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Rudas T, Clogg C C, Lindsay B G 1994 A new index of fit based Conflict occurs at all levels of society, from the
on mixture methods for the analysis of contingency tables. interpersonal to the international, and hence is of
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B Met 56: 623–39 interest to most branches of the social and behavioral
Stern W 1911 Die differentielle Psychologie in ihren methodischen sciences. Conflict has attracted the attention of re-
Grundlagen, 3rd edn. J A Barth, Leipzig, Germany
von Eye A 1990 Introduction to Configural Frequency Analysis.
searchers because of its large costs and benefits. Costs
The Search for Types and Antitypes in Cross-Classifications. are incurred when conflict escalates to the point of
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK harming relationships, destroying property, or injur-
von Eye A, Brandtsta$ dter J 1997 Configural frequency analysis ing people. Benefits accrue because conflict presides
as a searching device for possible causal relationships. over most significant social change; contributes to
Methods of Psychological Research—Online 2: 1–23 solidarity within conflicting groups; and in its milder
von Eye A, Brandtsta$ dter J 1998 The wedge, the fork, and the forms, often leads to the reconciliation of legitimate
chain: modeling dependency concepts using manifest cat- interests, thus strengthening relationships and safe-
egorical variables. Psychological Methods 3: 169–85 guarding the peace.
von Eye A, Indurkhya A, Kellam S 2001 Typifying devel-
opmental trajectories. (in preparation)
von Eye A, Indurkhya A, Kreppner K 2000 CFA as a tool for 1. Sources of Conflict
person-oriented research—Unidimensional and within-indi-
vidual analyses of nominal level and ordinal data. Psycholog- The modern social psychology of conflict began with a
ische BeitraW ge 42: 383–401 demonstration field experiment by Sherif (1966).
von Eye A, Rovine M J 1988 A comparison of significance tests Sherif ran several summer camps in which he produced
for Configural Frequency Analysis. EDP in Medicine and overt conflict between two cabins of preadolescent
Biology 19: 6–13 boys and then resolved this conflict. Conflict was
von Eye A, Schuster C 1998 On the specification of models for produced by means of the two sources of subjective
configural frequency analysis—sampling schemes in predic- conflict mentioned above: divergence of interest (for
tion CFA. Methods of Psychological Research–Online 3: 55–73 example, competitive games) and annoyance attri-
von Eye A, Schuster C, Gutie! rrez-Pen4 a E 2000 Configural buted to the other group (for example, the counselors
frequency analysis under retrospective and prospective sam- vandalized one cabins’ campgrounds and blamed it on
pling schemes—frequentist and Bayesian approaches. Psycho-
the other cabin).
logische Beitraege 42: 428–47
von Eye A, Spiel C, Wood P K 1996 Configural frequency What conditions produce divergence of interest and
analysis in applied psychological research. Applied Psy- annoyance from others? One answer is scarce re-
chology: An International Reiew 45: 301–27 sources. A second is role differentiation that produces
von Eye A, Spiel C, Rovine M J 1995 Concepts of in- disparate values, as between buyer and seller, parent
dependence in configural frequency analysis. Journal of and child, sales and production. A third is any
Mathematical Sociology 20: 41–54 condition that causes aspirations to rise rapidly (such
Wood P K, Sher K J, von Eye A 1994 Conjugate methods in as a sudden improvement in outcomes) or to become
configural frequency analysis. Biometrical Journal 36: inconsistent with those of another party (such as
387–410 ambiguity about which party is more powerful). A
fourth is any source of distrust, because distrust tends
A. von Eye to block cooperation and produce defensive behavior,
which often annoys or frightens the other party.
When groups rather than individuals are involved,
additional mechanisms encourage conflict. Groups
are less trusted than individuals. Also, a perception
that one’s group is deprived relative to a reasonable
Conflict and Conflict Resolution, Social standard (fraternalistic depriation) has been shown
to be a major source of political conflict. Arguing that
Psychology of Sherif’s ‘realistic conflict theory’ is too narrow, Tajfel
(1978) proposes that intergroup conflict often arises
The term ‘conflict’ has two broad meanings: oert because group members compete with other groups in
conflict, which refers to clashing actions by two or an effort to feel good about their social identity and
more parties, as in a fist fight or war, and subjectie hence about themselves. Another unique aspect of
conflict, which refers to perceived divergence of interest groups is the role of leadership. Leaders and would-be
or annoyance attributed to another party. Subjective leaders often dramatize frustration at the hands of
conflict is often a source of overt conflict, as when other groups, exacerbating conflicts while strength-
annoyance about a neighbor’s loud music leads to a ening their position with their constituents.
shouting match. But subjective conflict can produce
other outcomes as well, including use of the following 2. Strategic Choice in Conflict
four basic strategies: contending, problem solving,
yielding, and inaction. Only one of these, contending, Rubin et al. (1994) have put forward a dual concern
leads to overt conflict. model of the psychological states that affect choice
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Conflict and Conflict Resolution, Social Psychology of
2532
Conflict and Conflict Resolution, Social Psychology of
side is also motivated to resolve the conflict, and Among the most important mediator tactics are
perceied common ground, a perception that a mutually building rapport with the disputants, facilitating com-
acceptable agreement is actually possible. munication, questioning unrealistic aspirations, re-
Optimism can develop in a number of ways. framing the issues, encouraging disputant creativity,
Sometimes one of the parties takes unilateral con- and thinking up new solutions if the disputants fail to
ciliatory initiaties that encourage the other party to do so. Several studies support a broad generalization,
become more trusting. Such initiatives are especially that vigorous mediator intervention tends to be
effective when they are noticeable and unexpected, are effective when the parties are hostile toward each other
fully explained, and cannot be construed as a trick or or lack the motivation to escape their conflict but is
sign of weakness (Rubin et al. 1994). In severe counterproductive when the opposite is true (Rubin et
conflicts, optimism more commonly arises out of al. 1994). Mediators are especially likely to succeed
intervention by intermediaries. Sometimes the psycho- when the parties are highly motivated to resolve the
logical and social distance between adversaries is so conflict, resource shortages are not severe, and the
great that a chain of two or more intermediaries is issues do not involve general principles. Mediator
necessary to bridge the gap. neutrality usually contributes to the success of me-
diation but is not as essential, as formerly believed.
Indeed, success is sometimes achieved because the
mediator is closer to the side that must make the larger
4. Negotiation concessions (Kressel et al. 1989).
In arbitration, the third party renders a judgment
Conflict resolution can begin in a number of ways, but
about the proper solution to the conflict. Several
to be successful, it usually must culminate in nego-
studies have examined the impact of med-arb, a
tiation. In other words, the parties must eventually try
procedure in which binding arbitration occurs if
to work out their differences.
agreement is not reached in mediation. This procedure
Research on negotiation has been the centerpiece of
usually motivates the disputants to try harder to solve
the social psychological approach to conflict for many
their dispute during the mediation phase, because they
years. Most of it is done in the laboratory with
fear loss of control over their outcomes if arbitration
experimental games, but case studies and question-
occurs (Kressel et al. 1989).
naires are also sometimes used. At one time, research
When disputants have a distressed relationship,
on negotiation was mostly performed in departments
third parties sometimes engage in relationship therapy
of psychology, but today, the main locus of this
(Pruitt 1998). Relationship therapy, which has been
research is in management schools, where investiga-
pioneered by marital therapists, usually involves prob-
tors who are basically social psychologists conduct
lem solving training, in which the parties are taught
dozens of studies each year. Early experimental re-
skills of listening, clear communication, avoiding
search dealt with negotiation about a single issue (e.g.,
blame, analyzing needs, and brainstorming for solu-
a price or a wage rate), where one party’s gain is the
tions. The therapist may also help the disputants
other’s loss. But current research usually looks at
identify repetitive patterns of interaction that are
more complex settings that have integratie potential,
contributing to the conflict. Kelman (1992) has de-
in the sense that all parties can do well if they engage
veloped problem soling workshops, a form of re-
in problem solving. An important generalization,
lationship therapy for intergroup and international
which applies to both kinds of settings, is that higher
conflict. In these workshops, selected members of both
demands and slower concessions make it harder to
groups meet for several days to analyze the conflict.
reach agreement but, if agreement is reached, produce
When conflicts become violent or threaten to do so,
more favorable outcomes. Summaries of the psycho-
third party intervention may take the form of peace-
logical research on negotiation can be found in
keeping. Examples include separating fighting chil-
Bazerman et al. (2000) and Pruitt and Carnevale
dren, arresting abusive spouses, and United Nations
(1993).
operations within ethnically divided countries. Fisher
and Keashly (Fisher 1990) have proposed a normative
model which recommends that third parties: (a) use
5. Third Party Interention peace keeping in violent conflicts, (b) provide incen-
tives to encourage ripeness in heavily escalated but
When conflict threatens to escalate and negotiation is nonviolent conflicts, (c) offer relationship therapy
ineffective, third parties often intervene. Five inter- (they call it ‘consultation’) in moderately escalated
vention procedures will be reviewed here: mediation, conflicts, and (d) mediate mildly escalated conflicts.
arbitration, relationship therapy, peacekeeping, and This model assumes that each of these strategies
the design of conflict management systems. produces the conditions necessary for the success of
In mediation, a third party assists the disputants the next strategy in the list.
with their negotiation. (Mediation includes the ac- A final third-party role is the design of conflict
tivities of intermediaries, a topic discussed earlier.) management systems for large social entities such as
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Conflict and Conflict Resolution, Social Psychology of
schools, factories, and communities. Guidelines put mainly depend on ideas from other disciplines, a
forward by Ury et al. (1988) include identifying problem shared with many other branches of the
potentially antagonistic groups, appointing and train- social sciences. The other two criticisms concern the
ing prospective negotiators on each side who will meet study of negotiation. One is that there is too much
if conflict develops, appointing and training prospec- emphasis on the phase of actual negotiation, in which
tive mediators to help these negotiators, and agreeing joint decisions are made, as opposed to the pre- and
to observe an immediate cooling-off period whenever postnegotiation phases. Indeed, the latter two phases
conflict develops. Such systems work better if they are often longer and more complex than the phase of
involve early warning systems that allow negotiators actual negotiation and have more bearing on whether
and mediators to mobilize in advance of hostilities. conflict is resolved (Druckman 1986). The other
criticism is that there is too much research on
negotiation altogether. Negotiation is, after all, only
6. Disputant Preferences among Conflict one star in a much larger universe.
Resolution Procedures See also: Conflict and Socioemotional Development;
A number of studies have examined disputant prefer- Conflict: Anthropological Aspects; Conflict\Con-
ences among the procedures available for conflict sensus; Conflict Sociology; Dispute Resolution in
resolution. A persistent finding is that arbitration is Economics; Mediation, Arbitration, and Alternative
preferred to autocratic decision making. According to Dispute Resolution (ADR); Negotiation and Bar-
Lind and Tyler (1988), this shows that having a voice gaining: Role of Lawyers
in the proceedings contributes to a sense of procedural
justice. Preferences among negotiation, mediation,
and arbitration depend on the circumstances. For Bibliography
example, high time pressure enhances attraction to
arbitration, presumably because it can be finished up Bazerman M H, Curhan J R, Moore D A, Valley K L 2000
Negotiation. Annual Reiew of Psychology. Annual Reviews,
quickly. On the other hand, people in close relation- Palo Alto, CA
ships tend to reject arbitration, presumably because of Coleman J S 1957 Community Conflict. Free Press, Glencoe, IL
its coercive features. Sequences of preferences are Deutsch M 1973 The Resolution of Conflict: Constructie and
often found, a common one being to start with Destructie Processes. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT
negotiation and move to third-party intervention if Druckman D 1986 Stages, turning points, and crisis: Negotiating
negotiation is unsuccessful (Pruitt and Carnevale military base rights, Spain and the United States. Journal of
1993). Conflict Resolution 30: 327–60
Some recent research has concerned cultural differ- Fisher R J 1990 The Social Psychology of Intergroup and
ences in preferences among conflict resolution proce- International Conflict Resolution. Springer-Verlag, New York
Kelman H C 1992 Informal mediation by the scholar\practi-
dures. For example, when dealing with ingroup tioner. In: Bercovitch J, Rubin J Z et al. (eds.) Mediation in
members, people from collectivist societies prefer International Relations: Multiple Approaches to Conflict Man-
nonconfrontational procedures, hence, they are less agement. St. Martin’s Press, New York
attracted to direct competition and problem solving Kressel K et al. 1989 Mediation Research: The Process and
than people from individualist societies (Bazerman et Effectieness of Third-Party Interention. Jossey-Bass, San
al. 2000). But when dealing with outgroup members, Francisco, CA
collectivists tend to be more competitive than indivi- Lind E A, Tyler T R 1988 The Social Psychology of Procedural
dualists (Pruitt and Carnevale 1993). Justice. Plenum, New York
Pruitt D G 1998 Social conflict. In: Gilbert D T, Fiske S T,
Lindzey G (eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology, 4th edn.
McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA, Vol. 2
7. Conclusions Pruitt D G, Carnevale P J 1993 Negotiation in Social Conflict.
Brooks\Cole, Pacific Grove, CA
Conflict and conflict resolution are vigorous research Rubin J Z, Pruitt D G, Kim S H 1994 Social Conflict: Escalation,
fields. The interdisciplinary nature of these fields can Stalemate, and Settlement, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York
be seen in the annual conferences of the International Sherif M 1966 Group Conflict and Cooperation. Routledge and
Association for Conflict Management and the pages Kegan Paul, London
of the Journal of Conflict Resolution, the International Tajfel H 1978 Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in
Journal of Conflict Management, and the Negotiation the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Academic Press,
New York
Journal. Social psychologists in psychology depart-
Ury W L, Brett J M, Goldberg S 1988 Getting Disputes Resoled:
ments were more prominent in these fields at an earlier Designing Systems to Cut the Costs of Conflict. Jossey-Bass,
time than they are today. But the contribution of San Francisco, CA
social psychology is readily apparent in the work of Zartman I W 1997 Explaining Oslo. International Negotiation 2:
investigators from most other disciplines. 195–215
Three criticisms of these fields seem appropriate.
The first is that they lack an overarching theory and D. G. Pruitt