Catalyst for Complex Flue Gases (waste and biofuels burning)

The main problems of air cleaning in this area are the huge emission volume and wide range of pollutants. There are 48 m of gaseous emissions containing nitrogen oxides, sulfur (IV), sulfur (VI), hydrochloric acid, heavy metals, dust dispersion, etc. in each ton of burning waste.
ECAT Company has developed the special solution for complex flue gases cleaning.

Pic.1. Air cleaning process Air cleaning process includes two main stages. In the first stage gas emissions with sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), pre-cleaned of dust in the filtration module, are going to air cleaning system. The gas is recovered by taking the heat from the hot gas stream cross, passing through the heat exchanger modules. The next step is the flow heating in the heating module. The gas must be heated to the temperature required for the sustainable catalytic process (maximum temperatures up to 450C, operating temperatures are 300350C). After that the metered quantity of ammonia is added in the gas flow. The feed rate and flow rate are determined by the NOx concentration at the entrance into the cleaning system. The heated gas goes into a catalytic reactor number 1, where the catalytic gas purification from nitrogen oxides is happened. After that, the gas is sent to the catalytic reactor number 2 for the catalytic oxidation of ammonia residue and oxidation of sulfur dioxide to form sulfur dioxide. In the second stage gas without oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons fuels and carbon oxide (II), enters into the adsorption column (sorption module) for sulfur dioxide absorption.Sulfur dioxide appears as low concentration sulfuric acid (less than 10%). Sulfuric acid can be put into special container and utilize.It can be used in other technical processes as well. After all cleaning stages gas is emitted in the atmosphere. The system can be equipped with automatic control system with data of temperature, volume flow of ammonia/urea and water. The system of environmental monitoring can be set output as well. The company solutions are developed with taking into account all requirements of the client and according to the technical project. That guarantees an individual approach to each customer. We will be glad to provide you with additional information on our potential prepare required documentation and discuss possible ways of our cooperation.

An Alkaline AlH2O2 Semi-Fuel Cell Based on a Nickel Foam Supported Co3O4 Nanowire Arrays Cathode
The metal hydrogen peroxide semi-fuel cell is a hybrid of a battery and a fuel cell, which uses highly electroactive metals (e. g. Al or Mg) as the anode (also the fuel) and hydrogen peroxide as the oxidant. The metal anode stored inside the cell is consumed during discharge (battery character) and the hydrogen peroxide is continuously supplied to the cell from an outisde source and is electrochemically reduced at the cathode surface (fuel cell character).
Metal hydrogen peroxide semi-fuel cells have some similarities with metal air batteries, for example Al air battery, which has been investigated for a long time. Since metal hydrogen peroxide semifuel cells can work in air-free environments, are mechanically rechargeable and usually have high energy density, they have been developed as the power source of unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs). Hasvold et al. developed an alkaline Al H2O2semi-fuel cell system using carbon fibre as the cathode. The system has an energy density up to 100 Wh kg 1 and has been successfully used to power a civilian UUV (HUGIN 3000). Medeiros and Bessette et al. investigated Mg H2O2semi-fuel cells using carbon fibre supported Pd Ir as the cathode catalyst and demonstrated that the semi-fuel cell has an achievable energy density of more than 500 Wh kg 1 based on the weights consumed during discharge. Yang et al. studied Al H2O2 and Mg H2O2semi-fuel cells with Ag and Pd Ag coated nickel foam as cathode and found that Pd Ag cathode exhibits higher performance than Ag cathode. Our recent studies show that Co3O4 and NiCo2O4 are potential cathode catalysts for alkaline Al H2O2semi-fuel cells. In particular, the electrode of Co3O4 nanowire arrays directly grown on nickel foam exhibits considerable catalytic activity and stability for H2O2 electroreduction in alkaline electrolytes.Compared to conventional fuel cell electrodes fabricated by mixing and pressing powder of active material with conducting materials (e. g. carbon black) and polymer binders (e. g. polytetrafluorethylene), this nanowire array electrode has higher utilisation efficiency of active material because all the nanowires have direct contact with the nickel foam current collector, superior mass transport property due to a uniquethree-dimensional porous structure and large volume surface area.Besides, Co3O4 is cheaper than precious metal catalysts currently used. As part of our ongoing research of low-cost catalysts for H2O2-based fuel cell, we report, in this study, the performance of an Al H2O2 semi-fuel cell using Co3O4 nanowire arrays as the cathode. Effects of H2O2 concentration, KOH electrolyte concentration, flow rate and temperature on the performance of the Al H2O2 semi-fuel cell are investigated.

Fig.2 SEM images of the NWA-Co3O4/Ni-foam electrode (a and b) and the TEM image of a single Co3O4 nanowire Figure 2 shows the SEM images of the Co3O4 nanowires attached on nickel foam skeleton and the TEM image of a single Co3O4 nanowire scratched down from the nickel foam. The SEM image at low magnification (Figure 2 a) shows that Co3O4 form clusters of nanowires and densely cover all the skeletons of the nickel foam. The length of the nanowires is up to around 15 lm. The high magnification SEM image (Figure 2 b) and the TEM image (Figure 2 c) shows that the nanowires have diameters of around 250 nm. The nanowire is composed of interconnected nanoparticles, which enables the nanowires to have a porous structure and a large surface area (Figure 2 c). As a result, the NWA-Co3O4/Ni-foam electrode possesses a unique three-dimensional open network structure and has superior mass transport properties and large electrocatalytic active surface area, all of which favour liquid H2O2 electroreduction involving formation of O2 gas byproduct from the chemical decomposition of H2O2. Direct growth of Co3O4 nanowire arrays on nickel foam via a template-free method was demonstrated. The obtained electrode was tested as the cathode of an alkaline Al H2O2 semifuel cell. The effects of operation conditions on cell performance were investigated, and it was found that the optimised H2O2 concentration is 0.4 mol L 1, the catholyte KOH concentration 3.0 mol L 1 and the catholyte flow rate 80 mL min 1. The Al H2O2semi-fuel cell achieved a peak power density of 85 mW cm 2 at 25C and 137 mW cm 2 at 65C under optimal operating conditions.

Zeolite Rotor Concentrators for VOC Abatement in semi-conductor and electronics manufacturing processes
Many semi-conductor and electronics manufacturing processes and operations require closely controlled dry conditions. The presence of excessive humidity/moisture causes corrosion of circuit points, condensation on a microchips circuit surface and improper adhesion of photoresists causing operational failure of the semiconductor assembly process. To provide the right working conditions in dry rooms and clean rooms desiccant dehumidifiers are used.
Next to creating optimal and dry conditions, there is a range of Zeolite Rotor Concentrators to clean exhaust air laden with Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC). As a low concentration VOC laden air stream enters the hydrophobic rotor the air passes through the zeolite media. The rotor turns several revolutions per hour continuously transporting VOC laden zeolite back into the regeneration sector and regenerated zeolite into the process section. In the process section the VOCs are adsorbed onto the zeolite and the clean air is exhausted to the atmosphere. In an isolated section, a small, hot stream of clean air is drawn through the rotor. This stream is normally less than 10% of the process volume. The hot air desorbs the VOCs from the zeolite forming a concentrated VOC laden air stream. The regenerated zeolite is returned to the process. The concentrated stream is sent to a small oxidizer. The oxidizer converts the VOCs to carbon dioxide and water vapor which are exhausted to the atmosphere. The concentrated VOC stream can also be sent to alternate technologies, such as a condenser which recovers the VOCs for potential reuse, or a biofilter.

What is Zeolite?
Zeolite is a naturally occurring mineral, in crystal form, found in volcanic rocks and sedimentary formations of ancient sea beds. Natural zeolite is made of hydrous aluminum silicates of sodium, calcium, potassium or barium. Over 40 types of zeolite are found naturally occurring in nature, each having a unique chemical composition and crystalline structure. Natural zeolites which are hydrophilic (water loving), are used for ion exchange and water softening. Over 70 types of synthetic zeolites have been developed for commercial applications. Hydrophobic zeolite is an inorganic crystal with properties suited to adsorbing VOCs. Hydrophobic zeolite is a stable crystal. The zeolites inert properties mean that it does not promote chemical reactions.It is also non-flammable to extreme temperatures and will not react with strong acids.

How do Zeolites Work?

The basic structure of a zeolite is a tetrahedra or pyramid formed by silicon dioxides (SiO2) The tetrahedra have one silicon atom in the center and oxygen at each of the corners. Zeolites are linked by sharing the oxygen atom. Linked zeolites form pores. The size of the pores is determined by the number of zeolite molecules that are joined together. As a crystal the zeolite has a set structure, therefore each type of zeolite has a distinct arrangement of zeolite molecules. As each type of zeolite is unique each pore size is unique. The size of the organic compound determines which zeolite pore size is best suited for adsorption. A Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) is attracted and held in the zeolite pore by a weak attractive force. (This is a weak physical attractive force between chemically neutral compounds. ) The VOC will remain in the pore until energy (e. g. heat) is applied. The heat overcomes the attractive force and the VOC breaks free from the zeolite and is released into the air. When VOC laden air flows past zeolite molecules, the zeolite acts as a reverse filter or molecular sieve, capturing the compounds which will adsorb and allowing the compounds that are too large to flow past

Catalyst for Complex Flue Gases (waste and biofuels burning)

The main problems of air cleaning in this area are the huge emission volume and wide range of pollutants. There are 48 m of gaseous emissions containing nitrogen oxides, sulfur (IV), sulfur (VI), hydrochloric acid, heavy metals, dust dispersion, etc. in each ton of burning waste.
ECAT Company has developed the special solution for complex flue gases cleaning.

Pic.1. Air cleaning process Air cleaning process includes two main stages. In the first stage gas emissions with sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), pre-cleaned of dust in the filtration module, are going to air cleaning system. The gas is recovered by taking the heat from the hot gas stream cross, passing through the heat exchanger modules. The next step is the flow heating in the heating module. The gas must be heated to the temperature required for the sustainable catalytic process (maximum temperatures up to 450C, operating temperatures are 300350C). After that the metered quantity of ammonia is added in the gas flow. The feed rate and flow rate are determined by the NOx concentration at the entrance into the cleaning system. The heated gas goes into a catalytic reactor number 1, where the catalytic gas purification from nitrogen oxides is happened. After that, the gas is sent to the catalytic reactor number 2 for the catalytic oxidation of ammonia residue and oxidation of sulfur dioxide to form sulfur dioxide. In the second stage gas without oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons fuels and carbon oxide (II), enters into the adsorption column (sorption module) for sulfur dioxide absorption.Sulfur dioxide appears as low concentration sulfuric acid (less than 10%). Sulfuric acid can be put into special container and utilize.It can be used in other technical processes as well. After all cleaning stages gas is emitted in the atmosphere. The system can be equipped with automatic control system with data of temperature, volume flow of ammonia/urea and water. The system of environmental monitoring can be set output as well. The company solutions are developed with taking into account all requirements of the client and according to the technical project. That guarantees an individual approach to each customer. We will be glad to provide you with additional information on our potential prepare required documentation and discuss possible ways of our cooperation.

Zeolite Rotor Concentrators for VOC Abatement in semi-conductor and electronics manufacturing processes
Many semi-conductor and electronics manufacturing processes and operations require closely controlled dry conditions. The presence of excessive humidity/moisture causes corrosion of circuit points, condensation on a microchips circuit surface and improper adhesion of photoresists causing operational failure of the semiconductor assembly process. To provide the right working conditions in dry rooms and clean rooms desiccant dehumidifiers are used.
Next to creating optimal and dry conditions, there is a range of Zeolite Rotor Concentrators to clean exhaust air laden with Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC). As a low concentration VOC laden air stream enters the hydrophobic rotor the air passes through the zeolite media. The rotor turns several revolutions per hour continuously transporting VOC laden zeolite back into the regeneration sector and regenerated zeolite into the process section. In the process section the VOCs are adsorbed onto the zeolite and the clean air is exhausted to the atmosphere. In an isolated section, a small, hot stream of clean air is drawn through the rotor. This stream is normally less than 10% of the process volume. The hot air desorbs the VOCs from the zeolite forming a concentrated VOC laden air stream. The regenerated zeolite is returned to the process. The concentrated stream is sent to a small oxidizer. The oxidizer converts the VOCs to carbon dioxide and water vapor which are exhausted to the atmosphere. The concentrated VOC stream can also be sent to alternate technologies, such as a condenser which recovers the VOCs for potential reuse, or a biofilter.

What is Zeolite?
Zeolite is a naturally occurring mineral, in crystal form, found in volcanic rocks and sedimentary formations of ancient sea beds. Natural zeolite is made of hydrous aluminum silicates of sodium, calcium, potassium or barium. Over 40 types of zeolite are found naturally occurring in nature, each having a unique chemical composition and crystalline structure. Natural zeolites which are hydrophilic (water loving), are used for ion exchange and water softening. Over 70 types of synthetic zeolites have been developed for commercial applications. Hydrophobic zeolite is an inorganic crystal with properties suited to adsorbing VOCs. Hydrophobic zeolite is a stable crystal. The zeolites inert properties mean that it does not promote chemical reactions.It is also non-flammable to extreme temperatures and will not react with strong acids.

How do Zeolites Work?

The basic structure of a zeolite is a tetrahedra or pyramid formed by silicon dioxides (SiO2) The tetrahedra have one silicon atom in the center and oxygen at each of the corners. Zeolites are linked by sharing the oxygen atom. Linked zeolites form pores. The size of the pores is determined by the number of zeolite molecules that are joined together. As a crystal the zeolite has a set structure, therefore each type of zeolite has a distinct arrangement of zeolite molecules. As each type of zeolite is unique each pore size is unique. The size of the organic compound determines which zeolite pore size is best suited for adsorption. A Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) is attracted and held in the zeolite pore by a weak attractive force. (This is a weak physical attractive force between chemically neutral compounds. ) The VOC will remain in the pore until energy (e. g. heat) is applied. The heat overcomes the attractive force and the VOC breaks free from the zeolite and is released into the air. When VOC laden air flows past zeolite molecules, the zeolite acts as a reverse filter or molecular sieve, capturing the compounds which will adsorb and allowing the compounds that are too large to flow past

Air cleaning system with heat recovery for industrial premises and amenity rooms
Authors: Aleksandr M. Makarov, Aleksandr A. Makarov, Dmitry Fotin, ECAT Company
Heat and power engineering, industrial production (chemical, metallurgy, ore-dressing and other industries), kinds of transport with explosion engines are the sources of air pollution.
There is wide range of toxic compounds such as carbon monoxide, soot, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, ethers, aldehydes, NOx and others pollutants which are thrown off by these industries. The most diffused pollutants are SO2, NOX, hydrocarbons and CO. Exploitation of obsolete technologies and depreciated equipment leads to air pollutions increase. Air purification is necessary for industrial and domestic facilities. There are adsorptive, thermal and catalytic methods which are used for toxic gas concentration reducing. The choice of air purification method depends on gas composition, its concentration and damage to environment due to air pollution. The thermal oxidation is suitable for cleaning of hard-oxidizable emissions with solid substances (soot, wood dust, etc. ). Unfortunately in spite of high efficiency of this method the additional CO can be generated. That is why it is used as the first step of purification sometimes. The thermal catalyst method is cheaper in 22.5 times due to lower temperature using (200400C) which leads to reducing of operational costs for gas heating. This method is suitable for gas cleaning from CO, VOC. Operating temperatures lower than gas ignition temperature provide with cleaning safety. Moreover the efficiency of it is 9799.9% and it is better than thermal oxidation results. The catalyst oxidation of VOC and CO is one of the most promising way of air cleaning. Along with the cleaning methods described above the companies are using plasma catalysis, adsorption, microbiological method and others. The main features of these methods are described in the Table 1. Table 1. The main features of different air cleaning methods.

Working temperature

Process description

Application disadvantages

Thermal oxidation

750 - 1200oC

Thermal oxidation of different pollutants

High capital and exploitation costs; heightened safety requirements; not full utilization of toxic gases; secondary emissions generation

Catalyst oxidation (Thermal catalyst)

300 - 450oC

Flameless decomposition and oxidation oncurrent-heated catalytic blocks Toxic gas decomposition bylowtemperature plasma and its oxidation by ozone

Susceptible to catalyst poisons; necessity of catalyst replacement

Plasma catalysis

0-130oC

Limit of dust; not full utilization of toxic gases; NOx generation

Microbiological

Up to 90oC

Decomposition by microorganisms Working temperature up to 90C which are contained in air-gas mixture Not full utilization of toxic gases; necessity of frequent sorbates replacement

Adsorption

Up to 80oC

Capturing of pollutants by sorbates

ECAT Company produces modular catalytic gas emissions neutralization systems for purification of air and gas emissions of pollutants (CO, NOx, ozone, ammonia, aldehydes, ethers, mercaptanes, etc. ) and organic compounds aerosols (oils, fats, solvents) from a wide range of concentrations and volumes. There is heat exchanger module for heat recuperation. The purified and heated air can be returned to the premise or thrown out to the atmosphere. The system can consist of the following modules:

Catalytic reactor (core module) is designed to clean emissions from organic and inorganic compounds (except for the halogen and sulfur-containingcompounds). Heat-exchanger module (core module) provides pre-heating of the incoming raw gas cooling and cleaned hot gas (heat recovery).

Filtration module (additional module) ensures cleaning of solid particles (dust, resin) and aerosols. Sorption module (additional module) provides cleaning of acid gases, halogen-,sulfur-, phosphorous compounds and the accumulation of

dirt. Additional systems: urea supplying (high content of nitrogen oxides), flow control, monitoring (measurement of pressure drop, temperature, concentration). The main feature of catalyst used in the system is foam materials basis. The catalyst consists of a catalyst carrier (foam catalyst), a secondary carrier (Al2O3) and a catalytic layer. The heat recovery efficiency has been tested in the pilot plant. The results have been up to 40%. Unit assemblies can degree the purification efficiency to the required value. The tests showed a high catalyst activity in the processes of deep oxidation of aromatic compounds, including benzpyrenes, CO, formaldehyde. The efficiency of benzpyrene decomposition is not less than 97%. Other toxic compounds (CO, hydrocarbon) can be decomposed with the efficiency up to 99.9%. The content of toxic compounds has been determined by high performance liquid chromatography certified method 24.02.11.024/2005. Sampling was made by the Center of the laboratory analysis and technical measurements on the Perm Region employees. The developed methodic of calculation of heat recuperation and gas flow resistance makes it possible to design and produce systems for wide range of gas volume in compliance with the specification. The system ensures high efficiency due to compilation of different purification types in the modules. It can be mounted in the local foul air system, local exhausts, waste lines, gas purification systems and air recycling facilities

Metal Catalysts for VOC Oxidation

Removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and odors from industrial exhaust gas flows is required of a large number of industries. Several methods for VOC removal are available, catalyst oxidation being the most commonly used due to its efficiency and relatively low cost.
When VOCs contain only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, the reaction products are carbon dioxide and water. Oxidation of compounds containing other elements (nitrogen, sulfur, chlorine, etc. ) requires additional gas treatment. There are two major classes of VOC control catalysts: noble metals and base metals.Platinum is the most widely used noble metal. Palladium also works in many applications, particularly those involving oxidation of methane. Oxidation reactions on platinum and palladium occur very fast. This is why commercial catalysts use only a fraction of percent of noble metal per total catalyst weight. Furthermore, it is beneficial to place the metal as close as possible to the interface between gas flow and catalyst: either at the surface of the catalyst pellet or in a thin layer of washcoat deposited on a monolithic structure. Even a small percentage of noble metal results in a high catalyst price of hundreds to several thousands of dollars per cubic foot. Recycling the metals can reduce the ownership costs somewhat. In small units, up to a thousand scfm, the cost of catalyst charge is a relatively small portion of the total price, making noble metal catalysts beneficial due to their advantages of low bed volume and availability in monolithic form. However, such catalysts become less competitive as the flow rate increases. In large installations, catalyst contributes larger portion to the total cost of the systems and economics favor inexpensive base metal catalysts (see Figure 1).

Fig.1 Catalyst contribution to the total equipment cost The base metal catalysts are actually oxides of transition elements of the Periodic Table. Oxides of manganese, copper, cobalt, chromium, iron and nickel are the most active in oxidation reactions. A large variety of possible compositions and preparation methods results in distinctly different catalysts, and often in misconceptions about their performance in various conditions. Mixed oxides are often more active than individual compounds. For example, copper chromite, CuCr2O4 is significantly more active than either oxide of copper, CuO, or chromium, Cr2O3. A good example of the impact of preparation technique is manganese catalyst. The manganese dioxide, MnO2, is very active but has poor resistance to poisoning by sulfur and chlorine. In addition, when heated above ~ 1000F, it is transformed into manganese oxides of different composition (Mn2O3, MnO), losing its activity. However, when mixed with alumina and calcined at a very high temperature, manganese oxide shows excellent activity in VOC oxidation, combined with resistance to chlorine and extreme heat. Commercial base metal catalysts are typically produced as cylindrical or ring-shaped extrudates or tablets. The diameter of extrudates varies widely, from ~ 1 mm cylinders to ~ 25 mm rings. Availability of various sizes makes it possible to customize the parameters of catalyst bed for requirements of each application. As a rule of thumb, smaller pellets are used in recuperative systems because of their higher catalytic activity. Large rings are usually beneficial for use in regenerative catalytic oxidizers. Thermal catalytic oxidizer system use beds of ceramic material (heat sinks) as regenerative heat exchangers. Incoming gas is preheated to the oxidation temperature by picking up heat from a hot inlet ceramic bed. Then, the gas enters catalyst where oxidation takes place. After that, the hot gas flow gives up its heat energy to the outlet ceramic bed. Periodical reversals of gas flow result in continuous storage and release of heat with very high thermal efficiency. Combination of regenerative heat exchange with non-catalytic (thermal) oxidation has been used for decades in regenerative thermal oxidizers. A typical system operates with average outlet temperature exceeding the inlet temperature by ~ 100F. A portion of this temperature rise is due to VOC oxidation heat release, another portion comes from fuel burning. In a thermal oxidizer, this temperature difference is reduced to 50 to 60F due to lower oxidation temperature and the fact that the catalyst itself works as an excellent heat regeneration media. A unique feature of a system is a low price one should pay for using less active base metal catalysts. Adding a few inches to the ceramic bed is an easy way to increase the operating temperature by a 50 to 100F that compensates for lower activity but allows using catalyst that is substantially less expensive. In systems without heat recovery or those using steel heat exchangers, the penalty would be higher, and noble metal catalysts may have an advantage. Base metal catalysts have been used in catalytic oxidizers since early 1980 s.Commercial experience proved that excellent performance and longevity. Destruction efficiency of over 99 percent has been demonstrated in catalytic oxidizers equipped with purge system to minimize destruction efficiency losses caused by flow reversals. Operating life of over six years has been achieved for high-temperature manganese oxide catalyst in a plant removing toluene, methanol, acetone, and amyl acetate at an electronic manufacturing plant. A noticeable reduction in activity, measured as rate constant in test reaction of propane oxidation, was finally observed after 80 months of operation.It is still possible to operate the plant with the same catalyst at elevated oxidation temperature

How Nickel Alloy Foam Could Reduce Emissions and Fuel Consumption
Known for their fuel efficiency, diesel engine vehicles are attracting greater and greater attention at a time when the global transport sector accounts for about 20% of carbon dioxide emissions. In Europe diesel fuels a large proportion of private vehicles, as well as most transport trucks. In North America the main users of diesel are small passenger vans, buses and transport trucks. Modern diesel exhaust treatment systems, though designed to meet emission standards, increase fuel consumption by 510% owing to back pressure caused by accumulated soot and the periodic injection of diesel into the exhaust systems to burn this soot. However, a recent innovation could reduce that penalty by using a nickel alloy foam to improve the efficiency of diesel exhaust systems.
The diesel exhaust treatment technology that enables cars and trucks to meet current and near-term emission regulations relies on a threepart process: diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs) convert carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water vapour, diesel particulate filters trap soot particles, andso-called DeNOx units reduce oxides of nitrogen to their gaseous oxygen and nitrogen compounds. The filter and catalyst-carrying materials (substrates) in the exhaust treatment systems, which consist of ceramics, metal foils and fibers could be improved. Ahigh-temperaturecorrosion-resistant alloy foam substrate was developed. The foams enable manufacturers to design diesel exhaust treatment systems with several advantages over conventional systems. For example, they can be built in a wide range of shapes beyond the usual cylindrical form; they also will be lighter and smaller, require less platinum catalyst to achieve the same catalytic effect, and potentially reduce fuel consumption. Pure nickel foam is made by electroplating nickel on polyurethane foam that is up to four millimeters (mm) thick and one metre wide. A special process then burns off the polyurethane, leaving behind pure nickel foam. This nickel material is a precursor for numerous other products, such as alloy foam, says Dr. Dirk Naumann, director of new technology and market development for ISP. We can add other metallic elements to the foam to provide attributes such as resistance to high temperatures. The alloy foam consists of 50% nickel, 22% iron, 22% chromium and 6% aluminum, with good oxidation resistance at temperatures as high as 1,100 C. A powder metallurgical process is used to coat the nickel foam with a binder solution followed by an alloy powder. A sintering step, during which the alloy powder and nickel foam diffuse together, yields a homogeneous alloy of the desired composition and the required physical properties. These include mechanical strength, chemical resistivity, and pore sizes that can range from 450 microns to 2 mm, depending on the nickel foam precursor. Alloy foam is an excellent medium for trapping soot, and works differently from conventional wall flow filter technologies, says Dr. Alexander Boehm, who invented the nickel-to-alloy transformation process and is overseeing development of nickel alloy foam products at ISP. This is a deep bed filter. Were relying on a combination of diffusion, inertial impaction, and flow-line interception to collect soot from the gas. These mechanisms target different particle sizes, including those in the critical nanometre range. The alloy foam also serves as a substrate on which a catalyst can be applied to carry out DOC and DeNOx functions. Catalytic action is much more effective in alloy foam than in conventional flow-through structures, owing to the mixing effect of the foams structure. As well, its higher surface area exposes much more diesel exhaust to the catalyst on its longer trip through the bed. The result is a treatment system that needs to be only about half the size of a conventional one, with half the expensive catalyst (usually platinum) required to cleanse the diesel exhaust to the extent required by emission regulations. For filters to continue working properly they have to be regenerated periodically by burning off accumulated soot. Passive regeneration occurs at temperatures above 250 C by the reaction of soot with nitrogen dioxide to form carbon dioxide. But in the case of most systems, when a vehicles operating cycle does not raise the exhaust system temperature high enough for passive regeneration, diesel fuel is added at intervals to burn off the soot at temperatures that can run as high as 1,000 C. This is called active regeneration. Since the smaller filters have a lower thermal mass, they heat up to the active regeneration temperature more quickly, reducing emissions during cold starts. And since the alloy foam can tolerate higher soot loading than can ceramic filters, they require less frequent active regeneration. This means less fuel is needed to achieve the required temperature for active regeneration, resulting in potential fuel savings. Depending on the complex relationship with backpressure, the result could be a reduction in overall vehicle fuel consumption and fewer emissions. This is good news for the transport sector which is such a large contributor to carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and is being watched very closely by regulators.

How Nickel Alloy Foam Could Reduce Emissions and Fuel Consumption
Known for their fuel efficiency, diesel engine vehicles are attracting greater and greater attention at a time when the global transport sector accounts for about 20% of carbon dioxide emissions. In Europe diesel fuels a large proportion of private vehicles, as well as most transport trucks. In North America the main users of diesel are small passenger vans, buses and transport trucks. Modern diesel exhaust treatment systems, though designed to meet emission standards, increase fuel consumption by 510% owing to back pressure caused by accumulated soot and the periodic injection of diesel into the exhaust systems to burn this soot. However, a recent innovation could reduce that penalty by using a nickel alloy foam to improve the efficiency of diesel exhaust systems.
The diesel exhaust treatment technology that enables cars and trucks to meet current and near-term emission regulations relies on a threepart process: diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs) convert carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water vapour, diesel particulate filters trap soot particles, andso-called DeNOx units reduce oxides of nitrogen to their gaseous oxygen and nitrogen compounds. The filter and catalyst-carrying materials (substrates) in the exhaust treatment systems, which consist of ceramics, metal foils and fibers could be improved. Ahigh-temperaturecorrosion-resistant alloy foam substrate was developed. The foams enable manufacturers to design diesel exhaust treatment systems with several advantages over conventional systems. For example, they can be built in a wide range of shapes beyond the usual cylindrical form; they also will be lighter and smaller, require less platinum catalyst to achieve the same catalytic effect, and potentially reduce fuel consumption. Pure nickel foam is made by electroplating nickel on polyurethane foam that is up to four millimeters (mm) thick and one metre wide. A special process then burns off the polyurethane, leaving behind pure nickel foam. This nickel material is a precursor for numerous other products, such as alloy foam, says Dr. Dirk Naumann, director of new technology and market development for ISP. We can add other metallic elements to the foam to provide attributes such as resistance to high temperatures. The alloy foam consists of 50% nickel, 22% iron, 22% chromium and 6% aluminum, with good oxidation resistance at temperatures as high as 1,100 C. A powder metallurgical process is used to coat the nickel foam with a binder solution followed by an alloy powder. A sintering step, during which the alloy powder and nickel foam diffuse together, yields a homogeneous alloy of the desired composition and the required physical properties. These include mechanical strength, chemical resistivity, and pore sizes that can range from 450 microns to 2 mm, depending on the nickel foam precursor. Alloy foam is an excellent medium for trapping soot, and works differently from conventional wall flow filter technologies, says Dr. Alexander Boehm, who invented the nickel-to-alloy transformation process and is overseeing development of nickel alloy foam products at ISP. This is a deep bed filter. Were relying on a combination of diffusion, inertial impaction, and flow-line interception to collect soot from the gas. These mechanisms target different particle sizes, including those in the critical nanometre range. The alloy foam also serves as a substrate on which a catalyst can be applied to carry out DOC and DeNOx functions. Catalytic action is much more effective in alloy foam than in conventional flow-through structures, owing to the mixing effect of the foams structure. As well, its higher surface area exposes much more diesel exhaust to the catalyst on its longer trip through the bed. The result is a treatment system that needs to be only about half the size of a conventional one, with half the expensive catalyst (usually platinum) required to cleanse the diesel exhaust to the extent required by emission regulations. For filters to continue working properly they have to be regenerated periodically by burning off accumulated soot. Passive regeneration occurs at temperatures above 250 C by the reaction of soot with nitrogen dioxide to form carbon dioxide. But in the case of most systems, when a vehicles operating cycle does not raise the exhaust system temperature high enough for passive regeneration, diesel fuel is added at intervals to burn off the soot at temperatures that can run as high as 1,000 C. This is called active regeneration. Since the smaller filters have a lower thermal mass, they heat up to the active regeneration temperature more quickly, reducing emissions during cold starts. And since the alloy foam can tolerate higher soot loading than can ceramic filters, they require less frequent active regeneration. This means less fuel is needed to achieve the required temperature for active regeneration, resulting in potential fuel savings. Depending on the complex relationship with backpressure, the result could be a reduction in overall vehicle fuel consumption and fewer emissions. This is good news for the transport sector which is such a large contributor to carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and is being watched very closely by regulators

Catalytic decomposition of ozone

Ozone is a very reactive oxidant because of its electrophilic and nucleophilic reactions. Therefore, applications of ozone were traditionally used in disinfection, taste and odor controls, and color removal. The most recent applications of ozone, however, are for disinfection by-products (DBPs) and synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) controls, and biological stabilization, or algal growth control.
Ozone is toxic to the respiratory tract and ocular mucosa following inhalation exposure. As would be expected, the primary target of airborne ozone is the lung, and it is also shown to cause adverse effects on the eye and nervous system. Accordingly, ozone has long been recognized as one of the hazardous air pollutants, and one of the criteria air pollutants. The off-gas leaving the downstream of ozone contacting chamber may contain high levels of ozone.Its emission must be controlled or removed before discharging the effluent into the atmosphere. The most commonly used methods for removing ozone are thermal destruction, catalytic decomposition, and adsorption/decomposition on activated carbon. Many articles were presented regarding the methods of catalytic decomposition of ozone. Among the metal oxide and precious metal/support catalysts for the decomposition of ozone, MnO2 has been commonly used for treating the residual ozone in off-gas in laboratories, while Pt/support catalyst in commercial applications. The work of Naydenov and Mehandjiev used pure oxygen to synthesize ozone for the decomposition test but did not report the activity of MnOj after prolonged use. Heck et al. noted the activity decline of Pt/ceramics for the decomposition of ozone in air at 422 K (149C), 1 atm, but did not provide the ozone decomposition rate expression. There are different ways of ozone decomposition, such as thermal, photochemical, and catalytic. The most preferable from the economic efficiency and capabilities of hardware design process is the catalytic decomposition of ozone. Nowadays they are producing different kinds of catalyst. The most widely used bulk catalysts (spheres, pellets). ECAT Company produces unique catalysts based on polyurethane foam. The main special feature of our technology is not development of original catalytic compounds, but the most efficient configuration and stabilization of catalytic a layer in space at nano-level (in defects of crystal structure of the secondary carrier) as well as at macro-level, using various features of primary carrier structure. Application of a catalyst based on foam materials allows to intensify energy and mass transfer at the surface, at the expense of efficient turbulization of the flow by carrier macrostructure that reduces thermal loading on the installation and surrounding materials, which in turn increases operational life and reduces costs. In aggregate, suggested nano-structural composite catalysts based on foam materials provide maximum activation of various catalytic processes. The use of foam as a carrier is the main feature of the ozone decomposition catalyst produced by ECAT.Its unique net-cellular structure provides ultra-highpermeability of the catalyst. Expanded support through a highly, spatially homogeneous three-dimensional cellular structure gives the catalyst a property of an extremely low flow resistance. Due to using of polyurethane as a basis for flexible and easy to get a deformable catalyst, which can be bent by arbitrary manner.

Mechanism of Photocatalysis for Air Purification

With the discovery of photoinduced water cleavage on titanium dioxide (TiO ) semiconductor electrodes by Fujishima and Honda in the early 1970 s, it was soon realised that this phenomenon could be applied for environmental remediation.Photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) first saw use as a technique for water purification, following from Frank and Bards investigation into the decomposition of cyanide using an aqueous TiO suspension in 1977. Aqueous suspensions of catalysts, such as TiO , were found to be effective at breaking down organic pollutants. However, due to the inherent inefficiency of the process (the need to filter out the TiO after purification), techniques had to be developed to immobilise TiO onto support surfaces. This has lead to a technology that lends itself to air purification.
2 2 2 2 2

Photocatalytic Oxidation (PCO) can be defined as a chemical reaction influenced or initiated by light that removes electrons from a catalyst and adds those electrons to a compound. This definition highlights the main ingredients that make photocatalytic air purification possible: a light source, a catalyst, and reactants. Crucially PCO requires the formation of an interface between, in general, a solid photocatalyst and a liquid or gas phase containing the reactants and/or products of the photoreaction. The series of events following the illumination of a photocatalyst-gas interface may be initiated by either (A) light absorption by the catalyst, which leads to the activation of the reactant, or by (B) direct excitation of the reactant, which is then quenched by the catalyst. Mechanisms (A) and (B) may operate simultaneously at asemiconductor-gas interface, though (A) is generally considered to be the primary step for photocatalytic oxidation. An important step of the photoreaction is the formation of electron-hole pairs. These are created when energy is provided to overcome the atomic band gap, between valence band (VB) and conduction band (CB). When a photon, with excitation energy (hu) greater than the band gap energy (EBG), is absorbed an electron hole pair is created. The charge is transferred between the electron-hole pairs and an adsorbed, ground state, reactant on the photocatalyst surface. Resulting in the photo-oxidation andphoto-reduction of reactants, see Fig. 1. To what extent electron-hole pairs play a part in the destruction of pollutants is still debated. They may be too short lived to be able to react directly, unless the concentration of the pollutant is high or is strongly adsorbed.

Figure 1. Electron-hole pair generation. With the presence of water, as vapour form in air, the oxidizing agents known as reactive oxygen species (ROS) can be formed. These include oxygen (O2), superoxide (O2- ), peroxide (O22), and hydroxide (OH). These species can participate in a host of oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, which are highly effective at the chemical destruction of VOCs, particulate matter, microbes, ozone, NOx, and SOx. The creation of hydroxyl radicals from water and subsequent destruction of an organic compound are shown in equations 2 and 3. It is shown that, as with e-h pair oxidation, the final products of organic compound oxidation are water and carbon dioxide. Semiconducting materials (photocatalysts) are key to the photocatalytic process. Many have been studied in either pure or doped form. The most common semiconductors researched for PCO applications have been: TiO2, ZnO, CdS, with Fe (III) and precious metals being the most common dopants. TiO2 has proved to be the most suitable candidate, and is the most widely used.It is considered almost ideal for PCO applications. Firstly TiO2 is relatively inexpensive.It is easy to produce, in large supply and is used throughout the world in a wide range of applications (e. g. as a colorant for paint, paper, and plastics, even food; and for UV protection). TiO2is highly stable chemically, so is unlikely to participate in unwanted

reactions. Importantly, the photogenerated holes are highly oxidizing (+2.53V vs SHE), and the photogenerated electrons are reducing enough (0.52V vs SHE) to produce reactive oxygen species. The down side to TiO2 is that it cannot be activated by visible light. TiO2 has a large band gap, EBG = 3.23.0 eV.It is therefore limited to activation by radiation wavelengths equal to or below UV light. UV light makes up only 5% of the solar spectrum. There are three crystalline forms of TiO2: anatase, rutile, and brookite. The anatase form has been found to have the most favourable characteristics for PCO, as it appears to be the most active and easiest to produce of the three. Irradiation with light of 385 nm or less will generate electron-hole pairs in anatase TiO2. The anatase form is predominantly used in most commercial PCO processes

Sound absorption in metallic foams

Cellular materials constitute a new and attractive class of products with a wide variety of structural and functional applications. Metallic foams, a term that encompasses all porous metallic materials, are a specific type of such products. In addition to their low specific weight, metallic foams feature a series of mechanical, thermal and acoustic properties that make them particularly well suited applications in the automotive, biomechanical and construction industries. Metal foams having open or semi open cells are said to have sound-absorbing capacity.It is known that they have higher damping capacity and natural vibration frequencies than the solid of which they are made sandwich panels with metal foam cores offer significant potential for vibration and acoustic management but this is not the same as sound absorption. Sound absorption means an incident sound wave is neither reflected nor transmitted; its energy is absorbed in the material. There are many ways in which this can happen: 1. by viscous losses as the pressure wave pumps air in and out of cavities in the absorber, by thermal-elastic damping, by Helmholtz-type resonators, by vortex shedding from sharp edges, by direct mechanical damping in the material itself, and so on.

2. 3.
4. 5.

Due to additional properties such as mechanical strength, fire resistance and damping capacity metal foams (closed cell aluminum foam especially) are very effective and demanded materials for acoustic absorption. For example, glass wool is made of interlaced stone filaments forming a pad in which immobilized air is trapped. This structural arrangement yields very light weight and highly effective thermal and acoustic insulation, whose properties are internationally acknowledged. Nonetheless, given the low mechanical strength of these products, they are routinely combined with a perforated panel or board to ensure rigid, long-lasting support and a fine finish that at the same time contributes to enhancing acoustic performance. Five to ten-mm aluminum foam perforated panels could feasibly be used for this purpose. The high corrosion resistance characteristic of aluminum would, moreover, make such foams particularly suitable in outdoor environments.

Type

Metal Foam

Polyester

Glass Fiber

Urethane Form

Acoustic absorption

over 0,70

over 0,70

over 0,75

over 0,65

Acoustic absorption term

Permanent

Quality deterioration

Sudden quality deterioration

Quality deterioration

Eco-friendly Human maleficence

100% recyclable Harmlessness

No recyclable Harmlessness

No recyclable Harmlessness

No recyclable

Poisonous gas (CO, Cyan gas) on fire

Nonflammability

Inflammable (heat-resistant) under 780C

Flammable

Heat-resistant under 350C

Bad heat resistant (heat-resistant) under 100C

Table.1.Comparison of different acoustic materials Are metal foams good sound absorbers? Data reported here suggest a sound absorption coefficient between 80% and 95% may be achieved in selected frequency ranges in selected aluminum alloy foams.Compared with glass wool and polymer foams, the advantage of using metal foam as a sound absorber is obvious: self-supporting due to its rigidness and strength, fire retardance, low moisture absorption, and superior impact energy absorption capabilities.It is expected that sound absorbing metal foams will find wide range applications in noise and vibration control of aircrafts, automobiles, machinery and buildings

Catalytic processes for reducing air pollutants

Environmental catalysis finds application not only in refinery and chemical processes, but also in several applications for the treatment of emissions in other types of production (electronic, agro/food production, pulp and paper, leather and tanning, metal finishing companies, etc.), household or indoor applications (self-cleaningcatalytic ovens, domestic burners, water purifiers, etc.), and in auto, ship and flight emissions control. Environmental catalysts often operate in more extreme reaction conditions than catalysts for chemical production or refineries (very low or very high temperatures, in the presence of nonremovable poisons, with very high space velocities, with ultra-low concentrations, etc.) and sometimes also should operate efficiently with a range of different feeds or in the presence of fast changes in feed composition. Catalysis has been traditionally associated with chemical and refinery production. Catalytic converters for treatment of car emissions constituted the first massive use of catalysis outside chemical and refinery production. In recent years, catalytic environmental technologies have been rapidly expanded to various new areas offering new opportunities: for a range of industrial sectors traditionally far from the use of catalysis and in userfriendly devices to improve the quality of life and the indoor environment. The extension of the use of catalysis outside the traditional fields together with the basic problem that is often met in the environmental technologies, where it is difficult to choose the optimal reaction conditions which are determined by energy and feed constraints and/or conditions defined by upstream units, implies that a very innovative effort is necessary to develop new catalytic materials, devices and solutions. Industrial chemical processes from the beginning have moved towards a more efficient use of resources and an improvement of selectivity, due to the fact that both aspects correspond to an improvement in process economics. Catalysis was a fundamental component of this innovation and therefore almost all new developments in catalytic industrial processes fall within the area of interest of environmental catalysis. Catalytic technologies in emissions cleanup (NOx or SOx elimination from mobile or fixed sources, VOC control) is one of the traditional areas of use of environmental catalysts, and considerable research is still being carried out on this topic. The main area of interest in recent years includes the development and testing of catalysts for NOx removal in lean burn or diesel engine emissions, catalytic combustion and VOC removal. The research attention was mainly focused on the study of the reaction mechanisms and the identification of the nature of the active sites. Also understanding the unsteady-state behaviour has become increasingly important, due to the key role of this aspect in understanding the behaviour of oxygenstorage components in three-way catalysts (TWCs) and the behaviour of NOxstorage-reduction (NOxSR) catalysts, the most promising solution to solve the issue of NOx removal in light-duty diesel engine emissions. Different from conventional steady-state catalysts, these catalysts work continuously under periodic changes in feed composition from lean conditions (where NOx is stored on the catalyst in the form of a nitrate) and rich conditions (where the stored NOx species are reduced to N2 by the H2, CO and hydrocarbons present in the emissions). The interesting concept on NOxSR catalysts is the possibility of using a catalytic material with the double function of acting as a sorption material and a catalyst with periodic switching between the two functions. Another example of this concept is shown by the use of zeolitebased catalysts for VOC removal in rotating equipment. When the VOC concentration is low and the temperature of the emissions is also low (a typical example is the gas emissions from painting processes), the heating of large volumes of emissions to the temperature required for catalytic activity is expensive (if the VOC concentration is low, the heat of combustion cannot maintain the process autothermically). A solution is the use of a rotating monolith coated with zeolite-based catalysts which act as a sorbent when the monolith is in contact with the gas stream and as a catalyst in the other part of the monolith where the regeneration occurs. This is another example of the innovative and multifunctional possibilities of catalytic materials explored by environmental catalysis. Another example of this concept, but applied to the removal of pollutants in water is the abatement of chloroorganics by adsorption on a bed of Pd/active carbon and in situ periodic regeneration by a reducing treatment.

articulate Air Filtration

Particulate air filters are classified as either mechanical filters or electrostatic filters (electrostatically enhanced filters). Although there are many important performance differences between the two types of filters, both are fibrous media and used extensively in HVAC systems to remove particles, including biological materials, from the air. A fibrous filter is an assembly of fibers that are randomly laid perpendicular to the airflow (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Scanning electron microscope image of a polyester-glass fiber filter. The fibers may range in size from less than 1 m to greater than 50 m in diameter. Filter packing density may range from 1% to 30%. Fibers are made from cotton, fiberglass, polyester, polypropylene, or numerous other materials. Fibrous filters of different designs are used for various applications. Flat-panel filters contain all of the media in the same plane. This design keeps the filter face velocity and the media velocity roughly the same. When pleated filters are used, additional filter media are added to reduce the air velocity through the filter media. This enables the filter to increase collection efficiency for a given pressure drop. Pleated filters can run the range of efficiencies from a minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) of 6 up to and including high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters. With pocket filters, air flows through small pockets or bags constructed of the filter media. These filters can consist of a single bag or have multiple pockets, and an increased number of pockets increases the filter media surface area. As in pleated filters, the increased surface area of the pocket filter reduces the velocity of the airflow through the filter media, allowing increased collection efficiency for a given pressure drop. Renewable filters are typically low-efficiency media that are held on rollers. As the filter loads, the media are advanced or indexed, providing the HVAC system with a new filter. Four different collection mechanisms govern particulate air filter performance: inertial impaction, interception, diffusion, and electrostatic attraction (Figure 2). The first three of these mechanisms apply mainly to mechanical filters and are influenced by particle size.

Figure 2. Four primary filter collection mechanisms. Impaction occurs when a particle traveling in the air stream and passing around a fiber, deviates from the air stream (due to particle inertia) and collides with a fiber. Interception occurs when a large particle, because of its size, collides with a fiber in the filter that the air stream is passing through. Diffusion occurs when the random (Brownian) motion of a particle causes that particle to contact a fiber. Electrostatic attraction, the fourth mechanism, plays a very minor role in mechanical filtration. After fiber contact is made, smaller particles are retained on the fibers by a weak electrostatic force. Impaction and interception are the dominant collection mechanisms for particles greater than 0.2 m, and diffusion is dominant for particles less than 0.2 m. Electrostatic filters contain electrostatically enhanced fibers, which actually attract the particles to the fibers, in addition to retaining them. Electrostatic filters rely on charged fibers to dramatically increase collection efficiency for a given pressure drop across the filter. As mechanical filters load with particles over time, their collection efficiency and pressure drop typically increase. Eventually, the increased pressure drop significantly inhibits airflow, and the filters must be replaced. For this reason, pressure drop across mechanical filters is often monitored because it indicates when to replace filters. Conversely, electrostatic filters, which are composed of polarized fibers, may lose their collection efficiency over time or when exposed to certain chemicals, aerosols, or high relative humidities. Pressure drop in an electrostatic filter generally increases at a slower rate than it does in a mechanical filter of similar efficiency. Thus, unlike the mechanical filter, pressure drop for the electrostatic filter is a poor indicator of the need to change filters. When selecting an HVAC filter, you should keep these differences between mechanical and electrostatic filters in mind because they will have an impact on your filters performance (collection efficiency over time), as well as on maintenance requirements (change-out schedules). Air filters are commonly described and rated based upon their collection efficiency, pressure drop (or airflow resistance), and particulate- holding capacity