Pay and Compensation, Psychology of
three theories could be discussed; nonetheless, their
tenets are rather representative. Expectancy and reflec-
tion theory provide some ground for results-oriented
pay, in particular regarding the importance of un-
ambiguous performance leading to pay perceptions.
Yet it is not clear how these perceptions should be
structured in the case of group performance; possibly
equity theory’s notion on contribution—inducement
ratios should also be considered. The belief embedded
in the concept of base pay—that stability and predicta-
bility of pay may cause employees and managers to be
focused more upon the content of their work—does
not take full account of the meanings of pay (put
forward in reflection theory) relative to the meanings
of nonmaterial work characteristics. This is clearly in
need of more research. Continued research on cafe-
teria plans, including perquisites, is vital, in order to
learn whether this compensation component meets its
expectations. All in all, however, beliefs and expecta-
tions about compensation in practice are not so much
missing the point as more outspoken than psycho-
logical theory would require them to be.
See also: Money and Finances, Psychology of; Money:
Anthropological Aspects; Psychological Climate in
the Work Setting
Bibliography
Adams J C 1963 Toward an understanding of inequity. Journal
of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67: 422–36
Adams J C 1965 Inequity in social exchange. Ad
ances in
Experimental Social Psychology 2
Ajzen I, Fishbein M 1980 Understanding Attitudes and Predicting
Social Beha
ior. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Barber A E, Bretz R D 2000 Compensation, attraction, and
retention. In: Rynes S, Gerhart B (eds.) Compensation in
Organizations: Current Research and Practice. Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco, pp. 32–60
Bartol K M, Locke E A 2000 Incentives and motivation. In:
Rynes S, Gerhart B A (eds.) Compensation in Organizations:
Current Research and Practice. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco,
pp. 104–47
Deci E L, Ryan R M 1985 Intrinsic Moti
ation and Self-
determination in Human Beha
ior. Plenum Press, New York
Deci E L, Koestner R, Ryan R M 1999 A meta-analytic review
of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on
intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin 125: 627–68
Harder J W 1992 Play for pay: Effects of inequity in a pay-for-
performance context. Administrati
e Science Quarterly 37:
321–35
Lawler E E 1971 Pay and Organizational Effecti
eness. McGraw-
Hill, New York
Rynes S L, Bono J E 2000 Psychological research on determin-
ants of pay. In: Rynes S L, Gerhart B A (eds.) Compensation in
Organizations: Current Research and Practice. Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco, pp. 3–31
Thierry H 1998 Compensating work. In: Drenth P J D, Thierry
H, De Wolff C J (eds.) Handbook of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 2nd edn. Psychology Press, East Sussex, UK,
pp. 291–319
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Thierry H 2001 The reflection theory on motivation. In: Erez M,
Kleinbeck U, Thierry H (eds.) Work Moti
ation in the Context
of a Globalizing Economy. L. Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah,
NJ, pp. 141–58
Thierry H in press Enhancing performance through pay and
reward systems. In: Sonnentag S (ed.) Psychological Man-
agement of Indi
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UK
Thierry H, De Jong J R 1998 Job evaluation. In: Drenth P J D,
Thierry H, De Wolff C J (eds.) Handbook of Work and
Organizational Psychology, 2nd edn. Psychology Press, East
Sussex, UK,Vol. 3, pp. 165–83
Van Eerde W, Thierry H 1996 Vroom’s expectancy models and
work-related criteria: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied
Psychology 81: 575–86
Van Silfhout R K 2000 Inequality in Pay Within Organizations:
Normati
e and Instrumental Perspecti
es. PhD thesis, Tilburg
University, The Netherlands
Vroom V H 1964 Work Moti
ation. John Wiley, New York
H. Thierry
Peace
The major cases of violence and peace relate to the way
the human condition is cut through by fault lines,
dividing humans and nature, normal people from
deviants, different genders, generations, races, classes,
nations, states. Each border defines at least two
categories, self and other. The violence can be direct
violence intended by the self to attack the basic needs
of the other; or structural violence, also preventable,
not intended, usually slower, but at least equally
devastating. If the other is dehumanized to a category,
we end up with genocide—massive category killing.
With two types of violence and eight fault lines we get
a 16-fold discourse, as shown in Table 1.
Most of the time and in most places there is ‘narrow
peace’ or an absence of direct violence across most
fault lines, but not ‘broad peace’ or an absence of
direct and structural violence. Different cultures view
peace differently as descriptive (how is peace possible)
or prescriptive (how could peace be possible).
The following is a review of the theories of peace of
six macrocultures, or civilizations. Of the six, three are
from the Occident, defined here as the cultural space
spanned by the Abrahamitic religions of the Book, the
kitab, or Old Testament: Judaism, Christianity, Islam.
We start with two Europes, secular Europe—the
Europe of antiquity—and then Christian Europe. We
then move East to West Asia (I have not designated
this as the ‘Middle East,’ which is a Western European
perspective) with Judaism, Islam, and the cradle of
Christianity. Continuing eastward we come to South
Asia, with what is conveniently called ‘Hinduism’ and
its offspring, Jainism and Buddhism. And further east,
in East Asia there are the Chinese and Japanese
cultural amalgams with a Confucian core, Buddhism,
and then Taoism in China and Shinto in Japan. We
 Peace

Table 1
Classification of violence
No. Fault lines Direct violence Structural violence
[1] Nature slaughter of ‘beasts, depletion
savages, wilderness’ pollution
[2] Gender killing women: patriarchy as
abortion, prison of women,
infanticide, putting them
witch-burning ‘in their place’
[3] Generation Pri
ileging middle-aged
abortion schools as ghetto
euthanasia ‘homes’ as ghetto
[4] Deviance Controlling dangerous persons
—criminal capital punishment institution
—mental euthanasia institution
—somatic euthanasia institution
[5] Race Controlling dangerous races
eradication colonialism
slavery slavery
[6] Class Controlling dangerous classes
—military elimination exploitation-body
—economic repression-mind
—political alienation-spirit
—cultural
[7] Nation ‘genocide’ as the state as a
Culture narrowly defined prison of nations
Ideology run by ‘majority’
[8] State war (killing for food, sacrifice, imperialism
Country conquest) isolating
Territory ‘pariah’ states

then move into Pacific American African spaces,
picking up a Polynesian, an Amerindian, and an
African tradition, ending south of Europe.
1. Europe: Pax and Eirene—The Roman\Greek
and Modern Traditions
Peace can be interpreted narrowly as absentia belli, the
absence of organized violence between groups defined
by the fault lines. International or external peace is the
absence of external wars: intercountry, interstate, or
international (in the sense of intercultural). Social or
internal peace is the absence of internal wars: national,
racial, class, or ideological groups challenging central
governance or each other. This concept is carried by
the Roman pax, related to pact, as in pacta sunt
ser
anda, ‘treaties must be observed.’ Peace as a
contractual, mutually agreed relation is the source of
Western international law.
Another Roman legacy, si
is pacem, para bellum,
‘if you want peace prepare for war,’ is the source of
Western military peace theory. Peace is obtained by
the balance of power, deterring the aggressor at home
with defensive defense, and abroad with offensive
defense. Offensive offense (attack\aggression) and
defensive offense (pre-emptive warfare) are not peace
concepts.
Aggression is controlled from above by pacts—the
Roman Empire was capable of enforcing such pacts—
and\or by the balance of power. A better word for this
kind of peace is security. And there is a basic dilemma:
the military capability used to deter can also be used to
attack, even if the motivation is defensive. The result
can be an arms race, a cold war, or even an actual war.
A basic problem with the Roman pax is its insensi-
tivity to flagrant injustice and inequality, the Roman
Empire itself being an example. The Greek eirene is
closer to ‘peace with justice’: absence of direct and
structural violence, among Greeks. But which part has
priority? What if they think justice can only be
obtained through war? That idea was picked up by the
Marxist tradition as class war, national and inter-
national, legitimized as necessary and sufficient to
obtain a just, socialist society. The Roman thinking
led to the liberal tradition, tolerant of enormous
inequalities, nationally and internationally, but
strongly against war, both internally and externally.
And Roman warfare was picked up by the conserva-
tive tradition, extolling still more inequality through

11135
Peace
wars, provided they could be won, and even through
empire-building. In the year 2000 these views still
prevail.
2. Europe: Agape and Bellum Iustum: The
Christian Traditions
The three main divisions of Christianity (Orthodoxy\
Roman Catholicism\Protestantism) and the many
smaller sects had Paradise and Hell as archetypes that
became models for peace and war, making peace
remote and static, and war a highly dynamic hell on
earth. Peace is seen as ordained by a God whose law is
the only valid law, and valid for all of humanity. But
who is God, and how does he relate to human beings
in search of peace?
A theological distinction is very useful here, between
God as immanent, inside us, making us godlike,
sacred, and God as transcendent, above us, saving,
choosing some persons and peoples, rejecting and
condemning others. We may even talk about soft and
hard Christianity, depending on which God-concept is
picked up, in what proportion. They do not exclude
each other.
Agape (Greek for ‘love’) can be used as a name for
the peace of a soft Christianity based on an immanent
conception of God. There is God’s love for human-
kind, through Jesus Christ; the human love for God;
and the love of one’s fellow beings as being God-loved.
The Lord’s Supper and the Eucharist are close to this
concept: a community of humans, God-enlightened, in
God. The face-to-face corpus mysticum is based on an
identity with others so strong that there is a limit to the
number of members. This may be a reason why very
egalitarian, interactive, direct peace concepts spring
out of smaller Christian sects, like the Quakers and the
Mennonites.
Then there is the transcendent God, conceived as
some male person residing above our planet, and his
relation to nonbelievers, pagans, and worse still, to the
heretics who have rejected God. This is where hard
Christianity enters, administering Hell and torture
(the Inquisition) and Holy War to the heretics.
As some kind of peace concept it takes the form of
bellum iustum, in the Augustine-Aquinas just war
tradition:
(a) Wars must be waged by a lawful authority.
(b) Wars must be waged for a just cause, to correct
injustice.
(c) Wars must be waged with the right intention, not
vengefully.
(d) Wars must be waged as a last resort and with
prospects of success.
(e) Wars must be waged with proportionality and
minimum force.
(f) Wars must be waged only against combatants.
The first five are ius ad bellum; the last two are ius in
bello.
11136
This can be seen as an effort to limit war even if
accepting war as the last resort. But there is no
nonviolent alternative, and it may be used to attack
any kind of injustice however defined. In addition, it is
not biblical but derives from St. Augustine and St.
Thomas Aquinas. But this cost-benefit thinking is still
with us.
3. West Asia: Shalom\Sala’am—The Judaic and
Islamic Traditions
Looking at some famous quotes from the basic texts
(see Table 2, Christianity is included as a family
member for comparison) one conclusion may be that
ambiguity is the message. It is neither unconditional
peace, nor unconditional war. It is peace under certain
conditions and war under certain conditions. The
problem is to spell out those conditions. One reading
of the Judaic shalom and the Arab sala’am is peace
with justice. Without justice, no peace; hence war for
justice is legitimate. The contradiction is mirrored in
the quotes shown in Table 2.
If we define justice as absence of structural violence
whereby people, nations, and states are repressed,
exploited, alienated, but not by an actor, then this may
lead to bellum iustum as injustice abounds. Jihad,
however, translates as ‘exertion’ for the faith. Defend-
ing the faith by violence, against Crusades, Zionism,
communism, is the fourth stage of Jihad.
4. South Asia: Shanti and Ahimsa—The
Hindu\Jainist\Buddhist Traditions
There is a trend in all three faiths toward unconditional
peace by ahimsa, nonviolence. The major carrier of
this message of all times, Mohandas K. Gandhi
(1869–1948) used the formula ‘There is no way to
peace, peace is the way.’ This is a strong stand, ruling
out violence as immoral and unproductive. The
struggle against violence, direct or structural, is by
nonviolence. And, as becomes clear from Gandhi’s
adulation of the small social unit, the village, peace in
the sense of absence of direct violence, cannot be built
top-down by heavy international and national hier-
archies, in the pax and Hobbesian traditions.
This, in turn, is related to shanti, inner peace.
Ahimsa has shanti as a necessary condition: with no
inner peace, no nonviolence. ‘Unprocessed traumas’
will be acted out aggressively. If nonviolence does not
lead to change of heart in the other, it is for lack of
change of heart in self. Nonviolence then turns into
self-purification, practiced in the little community of
believers, the sangha, which is like a monastery.
Gandhi left behind a theory and practice of
satyagraha, clinging to truth as he called it. Look at
the list of nonviolent action: to play a major role in
delivering the nonwhite world from white colonialism,
 Peace

Table 2
Hard and soft peace: quotations from Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Judaism Christianity Islam
Soft He will decide the How blest are the And whoever saved a
peace disputes of the peacemakers. God human life, should
nations and settle shall call them his be regarded as
many a people’s sons. (Matt. 5:9) though he had saved
case … till swords all mankind.
are beaten into (Qur’an 5:32)
plough-shares and
spears into
pruninghooks. No
nation draws the
sword against
another. (Isaiah 2:4)
Hard For in the cities within Don’t imagine that I Fight for the sake of
peace the boundaries of came to bring peace Allah those that
the Promised Land to the earth. No, fight against you but
you are to save no rather, a sword. do not attack them
one; destroy every (Matt. 10:34) first. (Qur’an 2:190)
living thing. (Deut.
21:16)

and the white world from its own Cold War, leaving
no thirst for bloody revenge behind, is no minor
achievement. That gift comes out of South Asia, not
the West. The contribution of the West seems to a
large extent to have been to create the problems. The
burden of proof is on those who teach peace by
violence. To assert ‘nonviolence does not work’ is
uninformed, given the amazing successes in the second
half of the twentieth century:
(a) the liberation of arrested Jews in Berlin,
February 1943
(b) Gandhi’s swaraj campaign in India; Indepen-
dence from 1947
(c) Martin Luther King Jr.’s campaign in the US
South from 1956
(d) the anti-Vietnam war movement, inside and
outside Vietnam
(e) the Buenos Aires Plaza de Mayo mothers against
the military
(f) the ‘People’s Power’ movement in the Philip-
pines, 1986
(g) the Children’s Power movement in South Africa,
from 1986
(h) the intifada movement in Occupied Palestine,
from 1987, in the beginning mostly nonviolent
(i) the democracy movement Beijing, spring 1989
(j) the Solidarity\DDR movements which ended the
Cold War.
harmony would be not only ‘absence of violence,’ but
‘absence of conflict.’ The task of conflict resolution
has already been carried out. Indications of conflict
are swept under the carpet, and the person articulating
conflict is frozen out of harmonious society, or
prevented from expressing such views.
Take the metaphor of Chinese boxes, or in Russia
the matrushka dolls, with one box or doll inside the
other and so on, till they become extremely small.
They all look alike. In modern fractal\chaos theory
they talk about ‘self-similarity’ as something stabiliz-
ing. The basic East Asian point is that harmony is
produced not by a particular structure, be that a
pyramid or wheel or whatever, but by the same
structure repeated at the personal, social, and world
levels, within and between.
In Tao Te Ching we find an example: small, detached
countries: ‘Though they have armor and weapons
nobody displays them—they leave each other in peace
while they grow old and die’ (No. 80). A modern
version would be domestic and global democracy.
6. Pacific, America, Africa—Ho’o ponopono,
Peace Pipe, and Shir
The following are three examples of peace as non-
violent conflict resolution.

5. East Asia: Ho p’ing\Heiwa—The 6.2 Ho’o ponopono—The Polynesian Conflict

Chinese\Japanese Traditions Resolution Circle
The standard translation of ho p’ing (Chinese) and Ho’o ponopono (setting straight) is a method of confict
heiwa (Japanese) is ‘harmony.’ And one reading of resolution that brings together around a table per-

11137
Peace
Figure 1
Geometric images of peace
petrator, victim, family members, neighbors, friends,
and others, with a moderator, the ‘wise man,’ not from
families or neighbors. The process of resolution has
four stages.
Everyone is encouraged sincerely to present their
version of why it happened, how, and what would be
the appropriate reaction, and everybody accepts some
part of the responsibility. Sincere apologies are then
offered and accepted; forgiveness is demanded and
offered. An action program is defined for everybody
according to the principle of shared responsibility.
And in the end the record of what happened (but not
of what has to be done) is then burnt, symbolizing the
end of the incident, and the construction of a new
relation among all of them.
6.3 The Peace Pipe—The Cheyenne Conflict
Resolution Symbol
With the Cheyenne, a zone of peace is created at the
top of society, with the peace chiefs being models of
11138
nonviolence to be emulated by the rest. They were not
to engage in any quarrels within the tribe regardless of
whether their families or children were involved. They
were not to engage themselves in any force or violence,
even if their son was killed right in front of their
tepee.You are to do nothing but take your pipe and
smoke. Being a chief becomes a way of life, and the
chief’s home a sanctuary where others can be safe.The
chiefs mediate disputes and don’t take sides. Ritual,
like smoking the peace pipe together, makes it possible
to think with one mind, one heart. Everyone has a
right to talk, nobody is interrupted, the talk continues
till the end.
6.4 Shir—The Somalian Conflict Resolution Market
A traditional conflict resolution structure that brings
together all the mature men in the clans involved in a
conflict. Women, children and young hot-blooded
warriors are excluded. Men lounge under the thorn
trees during the hot, dry day. They chat and drink tea.

At some point, things will jell. The various pieces that
make up the main issue for which the shir was called
will fall into place because a social climate conducive
to a solution will have slowly emerged. The result will
be proper peace—a peace felt from the inside.
Conflict resolution has here been hitched on to one
of the oldest institutions in the history of human
beings: the market. The market is based on exchange
for mutual benefit: I give, you give (do ut des, I give so
that you give), and some principle of equal exchange,
(quid pro quo).
7. Peace as Geometry
Five geometric archetypes for peace are shown in
Figure 1: the vertical, big pyramid for the hierarchic
rule from above, of human beings or of law; the wheel
for the smaller, tight, equal exchange; the symmetry—
like the garden of Versailles—for the balance of power;
the sun for the nonviolence radiating from inner peace;
and the Chinese boxes of harmony based on self-
similarity, from micro to macro levels.
Different kinds of peace can also be expressed in
terms better known from the history of diplomacy,
focusing on interstate and internation peace: the
Napoleonic peace forged by a prince\lawmaker; the
silent peace brought about by groups of ordinary
humans, or countries; the Nixon–Brezhnev peace
negotiated at a bilateral summit; the Gandhian peace
as process, not only outcome; the anonymous peace as
built-in harmony. All of these are used for conflict
resolution. How conflict is handled is the best peace
indicator.
8. Approaches To Peace
Each society, community, family, and person has ways
of being peaceful by peaceful means, but they also
often have ways of being violent, summarized in their
cultures. A major approach to peace concerns is to tilt
the cultural balance in favor of peace, letting peace
cultures be the dominant cultures. Then, using the
survey of peace cultures and the peace as geometry
approach we have five ideas in addition to peace
culture.
The two Europes and West Asia have one idea in
common: the hierarchy, the pyramid. Essentially this
is peace from above, whether from a big power, a
combination of big powers, or from some central
authority. The current term is ‘global governance,’
based on global architecture. Regional versions may
produce regional peace among members, excluding
nonmembers. The counterpoint to the pyramid, the
wheel, found in five cultural spaces, expresses the ideas
of peace from below, small is beautiful, inspiring the
search for alternative peace structures. Then comes
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
Peace
the shanti–ahimsa combination from South Asia: the
source of peace is inside you, its expression is non-
violence, which makes war abolition a realistic utopia.
And we pick up the idea of conflict transformation,
with East Asian harmony as outcome, ho’o ponopono,
peace pipe, and shir as examples of processes.
The six approaches divide into two groups: global
governance, war abolition, and conflict transform-
ation being more familiar; nonviolence, peace struc-
tures, and peace cultures unfamiliar and challenging.
Peace in the complex, highly interconnected world of
the twenty-first century, bringing conflict parties very
close to each other, will depend on the ability to draw
upon all six—not easy given that they hail from
different parts of the world.
See also: Alliances: Political; Balance of Power,
History of; Balance of Power: Political; Conflict
Sociology; Diplomacy; International Relations, His-
tory of; National Security Studies and War Potential
of Nations; Peace and Nonviolence: Anthropological
Aspects; Peace Movements; Peace Movements, His-
tory of; Religion: Peace, War, and Violence; Violence,
History of; Violence: Public; War, Sociology of;
Warfare in History
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Ehrenreich B 1997 Blood Rites: Origins and History of the
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Galtung J (ed.) Essays in Peace Research. Ejlers, Copenhagen,
Vol. 5, pp. 415–36
Galtung J 1996 Peace By Peaceful Means. Sage, London
Galtung J 1998 Conflict Transformation by Peaceful Means.
United Nations, Geneva
Giorgi P P 1999 The Origins of Violence by Cultural E
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Minerva E&S, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
Howell S, Willis R (eds.) 1989 Societies at Peace. Routledge,
London
Ishida T 1969 Beyond the traditional concepts of peace in
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Prunier G 1998 Somaliland goes it alone. Current History May:
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J. Galtung
Copyright # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. 11139
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0-08-043076-7