cycle

T = temperature S = Entropy 1-2 isentropic compression through comp ratio r = V1/V2 2-3 heat addition at constant pressure 3-4 isentropic expansion 4-1 heat rejection at constant volume air standard efficiency = 1 ( 1/r ) 1 { rc - 1 } { ( rc 1} where rc = V3/V2 , termed fuel cut-off ratio. This is presented on P-V and T-S planes. Starting with the assumption as before, it consists of an isentropic compression process from 1 to 2 through the compression ratio r = V1/V2. Addition of heat to the mass of air at constant pressure as the cycle passes from 2 to 3. At 3 heat supply is cut off and air is expanded isentropically. Rejection of heat at constant volume from 4 to 1 ; at 1 the substance regains its original state, i.e. pressure, volume and temperature. Heat transferred to unit mass of air Qa = Cp ( T3 T2 ). Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure And Heat rejected Qr = Cv ( T4 T1 ) The thermal efficiency th = 1 {(Cv X T4 T1)/ (Cp / T3 T2) = 1 1/ X ( T4 T1) / (T3 T2) Using the fundamental gas equation T2 = T1 ( r) -1 For the constant pressure process from 2-3,

V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = rc, another volume ratio is introduced termed as the fuel cut-off ratio. T3 = rc . T2, also T4 / T3 = ( V3 / V4 ) 1 = ({V3 / V2} X {V2 / V4}) 1 = ( rc / r ) 1 Substituting the values th = 1 1/ {T2 rc. (rc/ r ) 1 } {T2 / (r ) 1 } T2.( rc 1 ) = 1 ( 1/r ) 1 { rc - 1 } .2. { ( rc 1} This expression represents the efficiency of a diesel cycle in terms or r, rc and . It differs from that of Otto cycle by the term within brackets which is always greater than 1. Hence the thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle is always less than Otto cycle for the same compression ratio. The practical engines based upon the Diesel cycle can employ higher compression ratios. Therefore a diesel engine using a compression ratio 14 is more efficient than an Otto engine with r = 7. It is also seen that as rc increases, the bracketed term increases and efficiency decreases. Therefore a low cut-off ratio is desirable for best thermal efficiency. In a diesel engine operating at slow speed, there is time enough for the combustion to take place at more or less constant speed. The behavior of many slow speed engines is more correctly represented by a mixed cycle in which part of the heat is added at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. The constant volume cycle has a higher thermal efficiency and specific output but is impractical at high compression ratios because of very high peak pressure. The Diesel cycle on the other hand has less thermal efficiency, less specific output but is practicable at higher compression ratios. Accordingly, the advantages of both the cycles are combined in what is called a mixed cycle.

Dual combustion

Mixed cycle of otto and diesel cycle Heat added partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. hence having advantages of both cycles.

Equation (3) represents an expression for thermal efficiency of Dual cycle in terms of r, rc and rp In this equation, if rp is substituted as 1, i.e. all the heat is supplied at constant pressure, then we have the efficiency equation for the Diesel cycle. When rc = I i.e. all the heat is supplied at constant volume then we have the thermal efficiency of constant volume cycle.

Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles compared The three air standard thermodynamic cycles can be compared for the same compression ratio and heat input. The cycles are plotted on P-V and T-S planes. Since all the cycles have the same compression ratio, the compression line 1 to 2 is common to all. The cycles then depart according to the mode of heat addition. 1, 2, 3, 4 represents the Otto cycle; 1, 2, 3, 4 represents the Diesel cycle. It will be seen that the Dual cycle falls in between the two cycles and is represented by 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 1,

To satisfy the condition of equal heat input the areas under the T-S diagram for each cycle must be the same. The general expression for efficiency is given by: To satisfy the condition of equal heat input the areas under the T-S diagram for each cycle must be the same. The general expression for efficiency is given by: th= 1 (Qr/Qa) Qa being the same for each cycle, that cycle which rejects the maximum heat is the least efficient. The quantity of heat rejected Qr for Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles are represented by areas under the curves 14, 14 and 14 respectively. This analysis reveals that the Otto cycle or the constant volume combustion gives the highest economy as regards fuel consumption as it rejects minimum heat, but it gives a high maximum pressure as well. The Diesel cycle gives much less maximum pressure but least economy in fuel consumption. The Dual cycle falls intermediate between the two. While the thermal efficiency is of utmost importance, the maximum pressure would limit the extent to which the gain can be utilised in practice. The importance of the mixed cycle can now be realised in the light of the above statement.

The thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle decreases if r c is increased. The thermal efficiency of Dual cycle is increased if r p is increased. But the pressure rise associated with the increase is undesirable. It follows therefore that there is not much scope to manouvre for an increase of efficiency by manipulating any of the quantities rc, rp, and . An internal combustion engine is an air engine, hence y is constant. By suitably adjusting values of rc, rp, and the thermal efficiencies of Diesel and Dual cycles will approach but never reach that for the Otto cycle. The equation (1) shows that if r can be increased indefinitely the efficiency will approach 1, i.e. 100%. But a very high compression ratio cannot be used from practical considerations. A high compression ratio gives a very high peak pressure and temperature. The crankshaft and other members of the reciprocating engine mechanism are designed to withstand the peak load. Hence too high a compression pressure would involve higher weight and cost of the engine. The mechanical load on bearing would be more and the engine components comprising of the walls of the combustion chamber would have to bear a higher level of thermal stresses. The upper limit of compression ratio is therefore fixed by the strength of the cylinder, the bearings and other parts whose stresses are determined by peak mechanical and thermal loading. Besides, increase in r in the lower range gives a proportionate gain in thermal efficiency. But in the higher range the gain becomes progressively less. Thus considering all aspects an optimum value of r is chosen. The large slow speed marine Diesel engines employ a value of.r in the neighbourhood of 12-14, medium speed engines can employ slightly higher value of r, about 16. A Diesel lifeboat engine may have a value of r as 20 for good startability from cold.

Real cycle
Cont. line = actual curve Dotted line = ideal curve x = compression loss. y = combustion loss. Rounded corners due to non-instantaneous valve operation. 1- 2 suction 2 - 4 compression, (3 - 4 fuel injection, 3 - 5 combustion) 5 6 expansion 6 1 exhaust.

The I.C. engine cycle and the equivalent air standard cycle are somewhat similar. The Otto cycle is taken for the comparison with the I.C. cycle as the principles are generally the same for most IC engine cycles. With reference to figure, the actual compression curve gives a lower terminal pressure and temperature than the ideal curve ( shown dotted ). This is caused by heat transfer taking place, variable specific heats, a reduction in due to gas-air mixing, etc. Resulting compression is not adiabatic and the difference in vertical height is shown as x. The actual combustion gives a lower temperature and pressure than the ideal due to dissociation of molecules caused by high temperatures. These twofold effects can be regarded as a loss of peak height of (x+y) and a lowered expansion line below the ideal adiabatic expansion line. The loss can be regarded as clearly as shown between the ideal adiabatic curve from maximum height (shown chain dotted ) and the curve with initial point x + y lower (shown dotted ). The expansion is also not adiabatic. There is some heat recovery as molecule recombination occurs but this is much less than the dissociation combustion heat loss in practical effect. The expansion is also much removed from adiabatic because of heat transfer taking place and variation of specific heats for the hot gas products of combustion. The actual expansion line is shown as a full line.

The assumptions made at the beginning on ideal cycles plus what has been described above are considered, along with practical details such as rounding of corners due to noninstantaneous valve operation, etc. mean that the actual diagram appears as shown in the sketch.

Working Principle 4 stroke engine

Induction stroke Compression stroke at the end pr. = 35 bar, temp. = 540 C Power stroke temp = 1650 C Exhaust stroke

1. INDUCTION The crankshaft is rotating clockwise and the piston is moving down the cylinder. The inlet valve is open and a fresh charge of air is being drawn or pushed into the cylinder by the turbocharger

2. COMPRESSION The inlet valve has closed and the charge of air is being compressed by the piston as it moves up the cylinder. Because energy is being transferred into the air, its pressure and temperature increase. By the time the piston is approaching the top of the cylinder (known as Top Dead Centre or TDC) the pressure is over 100 bar and the temperature over 500C

3. POWER:
Just before TDC fuel is injected into the cylinder by the fuel injector. The fuel is "atomised" into tiny droplets. Because they are very small these droplets heat up very quickly and start to burn as the piston passes over TDC. The expanding gas from the fuel burning in the oxygen forces the piston down the cylinder, turning the crankshaft. It is during this stroke that work energy is being put into the engine; during the other 3 strokes of the piston, the engine is having to do the work

4. EXHAUST
As the piston approaches the bottom of the cylinder (known as Bottom Dead Centre or BDC) the exhaust valve starts to open. As the piston now moves up the cylinder, the hot gases (consisting mostly of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and unused oxygen) are expelled from the cylinder. As the Piston approaches TDC again the inlet valve starts to open and the cycle repeats itself

Four stroke timing diagram

The working cycles The actual engine requires four strokes or two strokes of the piston to complete processes such as compression, expansion, exhaust and induction. Accordingly the engines are distinguished as four-stroke and two-stroke engines. The working cycle of a four stroke engine is described with respect to indicator and valve timing diagrams.

1-2 induction Stroke: Air is drawn into the cylinder at the pressure existing in the intake manifold. The inlet valve closes after the end of the stroke. 2-3 Compression Stroke : With both inlet and exhaust valves closed, the air is compressed by the piston in the clearance space. The injection of fuel begins at a few degrees before the T. D. C. The fuel is ignited by the high temperature produced at the end of compression and most of the heat is released at constant volume. 3-4 Expansion or working stroke: The gases expand until at the end of stroke when the exhaust valve opens. The exhaust is blown down in exhaust pipe and the pressure in the cylinder drops. 4-1

Exhaust Stroke : The remaining gases in the cylinder are forced out by the displacement of piston extending over a fill stroke.

Two stroke engine


Working Principle of 2 stroke engine - Ported type 1) Compression 2) Fuel injection 3) Power and exhaust 4) cross scavenging

2 stroke Timing diagram (ported

2 stroke Timing diagram ( v/v engine)

Working Principle 2 stroke engine( valve) a) scavenge port covered, exh v/v about to close b) exh v/v closed compression on, fuel injection c) combustion, expansion d) exh v/v about to open. e) exhausting and scavenging.

The crankshaft is revolving clockwise and the piston is moving up the cylinder, compressing the charge of air. Because energy is being transferred into the air, its pressure and temperature increase. By the time the piston is approaching the top of the cylinder (known as Top Dead Center or TDC) the pressure is over 100 bar and the temperature over 500C

2. Just before TDC fuel is injected into the cylinder by the fuel injector. The fuel is "atomised" into tiny droplets. Because they are very small these droplets heat up very quickly and start to burn as the piston passes over TDC. The expanding gas from the fuel burning in the oxygen forces the piston down the cylinder, turning the crankshaft. It is during this stroke that work energy is being put into the engine; during the upward stroke of the piston, the engine is having to do the work

3. As the piston moves down the cylinder, the useful energy from the burning fuel is expended. At about 110 after TDC the exhaust valve opens and the hot exhaust gas (consisting mostly of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and unused oxygen) begin to leave the cylinder

4. At about 140 after TDC the piston uncovers a set of ports known as scavenge ports. Pressurised air enters the cylinder via these ports and pushes the remaining exhaust gas from the cylinder in a process known as "scavenging". The piston now goes past Bottom Dead Centre and starts moving up the cylinder, closing off the scavenge ports. The exhaust valve then closes and compression begins

The two stroke cycle can also be illustrated on a timing diagram.


1 -2 Compression 1. approx 110 BTDC 2 - 3 Fuel Injection2. approx 10 BTDC 3 - 4 Power3. approx 12 ATDC 4 - 5 Exhaust Blowdown4. approx 110 ATDC 5 - 6 Scavenging5. approx 140 ATDC 6 - 1 Post Scavenging 6. approx 140 BTDC

Diesel engine terminology


Bore refers to diameter of engine cylinder Stroke refers to distance piston travel from TDC to BDC Engine displacement refers to the total volume displaced by the pistons during one stroke. Degree of crankshaft rotation because the piston is connected to the crankshaft, any location of the piston corresponds directly to a specific number of degrees of crankshaft rotation. Firing order refers to in order in which each of the cylinder in a multicylinder engine fires. Clearance volume volume remaining in the cylinder when piston is at TDC. Compression ratio = Total volume / clearance volume Horse power power is amount of work done per unit time or the rate of doing work. For diesel engine power is rated in units of HP. Brake horse power refers to the amount of usable power delivered by the engine to the crankshaft. Mechanical efficiency - the ratio of engine BHP and its indicated HP. IHP is the power transmitted to the piston by the gas in the cylinder and is mathematically calculated. Toque measure of engine ability to apply generated power Nm.

ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
BED PLATE
Operational Information The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine The Bedplate The Bedplate is the foundation on which the 2 stroke engine is built. It must be rigid enough to support the weight of the rest of the engine, and maintain the crankshaft, which sits in the bearing housings in the transverse girders, in alignment. At the same time it must be flexible enough to hog and sag with the foundation plate to which it is attached and which forms part of the ships structure. If the bedplate was too rigid, then as the hull flexed, the holding down bolts, which secure the engine into the ship would be likely to break, and there would be a danger of the bedplate cracking. Basically the bedplate consists of two longitudinal girders which run the length of the engine. Connecting these longitudinal girders are the transverse girders which are positioned between each crankshaft throw, and either side of the thrust collar. Built into the transverse girders are the main bearing pockets for the crankshaft to run in. The main functions of the engine bedplate are as follows: The bedplate must be strong enough for providing rigid support for the main bearings and crankshaft. It is the main platform for accurately mounting other parts such as columns, frames and guides which support engine cylinders, entablature and all working parts. In large engines, must withstand heavy fluctuating stresses from operation of the engine and also transmit the load over an area to the ships hull. Collect crankcase lubricating oil and return to drain tank for further use. The two types of bedplate in general use is: The Trestle Type- Require elevated seating. The Box Form or Flat Bottom Type- More popular with most engine manufacturers since the engine can directly be bolted to tank- top. Forces applied to the bedplates: Firing load from cylinders. Side thrust from guide faces. Unbalanced inertia forces in the running gear. Weight of engine structure & running gear. Torque reaction from propeller. Hull deflections due to hogging, sagging, racking.

Vibration due to torque variations, shock loading. Thermal stresses due to atmospheric and lubricating oil temperature changes. Inertia & gyroscopic forces due to ship's movement in heavy seas. In addition to withstanding forces due to the above causes,, the bedplate should provide. An oil tight chamber to contain the oil splash & spray of the forced lubricating oil system. A drainage grid to filter out large particles before they enter the oil sump or drain tank. A housing for the thrust bearing. Having provided for all the above the bedplate should also be small & light to keep the overall size and mass of the engine to a minimum. Basic Structure: The bedplate consists of longitudinal and transverse girders as shown below

Longitudinal Girders may be single or double plate construction

Box girders-A box girder is stronger and more rigid then I or H section girder of the same c.s.a.

On the small bore engines, the bedplate can be made from cast iron as a single casting. Larger engines have a fabricated bedplate. This means it is welded together from steel sections, steel castings and plate. The steel is to Classification Society specifications and is a low carbon steel with a maximum carbon content of 0.23%. Earlier fabricated bedplates had box section longitudinal girders and box section fabricated transverse girders. Problems were encountered with cracking of the transverse girders, which increased as engine powers and crankshaft throws got larger

Operational Information Holding Down and Chocking


The engine is mounted on resin or cast iron chocks and bolted to the hull using holding down bolts. The engine must be securely fixed into the ship. As the engine turns the propeller, the propeller tries to push or thrust the propeller shaft and engine crankshaft forward into the ship. The thrust bearing which is situated at the aft end of the engine transmits this thrust from the crankshaft to the bedplate. The bedplate is mounted on chocks and is securely bolted to the engine foundation plate on which it sits and which forms part of the structure of the hull. The Engine must also be lined up with the propeller shaft. If the engine output driving flange was higher or lower, or to port or stbd of the propeller shaft, then it is easy to visualise that trying to connect them would cause bending stresses to be set up. The engine must also be bolted to a flat surface. If the surface was uneven, then when the bolts were tightened the bedplate would be distorted, which in turn would distort the crankshaft, causing unacceptable stresses to be set up when the engine was running. Before the engine is bolted down it is supported on jacks whilst it is aligned with the tailshaft bearing. This can be done by stretching a wire above the tailshaft and crankshsft, and measuring the distance from the wire to the crankshaft bearing centres. Modern methods use a laser. When the bedplate is in perfect alignment, cast iron chocks are hand fitted between the machined underside of the bedplate and machined spots on the foundation plate. This is a skilled task and 80% contact is the aim.

Once the engine is supported by the chocks the jacks are removed and the holding down bolts are tightened using a hydraulic jack to stretch the bolts. Holding down bolts should be checked regularly for tightness. If they are allowed to come loose, then the mating surfaces will rub against each other and wear away in a process known as fretting. If this continues and the bolts are subsequently tightened down, the bedplate (and main bearings) will be pulled out of alignment.

Conventional Holdingdown bolt

Side Chocking

Side chocks are fitted to prevent the engine from moving sideways due to the movement of the vessel or because of the sideways component of thrust from the reciprocating and rotating parts. The chock is welded to the foundation plate as shown, a liner is hand fitted on a 100:1 taper and then driven home.

This is a side chocking arrangement, where after driving the liner home, locking screws are hardened down as shown.

End Chock (aft end of the engine only)

Resin Chocking
Steel chocking has the disadvantages that each block must be individually fitted, a time consuming process, and after fitting are susceptible to fretting and wear. Resin chocks are poured and therefore are much quicker to apply. They form into the shape of the clearance and key into surface imperfections. This much reduces damage due to fretting and removes bending momemts on the holding down bolts.

The disadvantage is that the resin creation must be precise and that it is less straight forward to replace in the event of damage of misaligenement.

Properties The material used for the rsin chocking is Class tested to ensure minimum standards. A sample cured in the correct way is tested for the following; The impact resistance Hardness. Compressive strength (stress at maximum load) and modulus of elasticity. Water absorption. Oil absorption. Heat deflection temperature. Compressive creep Curing linear shrinkage. Flammability.

ENGINE CONSTRUCTION A FRAME Frames were earlier made of cast iron and made hollow to reduce the weight. They were sandwiched between bedplate and cylinder block by tie bolts, which left them in compression. The frames were later fabricated from mild steel tube and plate. Guides (cast iron ) were bolted on the frames. This arrangement used individual frames at each cross girder (of the bedplate) position. The spaces between the frames along the length of the engine are fitted with plates bolted to the frames. This type of structure is strong transversely, but comparatively little flexible longitudinally. Heavy covers or longitudinal stiffness are to be used to make side covers oil-tight. This would be a weak structure to withstand a crankcase explosion. Alignment of cylinder block to bedplate would vary under ship movement. Longitudinal girder construction is the latest development for this part of the structure. These, with most engines, are prefabricated steel; they carry guide surfaces and are usually bolted to bedplate and cylinder blocks or entablature, the latter being used for air supply purposes, jacket and cylinder support, Operational Information The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine The A Frames

Otherwise known as the A Frames. These carry the crosshead guides and support the engine entablature (the cylinder block). On older engines, the A frames were individually

erected on the bedplate directly above the transverse girders. When boxed in with plating they formed the crankcase. The trend nowadays is to build the frame box as a separate fabricated construction and then, after stress relieving and machining the mating surfaces, to mount it on the bedplate. This has the advantage of saving weight.

Lowering the A frame onto the bedplate. A small amount of jointing compound is used to ensure an oil tight joint.

When the frames are aligned on the bed plate they are secured together by drilling and reaming and using fitted bolts.

Cracking in A frames can occur leading to misalignment and excessive wear of the running gear. Cracks can start from welds, sharp changes in section and where strengthening stringers are terminated sharply. Repairs can involve cutting the crack out, grinding and rewelding. The danger is that after repair there may still be misalignment.

Frame with Guides

GUIDES IN THE CROSSHEAD TYPE ENGINE


These guides are fitted to crosshead engines and are vertical sliding bearings which locate and maintain alignment of the crosshead over the whole length of engine stroke. They are subjected to fluctuating load from the transverse components of the connecting rod reaction. Guide bars or surfaces are secured to the frame adjacent to the unit and have either cast iron or steel bearing surfaces. Guide slippers (or shoes) are attached to the ends of the crossheads and may be free to articulate: they are white metal lined with oil grooves lubricated from the crosshead. Guide clearances must be checked periodically and should not exceed0.7 mm for a large engine. Excess clearance will cause noise, wear on bearings and glands, uneven loads and fatigue. There are two major forms of guide / guide way : the 2-faced guides and the four faced guides are there as shown.

Cross head guides Cross head guides Fi tted to cross head engines only. Vertical sliding bearings locates and maintain alignment of the cross head during entire stroke. Subjected to fluctuating loads from conn. rod reaction Guide bars are secured to the frame adjacent to the units. material CI or steel there are 2 forms of guides:2 faced guide ( M.A.N ENGINE) 4 faced guide (B&W, Sulzer)

TIE-BOLTS
The entablature, A-frames and bedplate are held together by long tie-bolts that transmit the combustion gases from the tops of the cylinder down to the bedplate cross-members. The tie-bolts are hydraulically tightened to pre-stress the structure, maintaining the engine structures in compression. Bracing screws are located at the length of the bolts to reduce the vibrations. The firing load from the cylinder covers is transferred through the bottom studs to the cylinder beams. The beam transfers the load through the tie-bolt nuts and the tie-bolts to the bedplate cross girders. Operational Information The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods To understand the importance of the role played by the tie bolts or tie rods, it is necessary to appreciate what is happening inside the cylinder of the engine. When the piston is just after top dead centre the pressure inside the cylinder can rise as high as 140 bar (14000kN/m2). This acts downwards through the piston rod and con-rod, pushing the crankshaft down into the bearing pockets. At the same time, the pressure acts upwards, trying to lift the cylinder cover. The cylinder head studs screwed into the entablature prevent this happening and so this upward acting force tries to lift the entablature from the frames and the frames from the bedplate, putting the fitted location bolts into tension. As the piston moves down the cylinder the pressure in the cylinder falls, and then rises again as the piston changes direction and moves upwards on the compression stroke. This means that the fitted bolts are under are cyclic stress. Because they are not designed to withstand such stresses they would soon fail with disastrous consequences. To hold the bedplate , frames and entablature firmly together in compression, and to transmit the firing forces back to the bedplate, long tie bolts are fitted through these three components and then tightened hydraulically. To prevent excessive bending moments in the transverse girders, the tie bolts are positioned as close to the centre of the crankshaft as possible. Because the tie bolts are so close to the crankshaft, some engines employ jack bolts to hold the crankshaft main bearing cap in position instead of conventional studs and nuts.

Operating the engine with loose tiebolts will cause the fitted bolts holding the bedplate, frame and entablature in alignment to stretch and break. The machined mating surfaces will rub together, corrode and wear away (this is known as fretting). Once this has happened the alignment of the engine running gear will be destroyed. Loose tie bolts will also cause the transverse girders to bend which could lead to cracking, and main bearing misalignment. Once fretting between the mating surfaces has occurred, then tightening of the tie bolts will pull the engine out of alignment. The crosshead guides, the cylinder liner, and the stuffing box will no longer be in line and excessive wear will occur. Because the tie bolts will no longer be pulled down squarely they will be subject to forces which may lead to them breaking. If fretting has occurred, then the only solution is to remove the entablature or/and frame and machine the fretted mating surfaces (a very costly exercise). Tie bolts can break in service. To reduce the risk of this happening they must be checked for tightness; not overtightened; and the engine not overloaded. If a breakage does occur, this is not disastrous, as the engine can be operated with care for a limited period (the load on the engine may have to be reduced).

The position of the fracture will dictate how the broken pieces are removed. Tie-bolt centers should be as close to the crankshaft as possible to reduce bending stresses on the girdles and to prevent unbalanced loads being transmitted into the welds. Tie-bolt should be checked for tightness and flaws. If any of the bolts were slack, the cylinder beam would flex and lift at the location. Landing faces of the tie-bolt upper and lower nuts, landing faces of the cylinder beam on the frame would fret and machined faces would eventually be destroyed. The bracing bolts would also be slackened.

Sulzer - Jackbolts

In Sulzer Engines, instead of bolts and nuts, Jackbolts are used for tigtening the main bearing. By this arrangement, the tie rods are brought as close as possible to the crankshaft centreline, which helps to reduce the bending stress in the cross girders of the bedplate.

On the MAN B&W MC-C engine the tie bolts do not pass through the bedplate transverse girder in the traditional way. Instead there are two pairs of tie bolts fitted either side of the single plate A frame and screwed into the bedplate transverse girder. This, it is claimed, reduces the distortion of the bedplate during engine operation.

When checking the tightness of tie bolts, refer to manufacturers instructions for tightening pressures for the jacks and the order in which to carry out the check. The normal order is to start at the centre and work outwards checking the bolts in pairs

The MC -C engine with its twin tie bolts is an exception, starting at the fwd end and working aft. If the engine is fitted with bearing jacking bolts, then these must be slackened before tightening the tie bolts. Any pinch bolts fitted must also be slackened off

CYLINDER Liner and Jacket (Entablature)


The structure above the bedplate and the frame to which the cylinders are attached is known as the entablature. In 2-stroke engines, it is generally of box form.

The entablature is the name given to the cylinder block which incorporates the scavenge air space and the cooling water spaces. It forms the housing to take the cylinder liner and is made of cast iron. castings are either for individual cylinders which after machining on the mating surfaces are bolted together to form the cylinder beam, or they may be cast in multi - cylinder units, which are then bolted together. The underside of the cylinder beam is machined and then it is aligned on the A frames and fastened in position using fitted bolts It is important to remember that the fitted bolts used to bolt the entablature, A frames and Bedplate together are for alignment and location purposes only. They are not designed to resist the firing forces which will tend to separate the three components. This is the job of the tie bolts.

In the photograph opposite, the liners can be seen in place in the entablature. Note also the diaphragm plate and the stuffing box housing Entablature Mounted On A Frame With Liners In Place

The engine frame of a modern 4 stroke medium speed diesel can be produced as a single casting or fabricated from cast steel sections and steel plates welded together. With this design, there is no separate bedplate, frame and entablature as with a 2 stroke slow speed engine. The photograph shows the frame of an engine with the liners and crankshaft in place.

An alternative method of construction is shown opposite. A separate bedplate is bolted to an entablature which holds the underslung crankshaft.

Shown here is a partial cross section from a one piece medium speed engine frame. The Crankshaft is underslung, and it can be seen in this example that the load on the bearing caps is transferred back to the frame by the use of tie bolts. Note the use of the side tie bolts which locate the bearing cap, and prevent sideways movement.

Cylinder Liner & jacket- 2 stroke engine


The structure above frame is called cyl. Block / entablature or jacket. Generally box form-2 stroke engine Cylinder liner is attached to jacket. Space between liner and block forms water space. Liner flanged on top rests on shoulder of cyl. block, cyl. head is bolted to block. Joint between liner and head is made gas tight by gasket or by accurate metal to metal fit. Material - pearlitic gray cast iron contains vanadium and titanium to refine structure,give strength and increase wear resistance, reducing corrosion. For lubrication, holes are provided and connected to lubricator.

Material. Cast iron is generally regarded as a suitable material for construction of diesel engine cylinder liner. In order to improve strength and induce specific desirable properties such as strength and surface properties, cast iron is alloyed with the inclusion of small quantities of nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, copper etc. Such inclusions refine the grain structure of the material. The total percentages of alloying inclusions should not exceed beyond 5%. Good quality Pearlitic Grey Cast Iron consist of the following alloying material: Carbon: 3 to 3.4%. Its graphite flakes assist lubrication. Silicon: 1 to 2.0%. Improves fluidity and graphite formation. Manganese: 0.6 - 0.8% Phosphorous: 0.5% maximum. Reduces porosity Vanadium: 0.15%. Refines grain structure Titanium: 0.05%. Improves strength Specification Ultimate tensile strength: 200 Mn/mm2. Ultimate bending strength: 520 Mn/mm2. Ultimate compressive strength: 900 Mn/mm2. Brinell Hardness: 180 - 220 HB. Ductility: 1 to 5% Elongation. Reasons for using Cast Iron: Can be cast in to intricate shapes. Has good wear resistance: Due to large surface of irregular shaped graphite flakes. Due to semi-porous surface holding oil pockets.

Possesses good thermal conductivity. Damps out vibrations due to rapid combustion. Cheap material.

The cylinder liner forms the cylindrical space in which the piston reciprocates. The reasons for manufacturing the liner separately from the cylinder block (jacket) in which it is located are as follows; The liner can be manufactured using a superior material to the cylinder block. While the cylinder block is made from a grey cast iron, the liner is manufactured from a cast iron alloyed with chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. (cast iron contains graphite, a lubricant. The alloying elements help resist corrosion and improve the wear resistance at high temperatures.) . The cylinder liner will wear with use, and therefore may have to be replaced. The cylinder jacket lasts the life of the engine. At working temperature, the liner is a lot hotter than the jacket. The liner will expand more and is free to expand diametrically and lengthwise. If they were cast as one piece, then unacceptable thermal stresses would be set up, causing fracture of the material. Less risk of defects. The more complex the casting, the more difficult to produce a homogenous casting with low residual stresses The Liner will get tend to get very hot during engine operation as the heat energy from the burning fuel is transferred to the cylinder wall. So that the temperature can be kept within acceptable limits the liner is cooled. The liner must be gauged regularly to establish the wear rate and check that it is within manufacturers tolerances. The wear rate for a medium speed liner should be below

0.015mm/1000hrs. Excessive wear is caused by lack of lubrication, impurities in fuel air or Lubricating oil, bad combustion and acid attack.

Cylinder liners from older lower powered engines had a uniform wall thickness and the cooling was achieved by circulating cooling water through a space formed between liner and jacket. The cooling water space was sealed from the scavenge space using 'O' rings and a telltale passage between the 'O' rings led to the outside of the cylinder block to show a leakage.

Necessity of Bore Cooling Design


To increase the power of the engine for a given number of cylinders, either the efficiency of the engine must be increased or more fuel must be burnt per cycle. To burn more fuel, the volume of the combustion space must be increased, and the mass of air for combustion must be increased. Because of the resulting higher pressures in the cylinder from the combustion of this greater mass of fuel, and the larger diameters, the liner must be made thicker at the top to accommodate the higher hoop stresses, and prevent cracking of the material.

If the thickness of the material is increased, then it stands to reason that the working surface of the liner is going to increase in temperature because the cooling water is now further away. Increased surface temperature means that the material strength is reduced, and the oil film burnt away, resulting in excessive wear and increased thermal stressing.

The solution is to bring the cooling water closer to the liner wall, and one method of doing this without compromising the strength of the liner is to use tangential bore cooling. Holes are bored from the underside of the flange formed by the increase in liner diameter. The holes are bored upwards and at an angle so that they approach the internal surface of the liner at a tangent. Holes are then bored radially around the top of the liner so that they join with the tangentially bored holes.
The diagram shows a cylinder liner from an older Sulzer RTA engine. The liner is cooled for most of its length using a water guide ring inserted into the entablature. Bore cooling brings the cooling water close to the liner surface, before being transferred to the cylinder head by the guide jacket Problems were experienced, especially on the long stroke engines with cold corrosion due to overcooling towards the lower end of the liner.

To counteract this, the outside of the liner was coated in an insulating material called "Haramaki", and inserts placed in the cooling bores to reduce the flow rate.

The MAN B&W 2 stroke engine also utilises bore cooling on the large engines In these engines, the bores are not tangential, but are blind holes drilled close to the liner surface as shown Steel tubes are inserted into these bores, almost to the end of the blind holes and the cooling water passes up the tubes and overflows down the bores, thus giving a cooling flow The water then passes through transition pipes to the cylinder head The smaller MAN B&W engines use a cooling water jacket external to the engine entablature to contain the cooling water On some versions there is a small amount of cooling in the entablature, on others, the cooling is completely external

On some large bore, long stroke engines it was found that the undercooling further down the liner was taking place. Why is this a problem? Well, the hydrogen in the fuel combines with the oxygen and burns to form water. Normally this is in the form of steam, but if it is cooled it will condense on the liner surface and wash away the lube oil film.

Fuels also contain sulphur. This burns in the oxygen and the products combine with the water to form sulphuric acid. If this condenses on the liner surface (below 140) then corrosion can take place. Once the oil film has been destroyed then wear will take place at an alarming rate. One solution is to insulate the outside of the liner so that there was a reduction in the cooling effect. On The latest engines the liner is only cooled at the very top.

The photo shows a cylinder liner with the upper and mid insulation bands known as "Haramaki" Although Haramaki is a type of Japanese armour, the word also means literally " Stomach or Body Warmer". i.e an insulator.

Cylinder lubrication: Because the cylinder is separate from the crankcase there is no splash lubrication as on a trunk piston engine. Oil is supplied through drillings in the liner. Grooves machined in the liner from the injection points spread the oil circumferentially around the liner and the piston rings assist in spreading the oil up and down the length of the liner. The oil is of a high alkalinity which combats the acid attack from the sulphur in the fuel. The latest engines time the injection of oil using a computer which has inputs from the crankshaft position, engine load and engine speed. The correct quantity of oil can be injected by opening valves from a pressurized system, just as the piston ring pack is passing the injection point.

Gauging a Liner
As mentioned earlier, cylinder liners will wear in service. Correct operation of the engine (not overloading, maintaining correct operating temperatures) and using the correct grade and quantity of cylinder oil will all help to extend the life of a cylinder liner. Wear rates vary, but as a general rule, for a large bore engine a wear rate of 0.05 - 0.1mm/1000 hours is acceptable. The liner should be replaced as the wear approaches 0.8 1% of liner diameter. The liner is gauged at regular intervals to ascertain the wear rate. It has been known for ships to go for scrap after 20 + years of operation with some of the original liners in the engine.

Gauging a liner is carried out for two reasons: To establish the wear rate of the liner, and to predict if and when the liner will require changing. Although on a 2 stroke engine the condition of the liner can be established by inspection through the scavenge ports (evidence of blowby, scuffing etc.), the liner is gauged during the routine unit overhaul (15000 hrs), or if the unit has to be opened up for any reason

Because of the action of the piston rings, the varying gas pressure and temperature in the cylinder, the wear will not be even down the length of the liner. Consider the piston just beginning the power stroke. The gas pressure pushing the piston rings against the liner wall is at its highest; The liner surface temperature up at this part of the liner is about 200C, so the viscosity of the lubricating oil is low.
The relative speed of the piston is low, and so the lubrication is only boundary. Because of these factors wear at the top of a liner increases to a maximum a few centimetres below the position of the top ring at TDC, and then decreases as the ring pressure and liner wall temperature decreases and the piston speed increases building up a hydrodynamic film between liner and ring surfaces. Then as the piston slows down and the rings pass over the port bars, the wear will increase due to boundary lubrication, a reduction in surface area, and oil being blown out into the scavenge space. A liner is gauged by measuring the diameter of the liner at fixed points down its length. It is measured from port to stbd (athwartships) and fwd to aft. An internal micrometer is used because of its accuracy (within 0.01mm). To ensure that the liner is always measured in the same place, so that accurate comparisons may be made, a flat bar is hung down the side of the liner with holes drilled through where the measurements are to be taken.

Gauging a liner on a large bore RTA engine. (Thanks to Emyr Davies)

Measurements are taken at more frequent intervals at the top of the liner where wear rate is expected to be highest. To ensure accuracy, the micrometer gauge is checked against a standard, and the liner and micrometer should be at ambient temperature. If the temperature is higher then a correction factor can be applied. To ensure micrometer and liner are at the same temperature, lay the micrometer on the entablature for a few minutes before starting. The readings can be recorded in tabular form, and from the data obtained the wear rate/1000 hours can be calculated. Wear rate varies, but on a large 2 stroke crosshead engine ideally should be about 0.05mm/1000 hours. On a medium speed trunk piston engine where the procedure for gauging is similar, the wear rate is around 0.015mm/1000 hours.

Cylinder Liner- 4 stroke engine


Inside surface subjected to comb temperature and rubbing action by piston rings. Liner bore also takes the side thrust of piston in trunk type engine. should be resistance to wear and adequate cooling required. Thickness must give adequate strength and limited for cooling. Cooling water is circulated between liner and jacket Tie bolt pass from top of the block to bedplate, transmits gas load to the bed plate. free to expand downward, sealed by silicon rings fitted in grooves on the liner.

The cylinder liner is cast separately from the main cylinder frame for the same reasons as given for the 2 stroke engine which are: The liner can be manufactured using a superior material to the cylinder block. While the cylinder block is made from a grey cast iron, the liner is manufactured from a nodular cast iron alloyed with chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. (cast iron contains graphite, a lubricant. The alloying elements help resist corrosion and improve the wear resistance at high temperatures.) The cylinder liner will wear with use, and therefore may have to be replaced. The cylinder jacket lasts the life of the engine. At working temperature, the liner is a lot hotter than the jacket. The liner will expand more and is free to expand diametrically and lengthwise. If they were cast as one piece, then unacceptable thermal stresses would be set up, causing fracture of the material. Less risk of defects. The more complex the casting, the more difficult to produce a homogenous casting with low residual stresses.

Sulzer ZA40 Liner (vee engine; The straight engine is similar)

Modern liners employ bore cooling at the top of the liner where the pressure stress is high and therefore the liner wall thickness has to be increased. This brings the cooling water close to the liner surface to keep the liner wall temperature within acceptable limits so that there is not a breakdown in lubrication or excessive thermal stressing. Although the liner is splash lubricated from the revolving crankshaft, cylinder lubricators may be provided on the larger engines. On the example shown opposite, the lubricator drillings are bored from the bottom of the liner circumferentially around the liner wall. Another set of holes are drilled to meet up with these vertically bored holes at the point where the oil is required at the liner surface. Other engines may utilise axial drillings as in a two stroke engine.

MAN-B&W L58/64 Liner


Where the cooling water space is formed between the engine frame and the jacket, there is a danger that water could leak down and contaminate the crankcase if the sealing O rings were to fail. As a warning, "tell tale" holes are led from between the O rings to the outside of the engine. modern engines tend not to use this space for cooling water. Instead a separate water jacket is mounted above the cylinder frame. This stops any risk of leakage of water from the cooling space into the crankcase (or oil into the cooling water space), and provides the cooling at the hottest part of the cylinder liner.

Note that the liner opposite is fitted with a fireband. This is sometimes known as an antipolishing ring. It is slightly smaller in diameter than the liner, and its purpose is to remove the carbon which builds up on the piston above the top ring. If this carbon is allowed to build up it will eventually rub against the liner wall, polishing it and destroying its oil retention properties

Cylinder cover
The cylinder head forms the third and last component of the combustion chamber. Its main function is to close the end of the cylinder and seal in the gases as they undergo a cycle involving extreme pressure and temperature. Stresses from these extreme gas pressure and temperature may lead to cracks. Cylinder heads in four-stoke engines have to accommodate valves and passages for the introduction of air and the exit of exhaust gases. Valves found in four stroke engines would be: Intake Exhaust Fuel injector Relief valve Indicator cock Air starting valve Those found in two stroke engines are: Large exhaust valve Fuel injector Relief valve Indicator cock Air starting valve. There are no inlet valves. Loop and cross scavenging two-stroke engines need not accommodate any exhaust valves as they are not required.

Cylinder is a part of combustion chamber. Subjected to extreme pr. And temperature. Closes the top of the cylinder and seals the gases (soft iron or cu gasket) during the cycle.Held to cyl. Block by studs 4 stroke engine heads accommodate valves and passages for air and exhaust and c.w. an intricate casting. Material alloyed cast iron, cast steel. Mounting intake / exhaust, fuel injector, relief valve,indicator cock and air starting valve 4 stroke.

Cylinder Head

Cylinder heads for 4 stroke engines are of a complex design. They have to house the inlet and exhaust valves, the fuel injector, the air start valve, relief valve and indicator cock. The passages for the inlet air and exhaust gas are incorporated, as are the cooling water passages and spaces.

Normally manufactured from spheroidal graphite or nodular cast iron which is easy to cast. Although not as strong as cast steel, which is difficult to cast into complex shapes due to its poor fluidity, it maintains a reasonable strength under load. Adequate cooling is essential to prevent thermal fatigue due to uneven expansion throughout the casting, and bore cooling has been introduced along with cooling spaces to ensure effective cooling of the "flame plate" (the underside of the cylinder head which forms the top of the combustion chamber).

Two stroke cylinder cover

Earlier engines were often fitted with two part cylinder cover. CAST IRON IS NOT SUITABLE FOR MODERN TWO STROKE VENGINES The cylinder cover must be able to with stand gas loads with tends to deform its shape. Cast iron is not good at with standing bending stresses. Hence steel is used with bore cooling.

Cylinder Head (uniflow scavenge)

Large exhaust valve, fuel injectors, relief valve,indicator cock & air starting valve bores 2 stroke engine. Usually simple design (for loop and cross scavenge type engine) cooled by fresh water water enters from block and leaves from top to exh.v/v.

Cylinder Head

Sulzer- Two Piece Cylinder Cover

Cracking of cylinder heads can occur due to poor cooling causing thermal fatigue. Poor cooling can be the result of scale build up within the cooling spaces due to inadequate water treatment. Overloading of the unit causing high peak pressures is also a cause as is incorrect tightening down of the cylinder head. Cracking normally occurs between the valve pockets and/or cooling water spaces. Cracked cylinder heads can be repaired by specialised welding; but this must be done under the guidance and with authorisation from the classification societies.

VALVE AND VALVE GEARS


Valve Gear: It designates the combination of all parts, including the various valves, which control the admission of air charge and the discharge of exhaust gases in four stroke engines, the discharge of exhaust gases in some two stroke engines (uniflow scavenging type), the admission of fuel in air- injection and some mechanical-injection engines, and the admission of compressed air for starting most of the larger engines. Valve Actuating Gear: It designates the combination of those parts only which operate or actuate the various intake, exhaust, fuel and air-starter valves, open and close them at the proper moment in respect to the position of the piston and crankpin, and hold them open during the required time. Valve Timing Gear: It designates the combination of those parts only which affect and control the moment of opening and closing of the valves with respect to crank and piston position. These parts include cams, camshaft and camshaft drive. The valve gears of diesel engines vary considerably in their construction, depending on type, speed, and size of the engines. C.13.VALVES AND VALVE GEARS. Valves - Valves are used to cover / uncover the passage of flow. Valve Gears to produce action on valves - combination of parts, including valves which controls the operation of above. In all 4 stroke engines admission of air charge, discharge of exhaust Gas and in many 2 stroke engines discharge of exh. Gas. Basic drive - c/shaft drives cam shaft by gears or chain. Cams on the camshaft lifts push rod, transmits the action to rocker arm to operate the valves for mechanical drive. for hydraulic drive the cam drives a hyd. Actuator, the oil in turn moves the valve by a piston. As soon as the closing side of the cam moves under the transmitting mechanism the valve spring starts to return the valve to its seat( closed)

Valve operating gear

Valve Requirement
to get fresh air into engine and exhaust gas out Exh v/v opening (size) is as big as possible for 2 stroke engine exh open for short duration, so to reduce back pressure Inlet v/v opening (size) more important in 4 st. engines to reduce pumping loss and also increase volumetric efficiency. Some 4 st engines have 2 inlet and 2 exh v/vs. for space arrangement, less v/v opening, cooler valves. valve construction . Mushroom- shaped poppet type. Head and stem as one piece seating edge beveled at a 45* / 30* angle Inlet v/v cooler - carbon or low alloy steel Exh v/v hotter silicon-chromium steel ( nickal, chromium) v/v moves in a removable guide fitted in cylinder head. Springs holds the valves firmly against the seat.

valve construction
Head of the valve is cooled -conducts heat to seat in cyl.head (water clg). The seat is a removable seat fitted in cyl head with cooling arrangement. The clearance between valve and guide due to excess wear overheating of valve, carbon forms and sticky, excess oil consumption. To make valve and seat faces wear resistance, valve and seat faces are hardened with cobalt-chromium-tungsten (stelite).Seat rings of wear resistant material are also used, in some cases valve cages to make valve seat removal easier, valve and seat as one unit and fitted on cyl head. cage may be separately cooled. Some exh v/vs rotated a slight amount each revolution to keep the valve clean (carbon deposits) and ensure even wear between v/v and seat. Timing gear Responsible for actuating the valves at right time with respect to c/shaft (Piston position) In 4 st engine the camshaft speed is half the c/shaft speed. Chain drive and gear drive.

Two different sized springs are fitted to aid positive closing of the valves. The reason for fitting two springs are that if one fails, the other will prevent the valve dropping down into the cylinder. The two springs have different vibration characteristics, so the incidence of resonance is reduced. (resonance is where two items vibrate at the same frequency thus the amplitude of the vibration is amplified.) Caged Exhaust valve

Burning Out of Exhaust Valves Once an exhaust valve does not seat correctly, the high pressure burning gas will pass across the faces of the valve and seat during the power stroke. This will cause the temperature of the valve and seat to rise in this area, weakening the material and distorting the surfaces. The velocity of the burning gas will erode the surface, allowing more gas to leak by. The temperature of the valve in this area will rise further, leading to further burning and greater distortion. The first indication of a valve burning out will be a rise in the exhaust temperature, which will rapidly increase together with a loss of power from the unit.

Valve cage

Camshafts in 4 st engines carries the cams for inlet valve, exh valve & fuel pump. in 2 st exh v/v type engines carries the exh cams & fuel pump cams. Additionally may carry cams for air starting operation and other aux. Operations. construction forged as one piece including the cams or separate cams keyed on a shaft. In large engines camshaft in sections, with cams either integral or keyed / keyless fitting. camshaft is supported by bearings plain bush or split sleeve. Pushrods Generally tubes to reduce weight.

The lower end contacts the follower which carries a roller( tappet roller) running on the cam. The upper end is fitted with a cup.The end of the rocker arm (fitted with a tappet bolt- end rounded shape)) fits into the cup.

Camshaft
There are several different methods of manufacturing camshafts for medium speed 4 stroke marine diesel engines. On the smaller engines, the camshaft may be a single forging complete with cams. Alternatively the camshaft can be built up in single cylinder elements, each element made up of the fuel, inlet, and exhaust cam on a section of the camshaft with a flange on each end. So that the element can be used on any unit in the engine, the number of holes for fitted bolts in the flanges must be sufficient to allow the cam to be timed for any unit on the engine. For example, on a six cylinder engine, the flanges must have 6 equi spaced holes or a multiple thereof. The cams must be hard enough to resist the wear and abrasion due to

impurities in the lub. oil, yet they must be tough enough to resist shattering due to shock loading. The cams are therefore surface hardened using the nitriding process.

On the larger engines it is usual to manufacture the camshaft and cams separately. The nitrided alloy steel cams are then shrunk on to the steel shaft using heat or hydraulic means. Because the cams are fitted progressively onto the shaft, if the bores in the cams were all the same diameter, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to fit the first cams all the way along the length of the shaft to the correct position. To overcome this problem the camshaft is stepped, with the largest diameters at the end which has the cams fitted first. The larger bored cams fit easily over the small diameter steps till they reach the correct position on the camshaft. Keys are not generally used to locate the cams as they would act as stress raisers. Most medium speed engines are unidirectional (i.e they only rotate one way). This is because they either are driving an alternator, or because if they are used as direct main propulsion they tend to be driving a controllable pitch propeller. In the case where the engine is reversing, then the camshaft has two sets of cams, one for ahead operation, and one for astern. To reverse the direction of the engine, pressure oil is led to one side of a hydraulic piston which is coupled to the camshaft. The whole camshaft is moved axially and the cam followers slide up or down ramps which connect the ahead and astern cams. The camshaft is either chain or gear driven from the crankshaft. Because the engine is a four stroke, the camshaft will rotate at half the speed of the crankshaft. (the valves and fuel pump will only operate once for every two revolutions of the crankshaft). In a case where the cams are shrunk on the camshaft, if a cam becomes damaged and has to be replaced, then it can be cut off using a cutter grinder. Care must be exercised not to damage the camshaft or adjacent cams during the operation

The replacement cam is fitted in two halves which is then bolted on the camshaft in the correct position and the timing rechecked

CUT SECTION OF CAM

Rocker Arms
To actuate the valves in the cyl head via cam,cam follower and pushrod tappets. RA moves at an angle to vertical also some horizontal thrust-on valve stem, causes wear on guide. Attachment to head by stanchion bolted. Swings on steel fulcrum pin or pivot / needle bearing. Contact to v/v stem by roller / screw.(Tappet) Tappet clearance provided on the valve side to take care of wear and expansion to ensure v/v closes firmly. lubrication of fulcrum and contact points done. Springs serves to close valves, made of highly tempered steel wire wound in a spiral coil. to prevent bouncing the spring is maintained in compression all time.

Valve Clearances
To allow thermal expansion. To be adjusted regularly due to wear. Clearance is required between valve stem and RA, when follower is on base of the cam (v/v closed). If not the v/v will remain partly open. If more v/v will open late and close early , reduces the lift (stroke), and causes noise. If less open early and close late, increases the lift of the valve.It may prevent the valve from closing completely as it expands

To set valve clearance a feeler gauge is used in conjunction with tappet adjustment to manufacturer specification. Rocker or Tappet Clearances Rocker or Tappet clearances refer to the clearance between the top of the valve spindle and the rocker arm. It is to ensure that the valve closes properly when it expands as it gets to operating temperature. Clearances are set according to manufacturers instructions, but usually done with the engine cold, and with the push rod follower on the base circle of the cam. (one way of ensuring this is to turn the unit being adjusted to TDC on the power stroke.)

Hydraulically actuated Exhaust valve


No need for RA Valve opens by hyd oil pressure the actuating gear is equipped with a locking device to retain the roller guide in its top position so that exh valve can be kept out of operation.

Crankshaft
Function to convert reciprocating motion of piston to that of rotary motion at the output shaft. Consists of journals, crank webs and crankpin (conn rod journal) Two types single piece (4 stroke)and shrunk fit type (2 stroke,large). crank throw distance from c/l of main journal to c/l of crank pin equel to half of engine stroke. Counter weights added to webs opp.to crankpins, improves the balancing of engine and relieves the load on main bearing. Tyes of Crankshaft Fully built webs are shrunk on to the main journal and crankpin large marine diesel engine. Semibuilt webs and crankpin as one unit shrunk on to journal large and medium speed marine diesel engine Solid forged one piece, either cast or forged high speed diesel engine Stresses in Crankshaft The crankpin is like a builtin beam with a distributed load along its length that varies with crank position. Each web is like a cantilever beam subjected to bending & twisting. Journals would be principally subjected to twisting. 1.Bending causes tensile & compressive stresses. 2.Twisting causes shear stress. 3.Duto shrinkage of the web onto the journals, compressive stresses are set up in journals & tensile hoop stresses in the webs.

The force that occur in a vertical diesel engine crankshaft are as follows: i) Static weight of engine components (moving). ii) Alternating forces produced by varying gas pressure. iii) Inertia forces of the moving parts. iv) Centrifugal force at crank. v) The crank-web is subjected to tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Shear in way of journal.

MATERIALS. In the case of large marine diesel engine the type of shaft generally favored is the cast or forged steel semi-built, a typical analysis, method of construction and testing would be as follows: Material analysis: Cast steel Element. Carbon Silicon Manganese Phosphorus Sulfur Remainder Percentage. 0.2 0.32. 0.7 0.01 0.015 iron.

The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine The Crankshaft The crankshafts on the large modern 2 stroke crosshead engines can weigh over 300 tonnes. They are too big to make as a single unit and so are constructed by joining together individual forgings. On older engines the so called fully built method was used. This consisted of forging separate webs, crankpins and main journals. The crankpins and journals were machined and matching holes bored in the webs, which were slightly smaller in diameter.

The webs were heated up and the crankpins and journals fitted into the holes (which due to the heat had expanded in size). As the webs cooled down, so the diameter of the bored holes would try and shrink back to their original size. In doing so, the crankpins and journals would be gripped tightly enough to stop them being able to slip when the engine was being operated normally. Today, crankshafts for large 2 stroke crosshead engines are of the semi built type. In this method of construction the crankshaft "throws" consisting of two webs and the crankpin are made from a single forging of a 0.4% carbon steel. The webs are bored to take the separately forged and machined main journals which are fitted into the webs using the shrink fitting method described above. The shrink fit allowance is between 1/570 and 1/660 of the diameter. The advantages of this method of construction is that by making the two webs and crankpin from a single forging the grain flow in the steel follows the web round into the crankpin and back down the other web.

Because the crankpin and webs are a single forging, the webs can be reduced in thickness and a hole is sometimes bored through the crankpin as shown, reducing the weight without compromising strength.

Built up Crankshaft Manufacture

Crankshaft views

THE WELDED CRANKSHAFT The welded crankshaft was developed in the 1980s. It was made up of a series of forgings each comprising of half a main journal, web, crankpin, second web, and half a main journal. These forgings were then welded together using a submerged arc welding process to form the crankshaft. After welding the journals were stress relieved and machined. As well as having the advantage of continuous grain flow, the webs could be made thinner (no shrink fit to accommodate), leading to a lighter shorter crankshaft. Why aren't all crankshafts produced by this method? Cost! It was very expensive and only about twenty crankshafts were produced by this method. They have performed very well in service however. All Welded C/shaft

Crankshaft and bearings

The Medium Speed 4 Stroke Trunk Piston Engine The Crankshaft The Crankshaft for a medium speed 4 stroke diesel engine is made from a one piece forging. First the billet of 0.4% carbon steel is heated in a furnace It is then moved to the forging presses

In the hydraulic forging press the crankshaft throws and flanges are formed.

The crankshaft is locally heated to a white heat where the webs are desired to be formed. The crankshaft is then compressed axially to form the start of the webs

The forgings are then machined, stress relieved, and the radii at the change of section cold rolled. If the crankshafts are to be surface hardened they are made of a steel alloy known as nitralloy (a steel containing 1.5%Cr, 1% Al and 0.2% Mo) The crankshaft is heated to 500C in ammonia gas for up to 4 days. The nitrogen dissociates from the ammonia gas and combines with the chromium and aluminium to form hard nitrates at the surface. The molybdenum refines the grain structure at the still tough core.

Fillet Radii At the change of section between journal and web and web and crankpin, fillet radii are machined so there is not a sharp corner to act as a stress raiser. These radii are cold rolled to remove machining marks, harden the surface and to induce a residual compressive stress, again to increase fatigue resistance. Re-entrant fillets are sometimes employed; This allows for a shorter crankshaft without compromising on bearing length.

Re-entrant fillet radii

Oil Holes in Crankshafts.


Unlike the crankshafts for slow speed 2 stroke crosshead engines, which lubricate the bottom ends by sending the oil DOWN the con rod from the crosshead, the crankshaft for the medium speed trunk piston engine must have holes drilled in it so that oil can travel from the main bearing journals to the crankpin and then UP the con rod to lubricate the piston pin and cool the piston. If the surface finish of the holes is not good, then cracks can start from the flaws. At the exit points on the crankpin, the holes must be smoothly radiused. So that the crankshaft strength is not compromised the holes should be positioned horizontally when the crank is at TDC.

Crankweb Formation from Round Rod Web Formation

Crank Formation

Connecting Rod:
This is a highly stressed component resulting from: 1. Gas force loads: Which is a maximum compressive load at T.D.C. (15% of maximum at 90* A.T.D.C) 2. Inertia loads: Resulting from the reciprocating running gear is maximum compressive at B.D.C. and maximum tensile at T.D.C. (particularly in 4 stroke engines). 3. Transverse inertia loads: Known as whip resulting from the mass of the connecting rod and its oscillating motion. This is maximum at about 80* past T.D.C. and is greatest in high-speed engines. For calculation purposes the component is considered as a strut subject to buckling and transverse loading. May be circular or H section, usually circular for slow speed engines and H for medium and high speed, where the transverse loading is greatest. In V engines there may be additional transverse loading from the connecting rod. The connecting rod may be required to transport oil between the top &, bottom end bearings - circular sections are most suitable for this purpose. Stress and load concentration is reduced at the ends of the rod by increasing the area through a tapered section, having generous fillets. Solid ends provide a rigid platform for the top end-bearings and gives good support to the bottom end bearing. This essentially used for thin shell bearings, to prevent fretting between the back of the shell and its housing. Accurate and uniform pre-tensioning of the bottom end bolts is necessary to: 1. Reduce the risk of fretting between palm and housing. 2. Eliminate bending moments on the bolts (caused by uneven tightening, resulting in stress concentration in the root of the thread. 3. Reduce the range of stress fluctuation, which is a major factor in fatigue failure (the maximum stress way be increased but, the fluctuation range is reduced). 4. Provide the correct nip to the thin shell bearings (to prevent fretting on the blocking piece and fatigue-crazy cracking on the bearing surface). For lower power engines a forked top end arrangement has been used which allows top end bearing to be integral with the connecting rod and provide access to the piston rod nut. With increased power the greater flexibility of this design resulted in: 1. Misalignment between top-end pins and bearings resulting in edge loading (due to load acting between the forks, producing a bending moment). 2. Cracking at root of the fork due to repeated flexing resulting in fatigue. The bottom end bearing is located on the palm by a spigot through which the oil passes. This helps to relieve the bolts of shear forces imposed by the transverse loads. Failures: Usually due to abrupt stopping the engine or breakage of bottom end bolts. Cracks may develop: 1. Around the edges of the boltholes. 2. On the underside of the foot running across the line of fillet run out (particularly if compression plates are fitted). Materials for Connecting Rod: Forged steel: Carbon: 0.30 0.50% (Normalised).

U.T.S: 500 700 N/mm2. Forgings should have a fine grain structure. It should be free from coarse non-metalic inclusions and segregations especially in highly stressed areas. Connecting Rod Bolts: Important Designing Considerations: ? Well-formed fillet between bolt head and shank. There should be a proper chamfer at the mouth hole. ? There should be smooth radii wherever there is a change in diameter. ? Surface of the bolt should be given a high degree of finish. ? It would be beneficial to reduce the diameter of bolt shank less than the core diameter at the bottom of the thread (about 10% less). ? Bolt material should have adequate strength and high resilience. ? It would be ideal to make the bolt of uniform cross-sectional area but it is necessary to have certain parts of shank enlarged in diameter for the fitting portions. Bolt Material: Low alloy steel (alloy content < 5%). U.T.S: 750 to 1100 N/mm2. Tightening of Bolts: Tightening of important bolts such as these should not be left to chance. Following methods are in use: 1. Applying the desired preload by means of hydraulic cylinder and following up nut. 2. Measuring the extension of the bolt with a micrometer device whilst the bolt is tightened. 3. Hand tightening lightly, and then turning up the nut through a predetermined and calculated angle with respect to the bolt. 4. Using torque spanner, e.g. a spanner which reads the torque or set to give way at a predetermined torque. Methods (1) & (2) as mentioned above are most accurate. Method (3) is good if bolt stiffness is known and calculation is accurate. Torque spanners (method 4) are useful for small medium sized bolts; care has to be taken as regards Lubrication. Failure in Bolts: Failure is essentially due to fatigue. Factors contributing to failures are as follows: 1. Stress concentrations at bolt heads, change of section, surface finish etc. 2. Over stretching of bolt. 3. Uneven tightening. 4. Inadequate pretension. 5. Improper seating of nut or bolt head causing bending stresses. 6. Corrosive attack in the form of bending.

Con.rod Details (2 St)


The Connecting Rod is fitted between the crosshead and the crankshaft. It transmits the firing force, and together with the crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion to a rotary motion. Made from drop forged steel. On the older engines the bottom of the con rod terminates in a flange known as a Marine Palm, which is bolted to the split bottom end (Crankpin) bearing, whilst at the top another flange is formed on which is bolted the two crosshead bearings.

The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine Connecting Rod

Con.rod view
Con.rod with brg.shell (New Design)

Bearings are made of Whitemetal. It is of two types, Lead based whitemetal and Tin based whitemetal.Tin based white metal is an alloy of Tin, Antimony & Copper, in which Tin is predominant (SN -87.65%, Sb 7.5%, Cu -4.5%, Pb 0.35% ) . In Lead based whitemetal, Lead will be predominant.

Connecting Rods on the later engines are produced as a single drop forging incorporating the top half of the crankpin bearing housing and the bottom half of the solid crosshead pin bearing housing. On older engines the bearings were white metal thick wall bearings, scraped to fit. Clearances were adjusted by inserting or removing shims between the bearing halves. Modern bearings are of the "thinwall" type, where a thin layer of white metal or a tin aluminium alloy is bonded to a steel shell backing. The clearance on these bearings is non adjustable; When the clearance reaches a maximum the bearing is changed. Oil to lubricate the crankpin bearing is supplied down a drilling in the con rod from the crosshead. When inspecting the crankpin bearing and journal it is good practise to check the journal for ovality because if this is excessive, a failure in the hydrodynamic lubrication can occur.

10. Compression shim 11. Upper part of lower conn rod bearing 12.shims for adjusting vertical bearing clearence 13.bottom part of lower conn rod bearing 14.fixing screw for bearing shell 15.locking sleeve 16.nut to conn rod bolt

Piston, Conn. rod Assly

Con.Rod

Connecting Rod
It is a bar or strut with a bearing at each end. Main purpose is to transmit thrust to crankshaft, secondary to transport oil between bottom and top end brgs. large engine conn rod may have a separate brg box bolted to a foot on the rod shim between the foot and the box permits adjustment to compres sion ratio.

Trunkpiston Con.Rod (4 St)

Con.rod sketches. (4 St)

Connecting Rod brgs. & bolts. The need for large crankpin bearings in highly loaded engines makes it difficult to keep the crankpin end small enough to withdraw the rod through the cylinder. To make the crankpin end more compact, while still retaining the same large bearing, the following constructions are used. 1. Four bolts of smaller dia instead 2 large bolts. 2. Stud instead of bolts. 3. Splitting the crankpin box at an angle Bolts are made of heat treated alloy steel for greater strength. Provided with fine threads with close pitch for max strength and secure tightening. To prevent fatigue cracks developing in bolts threads cut carefully and shank smoothly finished. The inertia forces acting sidewise on conn rod tend to displace crankpin brg. In order to keep the parts in line, the bolts are snugly fitted in the holes. Also to assist the bolts in resisting these side forces, a step or tongue-and-groove is often used at the joint between the bearing halves.

Gudgeon pin Link between the conn rod and piston. Pin is usually steel and is made hollow for lightness. arrangement is made in 3 ways -(a)Gudgeon pin is secured in piston, bearing is held in the conn rod end . -(b) Floating pin pin is free and bears against bearings in both the piston and the rod most popular. - snap rings or end caps used to prevent pins contacting the liner walls -(c) Saddle form bush pin is fastened to the rod, bearing is part of the piston. Receives lubrication from the crankpin bearing through long holes drilled through the conn rod.

Bottom End Bearing Bolts


BOTTOM END BOLTS Because of the stress reversal mentioned above, bottom end bolts have a limited life. This varies from engine to engine, but is generally around 1215000 hours. If a bottom end bolt was to fail in operation, then the results would be disastrous. Bottom end bolts should be treated with care when removed from the engine during overhauls. They should be inspected for any damage to the surface from which a crack could start. This damage could be due to corrosion (water in LO) or because of incorrect handling.

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi