ADVANCED BIOMETRIC SECURITY SYSTEM

PROJECT REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

Under the Guidance of:

Mr.Abhishek Sharma HOD ECE deptt. RIMT IET Mandi Gobingarh Mr.Ravinder pal Singh Lecturer ECE Deptt RIMT IET Mandi Gobindgarh

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering RIMT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled ADVANCED BIOMETRIC SECURITY SYSTEM which has been completed and submitted by Group - 4, B.Tech (E.C.E), 4 TH year towards the partial fulfillment of the requirement for award of the degree of 1

Bachelor of Engineering in ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION, is the bonafide work by them and has been completed under my guidance and supervision.

Training Incharge Mr. Abhishek Sharma (Head of ECE Department)

Guided By Mr.Ravinder Pal Singh Mr. Ashok Arora

INDEX
Chapter No. Name of the Chapter Page No.

0. 1.

Acknowledgement Introduction to Biometric System

1.1 Technology Used 1.2 Block Diagram and its Description 1.3 Application Area

7 14 15

2.

PCB Designing and its Fabrication

2.1 PCB Designing 2.2 PCB Fabrication

21 36

3.

Components Detail and Working

3.1 Resistors 3.2 Capacitors 3.3 Transistors 3.4 Push Buttons 3.5 Light Emitting Diodes 3.6 Optocouplers 3.7 Microcontroller 3.8 Induction Motor 3.9 Liquid Crystal Display 3.10 Power supply 3.11 Crystal Oscillator 3.12 Connectors 3.13 Fingerprint Scanner

39 47 52 58 60 65 69 79 84 91 97 100 103

4.

Software Module
4.1 Programs 4.2 Burning Process

106 108

5. 6.

Technical Drawing Obsolescence

3

110 116

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
If practical knowledge carves and sharps the career of a person, practical experience polishes it and adds luster and brilliance to it. Here, we found this golden chance to acknowledge all those people who had blessed, encouraged and supported us technically and morally through all the phases of our project. We thank almighty God for giving us this opportunity to express gratitude to all those who helped us in our project. The report of ADVANCED BIOMETRIC SECURITY SYSTEM undertaken by RIMT-IET is a learning experience for us. First of all, we would like to pay our immense gratitude to Mr.Ravinder Pal Singh of RIMT-IET to undergo this training under his concern. We are also grateful to Mr.Abhishek Sharma (HOD ECE Department,RIMT-IET,Mandi Gobindgarh) for providing help and giving us a chance for showing our skills through continued support and cooperation during this project. We extend our fort right thanks to our family and friends for their moral support and encouragement throughout the project.

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOMETRIC SYSTEM

1.1. TECHNOLOGY USED

Personal Safes are revolutionary locking storage cases that open with just the touch of your finger. These products are designed as secure storage for medications, jewelry, weapons, documents, and other valuable or potentially harmful items. These utilize fingerprint recognition technology to allow access to only those whose fingerprints you 6

choose. It contains all the necessary electronics to allow you to store, delete, and verify fingerprints with just the touch of a button. Stored fingerprints are retained even in the event of complete power failure or battery drain. These eliminates the need for keeping track of keys or remembering a combination password, or PIN. It can only be opened when an authorized user is present, since there are no keys or combinations to be copied or stolen, or locks that can be picked. In this project the fingerprint module from Mixes Biometrics is used. It can store up to 750 finger prints on its own memory. It can be controlled through its serial port. The micro controller AT89S52 interacts with the module. You can add a fingerprint, Delete a fingerprint and identify the fingerprint. To add a fingerprint, just show the finger on the module and press the ADD key. Now the micro controller will send the ADD command to the module and the module will add it in memory. To delete the finger follow the same as above. To identify the finger, press the Identify button and if the finger matches then the Relay is complemented. Also the fingerprint ID is displayed over the LCD display. 1.1.1BIOMETRICS: Biometrics is the science of verifying the identity of an individual through physiological measurements or behavioral traits. Since biometric identifiers are associated permanently with the user they are more reliable than token or knowledge based authentication methods. In the 21st century the use of biometric based systems have seen an exponential growth. This is all because of tremendous progress in this field making it possible to bring down their prices, easiness of use and its diversified use in everyday life. Biometrics is becoming new state of art method of security systems. Biometrics are used to prevent unauthorized access to ATM, cellular phones , laptops , offices, cars and many other security concerned things. Biometric have brought significant changes in security systems 7

making them more secure then before, efficient and cheap. They have changed the security system from fingerprints 1.1.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF BIOMETRICS: Biometrics offers several advantages over traditional security measures. Some of them are presented below Accuracy and Security: Biometrics based security systems are far most secure and accurate than traditional password or token based security systems. For example a password based security system has always the threat of being stolen and accessed by the unauthorized user. Further more the traditional security systems are always prone to accuracy as compared to biometrics which is more accurate. One individual, Multiple IDs: Traditional security systems face the problem that they dont give solution to the problem of individuals having multiple IDs. For examples a person having multiple passports to enter a foreign country. Thanks to biometrics!!! They give us a system in which an individual cant possess multiple IDs and cant change his ID through out his life time. Each individual is identified through a unique Biometric identity throughout the world. One ID, multiple individuals: In traditional security systems one ID can be used by multiple individuals. For example in case of a password based security system a single password can be shared among multiple individuals and they can share the resources allotted to a single individual. Biometric based security system doesnt allow such a crime. Here each individual has a single unique ID and it cant be shared with any other individual. 1.1.1.2 BIOMETRIC CATEGORIES Biometrics can be categorized in various categories as follow. Physical biometrics involves measurement of physical characteristics of individuals. 8

The most prominent of these include 1. Fingerprints 2. Face recognition 3. Retina 4. Hard bit and more But we are using Fingerprints for making this project Fingerprints recognition has been present for a few hundred years. Due to tremendous research this field has reached such a point where the purchase of fingerprint security system is quite affordable. For this reason these systems are becoming more widespread in a variety of applications. Fingerprint recognition or fingerprint authentication refers to the automated method of verifying a match between two human fingerprints. Fingerprints are one of many forms of biometrics used to identify individuals and verify their identity. This article touches on two major classes of algorithms (minutia and pattern) and four sensor designs (optical, ultrasonic, passive capacitance, and active capacitance).

The analysis of fingerprints for matching purposes generally requires the comparison of several features of the print pattern. These include patterns, which are aggregate characteristics of ridges, and minutia points, which are unique features found within the patterns. It is also necessary to know the structure and properties of human skin order to successfully employ some of the imaging technologies.

1.1.2PATTERNS
The three basic patterns of fingerprint ridges are the arch, loop, and whorl:

arch: The ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center forming an arc, and then exit the other side of the finger. 9

loop: The ridges enter from one side of a finger, form a curve, and then exit on that same side. whorl: Ridges form circularly around a central point on the finger.

Scientists have found that family members often share the same general fingerprint patterns, leading to the belief that these patterns are inherited.

The arch pattern.

The whorl pattern

The loop pattern. When a finger is kept at the finger print reader, it will give the information accordingly to microcontroller by sending appropriate commands to the reader and which is displayed on the LCD. If the information matches with the one within the device then the DC motor interfaced to the microcontroller responds accordingly. And if the information provided by the user is incorrect or mismatch in finger prints is detected then access is denied. Finger print reader and the microcontroller unit are connected using serial interface.

1.1.3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a single specific task. An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system, autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on

10

diverse physical variables and in diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market. An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform a dedicated function. Unlike a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system performs one or a few pre-defined tasks, usually with very specific requirements, and often includes task-specific hardware and mechanical parts not usually found in a general-purpose computer. Since the system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems are often mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale. Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. In terms of complexity embedded systems run from simple, with a single microcontroller chip, to very complex with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure. Mobile phones or handheld computers share some elements with embedded systems, such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power them, but are not truly embedded systems themselves because they tend to be more general purpose, allowing different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected.

1.1.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS: An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a computer There will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in addition to those we encounter when we write applications

11

Throughput Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of time. ResponseOur system may need to react to events quickly TestabilitySetting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult Debug abilityWithout a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem Reliability embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without human intervention Memory space Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists Program installation you will need special tools to get your software into embedded systems Power consumption Portable systems must run on battery power, and the software in these systems must conserve power Processor hogs computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can complicate the response problem Cost Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job. Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk drives.

12

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION

MICROCONTROLLER POWER SUPPLY INDUCTION MOTOR

A T 8 9 13 S 5 2

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (16*2) THUMB SCANNER

BLOCK DIAGRAM The block diagram and its brief description are explained in block wise and this consists of following blocks: Power Supply Microcontroller Liquid crystal display Induction motor Fingerprint Scanner

1.2.1. POWER SUPPLY: 14

The Entire Project needs power for its operation. However, from the study of this project it comes to know that we supposed to design 5v and 12v dc power supply. So by utilizing the following power supply components, required power has been gained. (230/12v (1A and 500mA) Step down transformers, Bridge rectifier to converter ac to dc, booster capacitor and +5v (7805) and +12v (7812) regulator to maintain constant 5v & 12 supply for the controller circuit and Fingerprint module). 1.2.2 MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52: The major heart of this project is AT89S52 microcontroller, the reasons why we selected this in our project? The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, onchip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. 1.2.3 LCD: A liquid crystal is a material (normally organic for LCDs) that will flow like a liquid but whose molecular structure has some properties normally associated with solids. The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a low power device. The power requirement is typically in the order of microwatts for the LCD. However, an LCD requires an external or internal light source. It is limited to a temperature range of about 0C to 60C and lifetime is an area of concern, because LCDs can chemically degrade There are two major types of LCDs which are: 1. Dynamic-scattering LCDs 2. Field-effect LCDs

15

Field-effect LCDs are normally used in such applications where source of energy is a prime factor (e.g., watches, portable instrumentation etc.).They absorb considerably less power than the light-scattering type. However, the cost for field-effect units is typically higher, and their height is limited to 2 inches. On the other hand, light-scattering units are available up to 8 inches in height. Field-effect LCD is used in the project for displaying the appropriate information. The turn-on and turn-off time is an important consideration in all displays. The response time of LCDs is in the range of 100 to 300ms.The lifetime of LCDs is steadily increasing beyond 10,000+hours limit. Since the color generated by LCD units is dependent on the source of illumination, there is a wide range of color choice. 1.2.4 INDUCTION MOTOR: In this project DC motors can be used to drive the gates. There are always two options in front of the designer whether to use a DC motor or a stepper motor. When it comes to speed, weight, size, cost... DC motors are always preferred over stepper motors. There are many things which you can do with your DC motor when interfaced with a microcontroller. For example you can control the speed of motor; you can control the direction of rotation. In this part of tutorial we will learn to interface and control of a DC motor with a microcontroller.

1.2.5 FINGERPRINT SCANNER: In this project DC motors can be used to drive the gates. There are always two options in front of the designer whether to use a DC motor or a stepper motor. When it comes to speed, weight, size, cost... DC motors are always preferred over stepper motors. There are many things which you can do with your DC motor when interfaced with a microcontroller. For example you can control the speed of motor; you can control the 16

direction of rotation. In this part of tutorial we will learn to interface and control of a DC motor with a microcontroller.

1.3 APPLICATION AREA

1.

Door lock system:

Security has become one of the main concerns of everyday life. Security is the condition of being protected from loss or danger. Here we utilize fingerprint recognition technology to allow access to only whose fingerprints you choose. It contains all the necessary 17

electronics to allow you to store, delete, and verify fingerprints with just the touch of a button. Stored fingerprints are retained even in the event of complete power failure or battery drain. These eliminates the need for keeping track of keys or remembering a combination password, or PIN. It can only be opened when an authorized user is present, since there are no keys or combinations to be copied or stolen, or locks that can be picked.

2.

Safe box:
Personal Safes are revolutionary locking storage cases that open with just the touch of your finger. These products are designed as "access denial" secure storage for medications, jewelry, weapons, documents, and other valuable or potentially harmful items. These utilize fingerprint recognition technology to allow access to only those whose fingerprints you choose. It contains all the necessary electronics to allow you to store, delete, and verify fingerprints with just the touch of a button. Stored fingerprints are retained even in the event of complete power failure or battery drain.

3. Attendance System:
These technologies allow an employer an unparalleled means of knowing who was doing what, and when they were doing it, and others in charge of large groups the ability to know who is in attendance at any given point in time. Biometrics can be used to ensure that a given person is where they are supposed to be, accurately. Whether it be for business or law enforcement, you can make sure someone is in attendance at any given point in time by having them use a hand or thumb print to verify their identity every so often. A biometric marker cannot be forged or faked in some way. It becomes much easier to keep track of a prisoner on parole when they must check in at given intervals through the use of unique physical markers. Even the government has found a use for biometric methods of taking attendance. Some governments are now using physical markers to identify who is voting in elections. This lets the government know who is attending, and keeps voting fraud to a minimum. This is important in the days when people are beginning to question the methods of ensuring the validity of election data. 18

19

CHAPTER-2 PCB DESIGNING AND ITS FABRICATION

2.1 PCB

DESIGNING

PCB stands for PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD. Printed circuit board (PCB) provides both the physical structure for mounting and holding the components as well as the electrical interconnection between the components. That means a PCB = PWB (printed wiring board) is the platform upon which electronic components such as integrated circuit chips and other components are mounted. A PCB consists of a non-conducting substrate (typically fiber glass with epoxy as resin) upon which the conductive pattern or circuitry

20

is formed. Copper is the most prevalent conductor although nickel, silver and tin are also used in some cases.

2.1.1 TYPES OF PCB

PCB may be of different types:1) Single-sided 2) Double-sided 3) Multilayer Single sided PCBs: - As the name suggest in these designs the conductive pattern is only at in one side. And also the size is large in these case but these are cheap. Double sided PCBs: - These are the PCBs on which the conductive pattern is in on both sides. The size of board is small in this case but it is costlier than that of above. Multilayer PCBs: - In this case the board consists of alternating layers of conducting pattern and insulating material. The conductive material is connected across the layers through plated through holes. The size of this PCB is smaller than that of double sided PCB but it is very costly. PCBs may also be either rigid, flexible, or the combination of two (rigid-flex). When the electronic components have been mounted on the PCB, the combination of PCB and components is an electronic assembly, also called PRINTED CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY. This assembly is the basic building block for all the electronic appliances such as television, computer and other goods.

2.1.2 FUNCTIONS OF PCB

Printed circuited boards are dielectric substrates with metallic circuitry formed on that. They are some times referred to as the base line in electronic packaging. Electronic packaging is fundamentally an inter connection technology and the PCB is the baseline building block of this technology.

2.1.3 TECHNIQUES USED FOR PCB DESIGNING

There mainly two techniques which are use for the PCB designs. 1. Hand Taping 21

2. Computer Aided Design 1) PCBs using Hand Taping: 1. PCB design using hand taping is the process of technical drawing. 2. In hand taping method layout should be prepared on grid paper. 3. In hand taping, components pads can be prepared by using black pads. 4. Routing of the board can be done by tapes with different widths. DISADVANTAGS OF HAND-TAPING FOR PCB DESINING: 1) Each layer has to be designed separately. 2) We cannot generate NCD files for CNC drilling. 3) Difficult to modify the design in the designing process or after designing. 4) Difficult to get good design overview. 2) PCB DESIGNING USING CAD All the above difficulties can be removed by using CAB system. CAD system for PCB designing requires following: o A computer system. o PCB design software like OrCad, CADSTAR, Protel, TANGO, Mentor etc. o A photo plotter for art work generation. There are many enhanced features in electronics design automation tools which not possible in the hand taping. The main advantages are given below: o Auto placement o Auto routing o After routing, optimization of tracks can be done. o Provides physical design reuse modules o Electrical rule check (ERC) o All the layers are generated from the same design by giving different options. o Bill of material can be generated which contains number of different components used. o We can draw conductors as an arc, semi-circular at different angles. 22

o Design Rule Check o Advanced CAD systems have high speed analysis. CAD system provides all NCD files and Gerber data files for photo plotting. BASIC DESIGN STEPS IN CAD- SYSTEM The following design steps are very common while designing a PCD in CAD: Entry the schematic diagram. Net list file creation. Placement of components manually or automatically. Routing of the board using manual routing tools or auto router Design rule check physical and electrical. Artwork generation.

A TRADITIONAL DESIGN FLOW IN CAD- SYSTEM

23

Capture

Gerber tools

Gerber and plotter drawing

Libraries Footprint libraries Layout

Gerber and drill files

Overview of PCB Design Software There many soft wares which are used for PCB designs. Some of them are given below:-

OrCad CADSTAR Protel TANGO Mentor

The most commonly software which are used for PCB design in India are Protel and OrCad

2.1.4 OrCad Design Environment

OrCad has a long history of providing individuals and teams with a complete set of technologies that offer unprecedented productivity, seamless tool integration, and exceptional value. New 10.5 releases continue that tradition. Today's lower cost and yet highly sophisticated electronic design automation systems have created a unique challenge to nearly every engineering department. Therefore the use of EDA tools has become increasingly important as product lifecycles have become shorter and shorter. Modern electronic design automation (EDA) tools are beginning to support a more efficient and integrated approach to electronic.OrCad Capture design 24

entry is the most widely used schematic entry system in electronic design today for one simple reason: fast and universal design entry. Whether you're designing a new analog circuit, revising schematic diagram for an existing PCB, or designing a digital block diagram with an HDL module, OrCad Capture provides simple schematic commands you need to enter, modify and verify the design for PCB. OrCad Layout offers PCB designers and PCB design teams the power and flexibility to create and share PCB data and constraints across the design flow. OrCad Layout delivers all the capabilities to designers need from netlist to place and route, to final output. The ease-of use and intuitive capabilities of OrCad Layout provides for quick startup and rapid learning right out of the box.

25

2.1.5 PCB DESIGN STEPS IN OrCad 10.5 ENTRY OF SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM Schematic diagram provides the functional flow and the graphical representation of an electronic circuit. The entry of schematic diagram is the first step in PCB design using OrCad. A schematic diagram consists of:-

Electrical connections(nets) Junctions Integrated circuits symbols Discrete components symbols like resistors, capacitors etc. Input / output connectors Power and ground symbols Buses No connection symbols Components reference names Text
THE SCHEMATIC PAGE EDITOR: The schematic page editor is used to display and edit schematic pages. So that one can parts; wires; buses and draw graphics. The schematic page editor has a tool palette that you can use to draw and place everything you need to create a schematic page. One can print from within the schematic page editor, or from the project window.

26

THE PART EDITOR: The part editor is used to create and edit parts. From the view menu of the part editor you can choose either part or package. In part view one can:-

Create and edit parts and symbols, then store in new or existing libraries. Create and edit power and ground symbols, off-page connector symbols, and title
block

Use the tool palettes electrical tools to place pins on parts, and its drawing tools
to draw parts and symbols. THE SESSION LOG: The session log lists the events that have occurred during the current Capture session, includes message resulting from using captures tools. To display context-sensitive help for an error message, put the cursor in the error message line in the session log press F1.

27

The ruler along the top appears in either inches or mill meters, depending on which measurement system is selected in the window panel. Your tab setting are saved and used each time you start capture.

One can search for information in the session log using the find command on the Edit menu. You can also save the contents of the of the session log to a file, which is useful when working with Orcads technical support to solve technical problems. The default filename is SESSION.TXT. THE TOOLBAR: Captures toolbar is dock able (that means you can select and drag the toolbar to new location) as well as resizable, and displays tool tips for each tool; by choosing a tool button you can quickly perform a task. If tool button is dimmed, you cant perform that task in the current situation.

28

Some of the tools operate only on what you have selected, while others give you a choice of either operating on what is selected or expanding the scope to entire project. You can hide the toolbar, then display it again when u need it. For hiding select from the schematic page editors view menu, choose TOOLBAR. THE TOOL PALETTE: Capture has two tool palettes: one for the schematic page editor and one for the part editor. Both tool palettes are dock able and resizable. They can also display tool tips that identify each tool. The drawing tools on the two tool palettes are identical, however, each tool palette has different electrical tools after you choose a tool, and you press the right mouse button to display a context- sensitive pop-up menu. THE SCHEMATIC PAGE EDITOR TOOL PALETTE: The first group of tools on the tool palette is electrical tools, used to place electrical connectivity objects. The second group of tools is Drawing tools, used to create graphical objects without electrical connectivity.

THE PART EDITOR TOOL PALETTE: The first group of tools on the part palette is electrical tools, used to place pins and symbols. They have been already explained above within the schematic page editor tools. The second group of tools is drawing tools, used to create graphical objects without objects any electrical connectivity and is described: Pin Tools: Place pins on part Pin Array: Place multiple pins on part SELECTING AND DESELECTING OF TOOL PALETTE: Once one selects an object, one can perform operations on it, include moving, copying, cutting, mirroring, rotating, resizing, or editing. One can also select multiple, objects and edit them, or group them in to a single object. Grouping objects maintain relation ship among them while one moves them to another location. 29

CREATING NETLIST FILE: Net-list file is a document file which contains information about the logical interconnections between signals and pins. Before one create a net list file, be sure ones project is completed, annotated and it is free from electrical rule violations. A net list file consists of nets, components, connectors, junctions, no connection symbol, power and ground symbols. CREATION OF NETLIST IN CAPTURE: Select your design in the project manager.

From the tools, choose create net list. The net list dialog box displays. Choose a net list format tab. If necessary, set the part value and PCB foot print combined property strings to
reflect the information you want in the net list.

Click ok to create the net list. In the net list file text box, enter a name for the output file. If the selected format
creates an additional file, enter its file name in the second text box. PLACEMENT OF LAYOUT PLUS What is Layout Plus? Layout plus is one part for the PCB design in which we place as well as route the components an set unit of measurement, grids, and spacing in OrCad. Within other soft wares you also have to place and route the components in similar way. For the placement and routing of the components we normally use auto-placement and auto-routing. Unfortunately, in a lot of soft wares some critical signals have to be routed manually before auto-routing. In layout plus we also define the layer stacks, pad stacks and via's. STEPS FOR BOARD DESIGN:

At first, we have created a net list from our schematic diagram by using capture. Layout plus includes design rules in order to guide logical placement and routing.
That means, load the net list into layout to create the board. At the same time you have to specify the board parameters.

30

 Specify board parameters: Specifying global setting for the board, including nits
of measurements, grid, and spacing

Place components: Use the components tool in order to place manually the
components which are fixed by the system designer on the board or otherwise use auto-placement.

Route the board: Use different routing technologies to route the board and take
advantage of push and shove (a routing technology), which moves track you are currently routing as well as you can also auto route the board.

Provide finishing of the board: Layout supplies an ordered progression of

commands on the auto menu for finishing your design. These commands include design rule check, cleanup design, rename components, back annotate, run post processor, and create reports. THE DESIGN WINDOW: The design window provides a graphical display of printed circuit board, it is primary window you use when designing your board. It also provides tools to facilitate the design process such as to update components and design rule violation.

31

MAIN WINDOW: Method to create a board with Layout Plus:

Ensure that net list with all footprints and necessary information has been created. Create a directory in which the schematic design, net list, and boar will co-exit
and put the schematic design and net list. OrCad provides a directory for this purpose.

From the layout session frames file menu, choose New. The load template file in
the dialog box displayed.

32

DESIGN WINDOW:

Select the technology template (.TCH), then choose the open button and load the
net list in other box.

Then apply the auto ECO. If necessary, respond to link footprints to component dialog. Draw the board outline by using the obstacle tool in the tool bar.
SETTING BOARD PARAMETERS: There is some parameter which should be set before placing the components on board. They are as follows:-

Set Datum
33

 Create a board outline Set units of measurements Set system grid Add mount holes
CREATING BOARD OUTLINE: Board outline is the graphical representation of the size of the actual PCB board. So it is the main step in layout, to draw the board outline of the actual size of PCB board. PLACEMENT OF COMPONENTS: Placement of components means that to place the components in designed box. A designer should follow the following steps before going for it:-

Optimize the board for component placement. Load the placement strategy file. Place components on the board. Optimize placement using various placements
Components can be placed by using two techniques:1) Manual placement of components 2) Auto placement of components Choose the components tool bar button. From the pop up men, choose the queue for placement. The components selection criteria dialog box appears. Enter the reference designator of the components that you want to place in the appropriate text box, and click ok. Drag the components to desired location, place it there. ROUTING IN LAYOUT: After placing all the components the other main step is to route the board from the electrical connections between the components. One may route board manually or automatically by auto router.

34

100% auto routing can be achieved only when components are placed in the order of functional flow of flow:electronic circuit. The main routing tool available in OrCad is as

Add/edit route mode Edit segment mode Shove track mode Auto path route mode
DESIGN RULE CHECK: In manual designs every thing was checked as a possible source of error. Components sizes, hole sizes, conductor widths and clearance, land-to-hole-ratio, board areas to be free of components, clearance to the edges, positional accuracy and of course electrical interconnections had tad to be personally reviewed with a great deal of care. After completing the design of printed circuit board with the help of an EDA-Tool, a designer has again to verify the PCB in order to find out errors. Such type of verifications/design rule check contains beside the general verifications commonly two types:-

Physical verification Electrical verification

POST PROCESSING: Post processing can be done once the design is completed in all aspects. The common way is still a process to generate GERBER data and NCD files which can be used for photo plotting and for steps of CNC manufacturing and PCB- drilling.

35

2.2 PCB FABRICATION

NEW PROCESS: 1. Draw the schematic design as per the required circuit in capture CIS. 2. Check the circuit for Design rules or implement Design Rule Check. 3. Create the Netlist file with extension .mnl

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

DESIGN RULE CHECK (DRC)

NO

YES

CREATE NETLIST

4. Open the LAYOUT. Load the desired mnl file. 5. Save project as .max extension i.e. layout file. 36

6. Select the component footprints as per the component size and then place the components. 7. In layout draw the board size and then place the components. 8. Select Bottom layer and then place the components. 9. Select the show track mode to route the tracks. Select the track to be routed and press the enter key 10. After this left click the mouse button. Go to Project manager window . Select the bottom layer and right click on it. Click on the print plot. Set Print Plot as a force flag print and tick on the keep drill hole open tab and then press print. 11. Convert printing file to mirror image and invert the colors.

37

CHAPTER-3 COMPONENTS DETAIL AND WORKING

38

3.1. RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law: I=V/R where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickelchrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power 39

electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

The unit for measuring resistance is the OHM. (the Greek letter - called Omega). Higher resistance values are represented by "k" (kilo-ohms) and M (mega ohms). For example, 120 000 is represented as 120k, while 1 200 000 is represented as 1M2. The dot is generally omitted as it can easily be lost in the printing process. In some circuit diagrams, a value such as 8 or 120 represents a resistance in ohms. Another common practice is to use the letter E for resistance in ohms. The letter R can also be used. For example, 120E (120R) stands for 120 , 1E2 stands for 1R2 etc. 3.1.1. ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit diagram varies from standard to standard and country to country. Two typical symbols are as follows.

American-style symbols. (a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

40

IEC-style resistor symbol The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European notation avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 k. Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 , and 18R indicates 18 . The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit diagram. 3.1.2. THEORY OF OPERATION

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage drop) to drive the same flow (electric current). OHMS LAW: The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law: V=I.R

41

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated: I=V/R This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) flows through that resistor. SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given by NR. Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductance of the resistors then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:

42

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in case the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of 43

which has been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 56 of the individual resistance. More generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such a problem. One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series or parallel. This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N. POWER DISSIPIATION The power P dissipated by a resistor is calculated as: The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral of the power over that period of time:

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Most discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1

44

watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may occur, resistors may be specified with higher rated dissipation than will be experienced in service. Some types and ratings of resistors may also have a maximum voltage rating; this may limit available power dissipation for higher resistance values.

3.1.3. RESISTOR MARKINGS: Resistance value is marked on the resistor body. Most resistors have 4 bands. The first two bands provide the numbers for the resistance and the third band provides the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates the tolerance. Tolerance values of 5%, 2%, and 1% are most commonly available.

The following table shows the colors used to identify resistor values: COLOR Silver Gold Black Brown Red DIGIT MULTIPLIER x 0.01 W x 0.1 W x1W x 10 W x 100 W 45 TOLERANCE TC 10% 5% 1% 2% 100*10-6/K 50*10-6/K

0 1 2

Orange 3 x 1 kW Yellow 4 x 10 kW Green 5 x 100 kW Blue 6 x 1 MW Violet 7 x 10 MW Grey 8 x 100 MW White 9 x 1 GW ** TC - Temp. Coefficient, only for SMD devices In this project we have used the following resistors: 1 k 10 k 220 390 4.7 k

15*10-6/K 25*10-6/K 0.5% 0.25% 0.1% 10*10-6/K 5*10-6/K 1*10-6/K

46

3.2. CAPACITORS:
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

47

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes 3.2.1. THEORY OF OPERATION A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

48

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

3.2.2. NETWORKS For capacitors in parallel

Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.

49

For capacitors in series

Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components.

Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In such an application, on occasion series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading any capacitor. For high-energy storage with capacitors in series, some safety considerations must be applied to ensure one capacitor failing and leaking current will not apply too much voltage to the other series capacitors. 3.2.2. STRUCTURE The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated paper or plastic these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are 50

staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates.

The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric early radio equipment used a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed to fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its properties. 3.2.3CAPACITOR MARKINGS: Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytic usually display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 F). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting of three numbers and a letter, where the numbers show the capacitance in pF (calculated as XY 10Z for the numbers XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for 5%, 10% and 20% respectively). Additionally, the capacitor may show its working voltage, temperature and other relevant characteristics. Example:

51

A capacitor with the text 473K 330V on its body has a capacitance of 47 103 pF = 47 nF (10%) with a working voltage of 330 V. Following are the capacitors used in this project: 33 pf 1 f 4.7 f 10 f

3.3. TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. 3.3.1. OPERATION

52

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a fieldeffect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. .

The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a 53

voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE

3.3.2 ADVANTAGES
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are

Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices. Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost. Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, batterypowered applications. No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application. Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 50 years. Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementarysymmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes. Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of micro phonics in audio applications.

3.3.3LIMITATIONS

Silicon transistors typically do not operate at voltages higher than about 1000 volts (SiC devices can be operated as high as 3000 volts). In contrast, vacuum tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.

High-power, high-frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air television broadcasting, is better achieved in vacuum tubes due to improved electron mobility in a vacuum. 54

Silicon transistors are much more vulnerable than vacuum tubes to an electromagnetic pulse generated by a high-altitude nuclear explosion. Sensitivity to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation hardened chips are used for spacecraft devices). Vacuum tubes create a distortion, the so-called tube sound, that some people find to be more tolerable to the ear

3.3.4 CONSTRUCTION: The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental. Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the table to the right; these parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level, strain, and sundry other factors. The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified current. The current increase exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is 2.1 mV/C. In some circuits special compensating elements must be used to compensate for such changes. The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior. 55

The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per meter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide: Its maximum temperature is limited; it has relatively high leakage current; it cannot withstand high voltages; it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits. Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar NPN transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent PNP transistor type. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of alluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAsmetal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. Max. Junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged. AlSi junction refers to the high-speed (aluminumsilicon) metalsemiconductor barrier diode, commonly known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the 56

source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.

In this project we use the following transistors: BC548 BC547 BC557

BC548:

57

The BC548 is a general purpose epitaxial silicon NPN bipolar junction transistor found commonly in European electronic equipment. The part number is assigned by Pro Electron, which allows many manufacturers to offer electrically and physically interchangeable parts under one identification.

BC547:
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals. BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549. BC557: The BC557 is general purpose silicon, PNP, bipolar junction transistor. It has maximum VCE rated at -65V and can sink maximum current of -98mA. It has typical power dissipation of 495mW. It can give gain more than 200.

3.4. PUSH BUTTONS:

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) (press-button in the UK) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch. The "push-button" has been utilized in calculators, push-button telephones, kitchen appliances, and various other mechanical and electronic devices, home and commercial.In industrial and commercial applications, push buttons can be linked together by a mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be 58

released. In this way, a stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for control. Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the machine or process and green for starting the machine or process. Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (called mushroom heads) for easy operation and to facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and are mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk. The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact designed into the operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action to start. In popular culture, the phrase "the button" (sometimes capitalized) refers to a (usually fictional) button that a military or government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

59

Push Button Switches are manually operated switches that are available in many different types: Switches with round or square bodies for mounting in round or square holes, lighted and non-lighted Switches, Indicators, Selector Switches, and more.

3.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is 60

often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the nside, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers electrons and holes flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a

61

direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development. LIFETIME AND FAILURE Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours, but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly. The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red LEDs were notable for their short service life. With the development of highpower LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantitatively classify useful lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the terms L70 and L50, which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 70% and 50% light output respectively.

62

Like other lighting devices, LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers' published ratings of LEDs are for an operating temperature of 25 C. LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-pavement signal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the luminaire gets very hot, could result in low signal intensities or even failure. LED light output rises at lower temperatures, leveling off, depending on type, at around -30 C. Thus, LED technology may be a good replacement in uses such as supermarket freezer lighting and will last longer than other technologies. Because LEDs emit less heat than incandescent bulbs, they are an energy-efficient technology for uses such as in freezers and refrigerators. However, because they emit little heat, ice and snow may build up on the LED luminaire in colder climates. Similarly, this lack of waste heat generation has been observed to sometimes cause significant problems with street traffic signals and airport runway lighting in snow-prone areas. In response to this problem, some LED lighting systems have been designed with an added heating circuit at the expense of reduced overall electrical efficiency of the system; additionally, research has been done to develop heat sink technologies that will transfer heat produced within the junction to appropriate areas of the luminaire. COLORS AND MATERIALS: Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material: Wavelength [nm] Voltage drop [V] V < 1.63

Color

Semiconductor material Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared > 760

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Gallium (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) 63 arsenide gallium phosphide indium (GaAsP) phosphide Aluminium

Red

610 < < 760

1.63 < V < 2.03

Gallium Orange 590 < < 610 2.10 (AlGaInP)

arsenide gallium

phosphide indium

(GaAsP) phosphide

2.03 < V < Aluminium

Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide Yellow 570 < < 590 2.10 < V < Aluminium 2.18 (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Indium gallium nitride Gallium(III) Green 500 < < 570 1.9[55] < V Gallium(III) < 4.0 Aluminium (AlGaInP) gallium nitride phosphide indium gallium indium

(GaAsP) phosphide

(InGaN)

(GaN) (GaP) phosphide

Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Blue 450 < < 500 2.48 < V < Indium 3.7 2.76 < V < 4.0 2.48 < V < 3.7 Silicon gallium carbide nitride (SiC) as (InGaN) substrate

Silicon (Si) as substrate under development Violet 400 < < 450 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Dual blue with blue/red red LEDs, phosphor, nm)[56] nm)[57][58] (AlGaN) nitride

Purple

multiple types

or white with purple plastic Diamond (235 Boron nitride gallium gallium (215 nitride indium

Ultraviole t

< 400

3.1 < V < Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[59] 4.4 Aluminium Aluminium

(AlGaInN) down to 210 nm[60] Blue with one or two phosphor layers: Pink multiple types V ~ 3.3[61] yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added afterwards, or white with pink pigment or dye.[62] 64

White

Broad spectrum

V = 3.5

Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

3.6. OPTOCOUPLER:
In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocouplers, photo coupler, or optical isolator, is "an electronic device designed to transfer electrical signals by utilizing light waves to provide coupling with electrical isolation between its input and output". The main purpose of an opto-isolator is "to prevent high voltages or rapidly changing voltages on one side of the circuit from damaging components or distorting transmissions on the other side. Commercially available opto-isolators withstand input-to-output voltages up to 10 kV and voltage transients with speeds up to 10 kV/s. An opto-isolator contains a source (emitter) of light, almost always a near infrared lightemitting diode (LED), that converts electrical input signal into light, a closed optical channel (also called dielectrical channel), and a photo sensor, which detects incoming light and either generates electric energy directly, or modulates electric current flowing 65

from an external power supply. The sensor can be a photo resistor, a photodiode, a phototransistor, a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) . Because LEDs can sense light in addition to emitting it, construction of symmetrical, bidirectional opto-isolators is possible. An optocoupled solid state relay contains a photodiode opto-isolator which drives a power switch, usually a complementary pair of MOSFETs. A slotted optical switch contains a source of light and a sensor, but its optical channel is open, allowing modulation of light by external objects obstructing the path of light or reflecting light into the sensor.

ELECTRICAL ISOLATION: Electronic equipment and signal and power transmission lines can be subjected to voltage surges induced by lightning, electrostatic discharge, radio frequency transmissions, switching pulses (spikes) and perturbations in power supply.[9] Remote lightning strikes can induce surges up to 10 kV, one thousand times more than the voltage limits of many electronic components.[10] A circuit can also incorporate high voltages by design, in which case it needs safe, reliable means of interfacing its high-voltage components with low-voltage ones

66

Planar (top) and silicone dome (bottom) layouts - cross-section through a standard dual in-line package. Relative sizes of LED (red) and sensor (green) are exaggerated. Electronic equipment and signal and power transmission lines can be subjected to voltage surges induced by lightning, electrostatic discharge, radio frequency transmissions, switching pulses (spikes) and perturbations in power supply. Remote lightning strikes can induce surges up to 10 kV, one thousand times more than the voltage limits of many electronic components. A circuit can also incorporate high voltages by design, in which case it needs safe, reliable means of interfacing its high-voltage components with lowvoltage ones. The main function of an opto-isolator is to block such high voltages and voltage transients, so that a surge in one part of the system will not disrupt or destroy the other parts. Or, according to the authors of The Art of Electronics, "in a nutshell, optocouplers let you send digital (and sometimes analog) signals between circuits with separate grounds." Historically, this function was delegated to isolation transformers, which use inductive coupling between galvanically isolated input and output sides. Transformers and opto-isolators are the only two classes of electronic devices that offer reinforced protection they protect both the equipment and the human user operating this equipment. They contain a single physical isolation barrier, but provide protection equivalent to double isolation. Safety, testing and approval of opto-couplers are regulated by national and international standards: IEC 60747-5-2, EN (CENELEC) 67

60747-5-2, UL 1577, CSA Component Acceptance Notice #5, etc. Opto-isolator specifications published by manufacturers always follow at least one of these regulatory frameworks. An opto-isolator connects input and output sides with a beam of light modulated by input current. It transforms useful input signal into light, sends it across the dielectric channel, captures light on the output side and transforms it back into electric signal. Unlike transformers, which pass energy in both directions with very low losses, opto-isolators are unidirectional (see exceptions) and they cannot transmit power. Typical optoisolators can only modulate the flow of energy already present on the output side. Unlike transformers, opto-isolators can pass DC or slow-moving signals and do not require matching impedances between input and output sides, Both transformers and optoisolators are effective in breaking ground loops, common in industrial and stage equipment, caused by high or noisy return currents in ground wires. The physical layout of an opto-isolator depends primarily on the desired isolation voltage. Devices rated for less than a few kV have planar (or sandwich) construction. The sensor die is mounted directly on the lead frame of its package (usually, a six-pin or a four-pin dual in-line package). The sensor is covered with a sheet of glass or clear plastic, which is topped with the LED die. The LED beam fires downward. To minimize losses of light, the useful absorption spectrum of the sensor must match the output spectrum of the LED, which almost invariably lies in the near infrared. The optical channel is made as thin as possible for a desired breakdown voltage. For example, to be rated for short-term voltages of 3.75 kV and transients of 1 kV/s, the clear polyimide sheet in the Avago ASSR-300 series is only 0.08 mm thick. Breakdown voltages of planar assemblies depend on the thickness of the transparent sheetand the configuration of bonding wires that connect the dies with external pins. Real in-circuit isolation voltage is further reduced by creepage over the PCB and the surface of the package. Safe design rules require a minimal clearance of 25 mm/kV for bare metal conductors or 8.3 mm/kV for coated conductors.

68

Opto-isolators rated for 2.5 to 6 kV employ a different layout called silicone (sic) dome. [21] Here, the LED and sensor dies are placed on the opposite sides of the package; the LED fires into the sensor horizontally. The LED, the sensor and the gap between them are encapsulated in a blob, or dome, of transparent silicone. The dome acts as a reflector, retaining all stray light and reflecting it onto the surface of the sensor, minimizing losses in a relatively long optical channel. In double mold designs the space between the silicone blob ("inner mold") and the outer shell ("outer mold") is filled with dark dielectric compound with a matched coefficient of thermal expansion.[

We have used two EL8178041 Optocouplers for this project.

3.7 MICROCONTROLLER
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is 69

also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption. 3.7.1. EMBEDDED DESIGN A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.[5] The majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or custom LCD displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or 70

other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any kind. Interrupts: Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt handler"). The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event. Programs Typically microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assemblers are used to convert high-level language and assembler language codes into a compact machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be fieldalterable flash or erasable read-only memory. Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their microcontrollers in order to help the hardware and software development of the target system. Originally these included EPROM versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which program memory can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a programming ("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have 71

been replaced by EEPROM and flash, which are easier to use (can be erased electronically) and cheaper to manufacture. Other versions may be available where the ROM is accessed as an external device rather than as internal memory, however these are becoming increasingly rare due to the widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers. The use of field-programmable devices on a microcontroller may allow field update of the firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new product. Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at the time of manufacture can be an economical option. These "mask programmed" parts have the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time. A customizable microcontroller incorporates a block of digital logic that can be personalized in order to provide additional processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that are adapted to the requirements of the application. For example, the AT91CAP from Atmel has a block of logic that can be customized during manufacturer according to user requirements. Other microcontroller features Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins (GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors.

72

Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage levels. In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). A PIT may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count register, overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc. A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer loops. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats such as IC and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features: We are using AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER WHICH BELONGS TO Atmel , 8051 family. The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using 73

Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer . By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a sixvector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. The main advantages of 89s52 over 8051 are 1. Software Compatibility 2. Program Compatibility 3. Rewritability The 89s52 microcontroller has an excellent software compatability, i.e. the software used can be applicable to any other microcontroller. The program written on this microcontroller can be carried to any base. Program compatibility is the major advantage in 89s52. The program can be used in any other advanced microcontroller. The program can be reloaded and changed for nearly 1000 times.

3.7.2FEATURES: Compatible with MCS-51 Products 74

 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Three 16-bit Timer/Counters Eight Interrupt Sources Full Duplex UART Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode Watchdog Timer Dual Data Pointer Power-off Flag

3.7.3. A89S52 PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE

75

A89S52 microcontroller architecture

3.7.4. PIN DESCRIPTION:

76

Pin diagram

VCC: Supply voltage. GND: Ground. Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highimpedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification. Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. 77

In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. Port 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memories that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the inter-nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. RST: Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled. ALE/PROG: Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant 78

rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. PSEN: Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming. XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

3.8. INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction, rather than a commutator or slip rings as 79

in other types of motor. These motors are widely used in industrial drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are rugged and have no brushes. Single-phase versions are used in small appliances. Their speed is determined by the frequency of the supply current, so they are most widely used in constant-speed applications, although variable speed versions, using variable frequency drives are becoming more common. The most common type is the squirrel cage motor. 3.8.1. OPERATION In both induction and synchronous motors, the stator is powered with alternating current (polyphase current in large machines) and designed to create a rotating magnetic field which rotates in time with the AC oscillations. In a synchronous motor, the rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field. By contrast, in an induction motor the rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. Therefore the magnetic field through the rotor is changing (rotating). The rotor has windings in the form of closed loops. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor similar to a transformer. These currents in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor, that react against the stator field. Due to Lenz's law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the change in current through the windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose this the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field. The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the applied load. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slower than synchronous speed. The difference between actual and synchronous speed is called "slip" and in practical motors vaires from 1 to 5% at full load torque. For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field ( ), or the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip speed) and the 80

rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called "slip". Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form the linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. 3.8.2. SYNCHRONUS SPEED The synchronous speed of an AC motor is the rotation rate of the rotating magnetic field created by the stator. It is always an integer fraction of the supply frequency. The synchronous speed ns in revolutions per minute (RPM) is given by:

where f is the frequency of the AC supply current in Hz and p is the number of magnetic pole pairs per phase. When using total number of poles, use 120 as constant instead of 60. For example, a small 3-phase motor typically has six magnetic poles organized as three opposing pairs 120 apart, each powered by one phase of the supply current. So there is one pair of poles per phase, which means p = 1, and for a line frequency of 50 Hz the synchronous speed is 3000 RPM. 3.8.3. SLIP

Typical torque curve as a function of slip (slip is represented by g here, which is proportional to s in the formula at left). Slip s is the rotation rate of the magnetic field, relative to the rotor, divided by the absolute rotation rate of the stator magnetic field

81

where

is the rotor rotation speed in rpm. Slip is zero at synchronous speed and 1

(100%) when the rotor is stationary. The slip determines the motor's torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have small resistance, a small slip induces a large current in the rotor and produces large torque. At full rated load, typical values of slip are 4-6% for small motors and 1.5-2% for large motors, so induction motors have good speed regulation and are considered constant-speed motors. 3.8.4. TORQUE CURVE The torque exerted by the motor as a function of slip is given by a torque curve. Over a motor's normal load range, the torque line is close to a straight line, so the torque is proportional to slip. As the load increases above the rated load, increases in slip provide less additional torque, so the torque line begins to curve over. Finally at a slip of around 20%the motor reaches its maximum torque, called the "breakdown torque". If the load torque reaches this value, the motor will stall. At values of slip above this, the torque decreases. In 3-phase motors the torque drops but still remains high at a slip of 100% (stationary rotor), so these motors are self-starting. The starting torque of an induction motor is less than other types of motor, but still around 300% of rated torque. In 2-pole single-phase motors, the torque goes to zero at 100% slip (zero speed), so these require alterations to the stator such as shaded poles to provide starting torque. 3.8.5. CONSTRUCTION

Typical winding pattern for a 3 phase, 4 pole motor (phases here are labelled U, V, W). Note the interleaving of the pole windings and the resulting quadrupole field.

82

The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the second motor winding. Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor, so they must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. There are three types of rotor: squirrel cage rotors made up of skewed (to reduce noise) bars of copper or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, slip ring rotors with windings connected to slip rings replacing the bars of the squirrel cage, and solid core rotors made from mild steel.[citation needed] For information on die-cast copper rotors in energy-efficient induction motors, see: Copper die-cast rotors. 3.8.6. SPEED CONTROL

Typical torque curves for different line frequencies. By varying the line frequency with an inverter, induction motors can be kept on the stable part of the torque curve above the peak over a wide range of rotation speeds. However, the inverters can be expensive, and fixed line frequencies and other start up schemes are often employed instead.

83

When driven from a fixed line frequency, loading the motor reduces the rotation speed. When used in this way, induction motors are usually run so that in operation the shaft rotation speed is kept above the peak torque point; then the motor will tend to run at reasonably constant speed. Below this point, the speed tends to be unstable and the motor may stall or run at reduced shaft speed, depending on the nature of the mechanical load. Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the frequency, and squirrel-cage induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. Applications such as electric overhead cranes used wound rotor motors with slip rings to allow an external variable resistance to be inserted in the rotor circuit, allowing considerable range of speed control. Some very large slip-ring motor drives recovered energy from the rotor circuit, rectified it, and returned it to the system using an inverter. Many DC motor variable-speed applications can now be served by induction motors and accompanying inverters in industrial applications. The most common and efficient way to control the speed of asynchronous motors is using power inverters and that, in fact, is the only significant disadvantage of this kind of motors, because inverters are rather expensive and usually less reliable than motors themselves.

12 V Induction motor is used by us in this project. The motor start rotating if the password and the fingerprints are matched.

3.9. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

84

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly. LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or fixed images which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7segment displays as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones, and have replaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence. The LCD is more energy efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically modulated optical device made up of any number of segments filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. Liquid crystals were first developed in 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded annual sales of CRT units; the CRT became obsolete for most purpose

85

Hardware Diagram

16 x 2 Char LCD
A K D7 D0 EN RW RS Vf GND

ACK Vcc D0 D7 R1

R2

86

LCD pin configuration For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 11 I/O lines. For a 4-bit data bus it only requires the supply lines plus seven extra lines. When the LCD display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state which means they are in a state of high impedance (as though they are disconnected) and this means they do not interfere with the operation of the microcontroller when the display is not being addressed. The LCD also requires 3 "control" lines from the microcontroller. When the LCD is initialized, it is ready to continue receiving data or instructions. If it receives a character, it will write it on the display and move the cursor one space to the right. The Cursor marks the next location where a character will be written. When we want to write a string of characters, first we need to set up the starting address, and then send one character at a time.

87

PIN DESCRIPTION

Table :pins for LCD Logic status on control lines

RS (Command / Data): This bit is to specify weather received byte is command or data. So that LCD can recognize the operation to be performed based on the bit status. RS RS = 0 = 1 => => Command Data

RW (Read / Write):

88

RW bit is to specify weather controller wants READ from LCD or WRITE to LCD. The READ operation here is just ACK bit to know weather LCD is free or not. RW = 0 RW = 1 => => Write Read

EN (Enable LCD): EN bit is to ENABLE or DISABLE the LCD. When ever controller wants to write some thing into LCD or READ acknowledgment from LCD it needs to enable the LCD. EN EN = 0 = 1 => => High Impedance Low Impedance

ACK (LCD Ready) ACK bit is to acknowledge the MCU that LCD is free so that it can send new command or data to be stored in its internal Ram locations. ACK = 1 => => Not ACK ACK

ACK = 0

Reading data from the LCD is done in the same way, but control line R/W has to be high. When we send a high to the LCD, it will reset and wait for instructions. Typical instructions sent to LCD display after a reset are: turning on a display, turning on a cursor 89

and writing characters from left to right. Characters that can be shown on the display are stored in data display (DD) RAM. The size of DDRAM is 80 bytes. Before we access DD RAM after defining a special character, the program must set the DD RAM address. Writing and reading data from any LCD memory is done from the last address which was set up using set-address instruction. Once the address of DD RAM is set, a new written character will be displayed at the appropriate place on the screen. Until now we discussed the operation of writing and reading to an LCD as if it were an ordinary memory. But this is not so. The LCD controller needs 40 to 120 microseconds (uS) for writing and reading. Other operations can take up to 5 mS. During that time, the microcontroller can not access the LCD, so a program needs to know when the LCD is busy. We can solve this in two ways.One way is to check the BUSY bit found on data line D7. This is not the best method because LCD's can get stuck, and program will then stay forever in a loop checking the BUSY bit. The other way is to introduce a delay in the program. The delay has to be long enough for the LCD to finish the operation in process. At the beginning we mentioned that we needed 11 I/O lines to communicate with an LCD. However, we can communicate with an LCD through a 4-bit data bus. Thus we can reduce the total number of communication lines to seven.

We have used 16 pin LCD in our project. This is 8 bit. LCD is used to display the required information. As we switch on the project ENTER PASSWORD is displayed on the LCD. When we enter the password as the single digit is pressed using push button the* appears on the display. The password is displayed as*****. If the password is matched after entering the PASSWORD MATCHED Message is displayed on the screen. 90

If the password is not matched after entering the PASSWORD NOT MATCHED Message is displayed on the screen. It displays the name of Project FINGER PRINT BASED SECURITY SYSTEM. After pressing the key LCD displays SHOW YOUR FINGER. If the fingerprint matches it displays FINGERPRINT MATCHED ID: 00. If the fingerprint does not matches it displays FINGERPRINT NOT MATCHED.

91

3.10. POWER SUPPLY

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage. BLOCK DIAGRAM

230 AC 50Hz

DC OUT PUT

Step down transformer

Bridge rectifier

filter

Regulator

Power supply unit consists of following units i) Step down transformer ii) Rectifier unit iii) Input filter iv).Regulator unit v) Output filter

92

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER: The Step down Transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from 230V AC to lower value. This 230 AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus it is stepped down. The Transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down the voltage, the transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary core. The output from the secondary coil is also AC waveform. Thus the conversion from AC to DC is essential. This conversion is achieved by using the Rectifier Circuit/Unit. Step down transformers can step down incoming voltage, which enables you to have the correct voltage input for your electrical needs. For example, if our equipment has been specified for input voltage of 12 volts, and the main power supply is 230 volts, we will need a step down transformer, which decreases the incoming electrical voltage to be compatible with your 12 volt equipment. RECTIFIER UNIT: The Rectifier circuit is used to convert the AC voltage into its corresponding DC voltage. The most important and simple device used in Rectifier circuit is the diode. The simple function of the diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct in reverse bias. Now we are using three types of rectifiers. They are 1. Half-wave rectifier 2. Full-wave rectifier 3. Bridge rectifier Half-Wave Rectifier In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply Bridge Rectifier 93

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally. A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge configuration that provides the same polarity of output voltage for either polarity of input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a center-tapped transformer design. The Forward Bias is achieved by connecting the diodes positive with positive of the battery and negative with batterys negative. The efficient circuit used is the Full wave Bridge rectifier circuit. The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form, the ripples from the obtained DC voltage are removed using other circuits available. The circuit used for removing the ripples is called Filter circuit. INPUT FILTER: Capacitors are used as filter. The ripples from the DC voltage are removed and pure DC voltage is obtained. And also these capacitors are used to reduce the harmonics of the input voltage. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It charges in positive half cycle of the AC voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle. So it allows only AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Thus the output is free from ripples. REGULATOR UNIT: Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant. The output voltage is maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the AC voltage changes, the DC voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used. Also when the internal resistance of the power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the output

94

gets affected. Thus this can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage and for high voltage. Further they can also be classified as i) Positive regulator 1. input pin 2. ground pin 3. output pin It regulates the positive voltage. ii) Negative regulator 1. ground pin 2. input pin 3. output pin It regulates the negative voltage. Fixed Regulators

An assortment of 78xx series ICs "Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are commonly available to generate fixed voltages of plus 3 V, and plus or minus 5 V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V when the load is less than about 7 amperes. 7805 Voltage Regulator The 7805 provides circuit designers with an easy way to regulate DC voltages to 5v. Encapsulated in a single chip/package (IC), the 7805 is a positive voltage DC regulator that has only 3 terminals. They are: Input voltage, Ground, Output Voltage.

95

General Features: Output Current up to 1A Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V Thermal Overload Protection Short Circuit Protection Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection Output Filter The Filter circuit is often fixed after the Regulator circuit. Capacitor is most often used as filter. The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. So it allows only AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly found ripples in the output received finally. Here we used 0.1F capacitor. The output at this stage is 5V and is given to the Microcontroller. The output voltage overshoots when the load is removed or a short clears. When the load is removing from a switching mode power supply with a LC lowpass output filter, the only thing the control loop can do is stop the switching action so no more energy is taken from the source. The energy that is stored in the output filter inductor is dumped into the output capacitor causing a voltage overshoot. The magnitude of the overshoot is the vector sum of two orthogonal voltages, the output voltage before the load is removed and the current through the inductor times the characteristic impedance of the output filter, Zo = (L/C)^1/2. This can be derived from conservation of energy considerations. The two energies are equal when the load is removed, since the load is no longer taking energy from the system. Equating the two energies, substituting zero current for the final inductor current, then the solution for the final voltage Vf is:

96

This is the orthogonal vector sum of the output voltage and the load current times the characteristic impedance and is illustrated in Figure .The problem becomes worse if the current in the inductor is established by a short circuit on the output and the short circuit clears. In this case, the initial voltage is zero (short circuit) and the overshoot is I*Zo, where I can be very large, resulting in a ruinous overshoot.

97

3.11. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartZ wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits. Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes. A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal. When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric 98

field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.

COMMONLY USED CRYSTAL FREQUENCIES: Crystal oscillator circuits are often designed around relatively few standard frequencies, such as 3.579545 MHz, 4.433619 MHz, 10 MHz, 11.0592 MHz, 14.318182 MHz, 17.734475 MHz, 20 MHz, 33.33 MHz, and 40 MHz. The popularity of the 3.579545 MHz crystals is due to low cost since they are used for NTSC color television receivers. Using frequency dividers, frequency multipliers and phase locked loop circuits, it is practical to derive a wide range of frequencies from one reference frequency. 14.318182 MHz (four times 3.579545 MHz) is used in computer video displays to generate a bitmapped video display for NTSC color monitors, such as the CGA used with the original IBM PC. (The IBM PC used 14.318182 MHz, divided by three, as its 4.77 MHz clock source, using one crystal for two purposes.) The 4.433619 MHz and 17.734475 MHz values are used in PAL color television equipment and devices intended to produce PAL signals. 11.0592 MHz is popular due to it cleanly dividing standard RS232 baudrates (300 being a factor). Crystals can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of frequencies, from a few kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz. Many applications call for a crystal oscillator frequency conveniently related to some other desired frequency, so hundreds of standard crystal frequencies are made in large quantities and stocked by electronics distributors. 99

In this project we use 11.0592 Mhz. crystal frequency. Crystal is a circuit element commonly used in the clock, full name is called the crystal oscillator, crystal oscillator in the microcontroller the role of the system is very large, is a combination of MCU's internal circuitry, resulting in the need microcontroller clock frequency, single-chip implementation of all directives are built on this basis, the crystal clock frequency to provide higher speed and that the sooner SCM.

Crystal with a can into electrical energy and mechanical energy between the crystal in the resonant mode of operation in order to provide stable and accurate single frequency oscillation. In normal working conditions, the ordinary crystal oscillator frequency absolute accuracy of up to 50 millionths. High-level precision. Some crystal by the applied voltage can also be adjusted within a certain range of frequencies, known as voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). Crystal's role is to provide the basic system clock signal. Usually systems share a single crystal, easy to synchronize the various parts. Some of the fundamental frequency communication systems and RF using a different crystal and electronic means to adjust the frequency to keep pace. Crystal is usually used in conjunction with the phase-locked loop circuit to provide the required system clock frequency. If different sub-systems need a different clock signal frequencies can be used with the same crystal connected to a different phase-locked loop to provide. Here I will introduce the specific role of crystal, as well as the principle of crystal commonly used in Figure 1a, three-terminal type capacitor (Colpitts) to exchange the equivalent oscillation circuit; the actual exchange of crystal equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1b, which Cv is used to adjust the oscillation frequency, tends to be used with different varactor reverse bias voltage to achieve, which is the role of voltage-controlled mechanism; the crystal equivalent circuit instead of crystals shown in Figure 1c. Where Co, C1, L1, RR is the crystal equivalent circuit. 100

3.12.CONNECTORS
A pin header (or simply header) is a form of electrical connector, often associated with ribbon cable connectors. It consists of one or more rows of pins[1] typically spaced 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) apart, but sometimes 2 millimetres (0.079 in) or 0.05 inches (1.27 mm) is used as well. In addition to being used to connect to a ribbon cable connector, pin headers often also function as recipients for jumpers. The most common jumper spacing is 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) spacing, though 2 millimetres (0.079 in) is sometimes used in smaller products. Pin header connectors are thus "male" connectors (female counterparts do exist, but these are normally just called "header connectors", without "pin") and are mostly used inside equipment, rather than being used as a connector on the outside of the device. Normally pin headers are pin through hole (PTH) devices, but surface-mount technology (SMT) versions of one and two row pin headers also exist. In the latter case the solder sides of the pins are simply bent on a 90 degree angle so as to be soldered to a solder plane. On single row pin headers the pins are bent alternating to one side or the other, on dual row pin headers the pins are simply bent outwards. If pin headers are optional, the PTH variant is often chosen for ease of manual assembly. Pin headers can be either straight or angled. The latter form is often used to connect two boards together. Pin headers are cost-effective due to their simplicity. Headers are often sold as long strips (typically 40 pins for the dual row versions) which can easily be broken off to the right number of pins. Pin headers with a plastic guide box around them are known as "box headers" or "shrouded headers" and are normally only used in combination with a ribbon cable connector. A notch (key) in the guide box normally prevents placing the connector (polarised by a "bump" on one side) the wrong way around.

101

In absence of a pin one designation on the header, one or more pins in the header may be removed or clipped to indicate a key for correct orientation. If a designation is missing from the header, then examine the PCB for markings, (often the solder pad around the hole of pin-1, of a PTH header, is square rather than round) otherwise consult the user manual. 2 PIN CONNECTOR WITH HEADER:

4 PIN CONNECTOR WITH HEADER :

102

8 PIN CONNECTOR WITH HEADER :

16 PIN HEADER:

103

3.13. FINGERPRINT SCANNER

Fingerprint Recognition Device is used for scanning the finger fingerprint image. It provides the high recognition performance, the low power dissipation and the RS-232 serial interface with the simple protocol for easy integration into a wide range of applications. It has a in built Flash Memory which has a capacity of storing 100 users. The Fingerprint sensor is scans the Fingerprint and convert that Fingerprint image to an equivalent 16 byte template. For each user two Fingerprint images each of size 16 bytes, ID (10 bytes), Password (16 bytes) is stored in the Flash Memory. I n this user mode this FIM10 (Fingerprint Device) is interfaced with the Microcontroller A89S52. Before entering an organization the employee provides his ID and fingerprint device is used to scan the fingerprint of he or she enrolled with, generating a trial template. The device then compares the trial fingerprint template with this persons reference template, which was stored in the device memory during enrollment, to determine whether the employee trial and stored templates match. This information is reported to the Microcontroller. The Microcontroller is programmed to do necessary tasks. Position of the fingerprint In order to capture the most minutiae, maximize the surface area of the fingerprint on the fingerprint input window. Figure shows the correct positioning of the fingerprint on the input window.

104

Figure 3.4.1 Correct positioning of fingerprint on input window

Figure Common mistakes

Allowable angle of fingerprint rotation FIM10 allows up to 45 degrees for input fingerprint rotation, as illustrated in Figure.

Figure The allowable angle of fingerprint rotation.

105

CHAPTER-4 SOFTWARE MODULE

106

4.1. PROGRAMS

107

108

4.2 BURNING PROCESS

Burning a microcontroller means to transfer the program from the compiler to the memory of the microcontroller. A compiler is software which provides an environment to write, test and debug a program for the microcontroller. The program for a microcontroller is generally written in C or assembly language. Finally the compiler generates a hex file which contains the machine language instruction understandable by a microcontroller. It is the content of this hex file which is transferred to the memory of the microcontroller. Once a program is transferred or written in the memory of the microcontroller, it then works in accordance with the program.

To program a microcontroller, we need a device called a burner/programmer. A programmer is a hardware device with dedicated software which reads the content of the hex file stored on the PC or the laptop and transfers it to the microcontroller to be burned. It reads the data of the hex file by connecting itself to the PC via a serial or USB cable and transfers the data to the memory of the microcontroller to be programmed in accordance with the protocols as described by the manufacturer in the datasheet.

The programmer and the compiler differ for microcontrollers from different companies. In some cases the compiler has programmer software inbuilt in it. We simply need to connect the programmer hardware and the microcontroller can be programmed from the compiler itself.

109

110

CHAPTER-5 TECHNICAL DRAWING

111

112

113

114

115

116

CHAPTER-6 OBSOLESCENCE

117

Obsolescence is a term used to describe the eventual unavailability of products due to introduction of new products intended for the same purpose

How Does Obsolescence Affect Biometrics?

Capture devices are accompanied by a software component and interface that is used by the application layer to control the device When a proprietary software interface is used, the software application can only function properly with a software component provided by the hardware provider Over time, this can mean losing access to a competitive marketplace offering a growing variety of devices because you can't keep up with Better performance Durability New features Lower price points Applications can use software from multiple hardware vendors, but this builds redundancies into the software application, and can create differences in performance, workflow, quality thresholds, and look and feel that depend on which device is used. 1

Fingerprint Capture Workflow and Functionality is Complex

118

Images must not be too light or too dark Images must have sufficient ridge flow Images should not deviate significantly from 90 degrees Images must consist of flat impressions or rolls of the central region of ridge flow on the finger pad They should not consist of partial prints or side impressions Multifinger images, or slaps, must yield independent images for each finger. That is, they must be properly segmented Fingerprint images must not be touching the edge of the sensing area of the scanner The source of each fingerprint image must be properly identified Which hand Which finger

Hardware obsolescence contributes unpredictable costs and risks to the ongoing maintenance of a complex biometric system Driverlevel abstraction of capture hardware devices can mitigate these costs by eliminating interdependencies between the user interface and the devices This enables a much higher degree of flexibility in selecting device vendors and models as devices fail over time

119

CONCLUSION AND REPORT SUMMARY

120

The project has been successfully implemented. In conclusion, FINGER PRINT BASED SECURITY SYSTEM is used to provide security and authentication for an organization using finger prints as forgery of that is not possible. The project report began with the introduction to the basic functioning of Microcontroller based Identification, Authentication and Setup of Security system. Project deals with Microcontroller as central controlling units for various other sections like Biometrics Module, LCD etc. Interfacing between all sections required for system and microcontroller A89S52 has been done successfully. For registration interfacing between biometrics module and personal computer has also been done successfully. When a new person who is not registered with the system try to have access, system refuses access and displays message FINGERPRINT NOT MATCHED. For the person who is registered with the system can get access through doors according to their designation. Doors opening and closing has been achieved successfully. In this project we are using fingerprint module. It is most widely used for security purposes. This project is depend on the biometrics i.e. fingerprint. It is very easy to implement because Each person has his own fingerprints with the permanent uniqueness. Compare to normal security system it is better and in this we can further to implement in every office that module contains total information of employeEs. When a finger is kept at the finger print reader, it will give the information accordingly to microcontroller by sending appropriate commands to the reader. If the information matches with the one within the device then the DC motor interfaced to the microcontroller responds accordingly. And if the information provided by the user is incorrect or mismatch in finger prints is detected then access is denied. Finger print reader and the microcontroller unit are connected using serial interface. In future this system is used to provide security and authentication for an organization using finger prints as forgery of that is not possible.

121

APPENDIX A

122