Nanotechnology For Students A Website On Nanotechnology With Emphasis On Nanopharmaceuticals

Nanotechnology for Students
March 2012
www.nanotechnologyforstudents.weebly.com
Final Year Project X | X

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Contents
Sections
1 Introduction to Nanotechnology for Students 1.1 Introduction to Nanotechnology 1.2 Current State of Nanotechnology 1.3 Current State of Nanotechnology in Ireland 1.4 Courses in Ireland and Northern Ireland on Nanotechnology
Page
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1.5 Proposed new Leaving Certificate chemistry syllabus has nanotechnology as a topic. What's available to teach it? 13 2. Results of Survey 3. The Making of the Website 3.1 Idea for Website 3.2 Designing the Website 3.3 Where the Website ties in with Course 3.4 Content of Website 4. Bibliography with Evaluation 4.1 Evaluation of References 5. Discussion and Conclusion 5.1 Feedback on website 5.2 Conclusion 5.3 Discussion 5.4 Final Word 5.5 Thank You 15 22 23 23 26 26 76 80 83 84 86 86 86 87
Introduction to Nanotechnology for Students

Before the Website
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Introduction to Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the design, characterization, production, and application of structures, devices, and systems by controlled manipulation of size and shape at the nanometer scale (atomic, molecular, and macromolecular scale) that produces structures, devices, and systems with at least one novel/superior characteristic or property. The word itself is a combination of nano, from the Greek nanos (or Latin nanus), meaning Dwarf, and the word "technology." Nano refers to the 10-9 power, or one billionth. In these terms it refers to a meter, or a nanometer, which is on the scale of atomic diameters. For comparison, a human hair and a sheet of paper are about 100,000 nanometres thick.
Why is the study of nanoscience different than the same problems on a larger scale? For instance, materials can be stronger, lighter and highly soluble, less hygroscopic, or with totally different physicochemical properties. The practical application of this can be demonstrated with a simple example of carbon which is the main building block of coal and diamond. Mother Nature arranged these materials accordingly but now we can engineer materials using nanotechnology, to create entirely new materials, devices and structures. Properties not seen on a macroscopic scale now become important- such as quantum mechanical and thermodynamic properties. For instance; opaque substances become transparent (copper), stable materials turn combustible (aluminum), insoluble materials become soluble (gold). By learning about an individual molecules properties, we can put them together in very well-defined ways to produce new materials with new and amazing characteristics.
Current State of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is a multi-billion dollar enterprise worldwide now and could become a trillion dollar enterprise in a relatively near term. Everything from clothing to sports, equipment to food to drugs to all kinds of vehicles and military techniques now deploy some sort of nanotechnology. If petroleum and plastics formed the infrastructure of the chemical/industrial revolution that transformed countries such as the United States in the last 50 to 100 years nanotechnology may well be the basis for the next gigantic revolution in how we live. Across the world national governments, including the Irish government, have invested heavily in promoting the development of nanotechnology. This is no surprise as nanotechnology promises to cure cancer and solve the energy crisis. In industry the challenge now is to stay in the race or, better yet, to secure a leading position in the development of the technology. [1]
So where is all this revolution happening? Who are the forerunners in the nanotechnology race at the moment? How much is the industry worth? These are impossible questions to answer due to the pace the whole enterprise is moving at. Because the spectrum of industries/disciplines- all inclusive- using and developing nanotechnology is so broad even grasping the concept economically and financially is a challenge. There are institutions and universities in most countries in the world who have research and development centres specifically for nanotechnology. This would indicate that there are increasing numbers of college courses and students taking them all the time. For example nanotechnology institutes have been set up around the inventors of nanotechnology themselves such as the Richard E. Smalleys Institute for Nanoscale science and Tecnology. There are thousands of companies who are centred around nanotechnology as they sell products dependent on nanotechnology. There are the industries that have been around for years that are expanding into the nanotechnology field, such as Apple or Corning Glass Manufacturers.
Nanotechnology R&D funding has been growing at a steady pace, up 15 percent in 2008, to reach $18.2 billion globally. On the commercialisation front, Lux Research calculate that nanotechnology would be incorporated into $254 billion worth of products globally in 2009 and is forecasted to be incorporated into $2.5 trillion worth of products globally by 2015[2]. The nanopharmaceutical Industry is forecasted to provide 1 trillion dollars in revenue by 2015 . [1] As an example the total market size for e-paper displays (relies on nanotechnology)
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in 2012 is $1.03 billion rising to $8.59 billion in 2022. For further information on E-Paper Displays: Markets, Forecasts, Technologies 2012-2020 one must buy the 151page document for 2750[3]. This figure speaks for itself. Nanotechnology has already become a key enabling technology in certain industrial settings and will have a significant impact on many other sectors in the next several decades, including those that are central to sustaining Ireland's economic prosperity. Important contributions to electronics, pharmaceuticals, energy, chemicals and consumer products have already been made.
Current State of Nanotechnology in Ireland

In Ireland, the first indigenous start-ups to emerge from university based research groups have already attracted international venture capital. NTERA Ltd., founded in 1997, a spin-out from University College Dublin, has developed a next generation display called Nanochromics Displays (NCD)[5]
Deerac Fluidics, whose roots are in Trinity College Dublin, has developed nanolitre-scale liquid handling technology that is being deployed in high-throughput screening systems in drug discovery research Elan is a pharmaceutical company based in Ireland that has been among the earliest adopters of nanotechnology in the sector. Its NanoCrystalTechnology is designed to improve the bioavailability of drugs and drug candidates that have poor solubility in water. Compounds are formulated as nanometer-sized particles, which are then delivered in tablet form, in capsules, via inhalation devices or via injection with the potential for substantial improvements to clinical performance. Elan has put in place manufacturing capacity for NanoCrystal-based products at its Irish site in Athlone. [5]
Recognising the importance of Nanotechnology, the Irish Council for Science, Technology and Innovation (ICSTI) produced a Statement in order to assess current capabilities, to map out the specific areas of opportunity for the Irish economy and to work towards an agreed strategy for promoting the development and commercialisation of nanotechnology in Ireland. The ICSTI recommend the following national definition of nanotechnology: [5] Nanotechnology is a collective term for a set of tools and techniques that permit Using these tools and techniques it is possible to exploit the size-dependent properties of materials structured on the sub-100 nanometer scale, which may be improved properties. These tools and techniques, materials, devices and systems present companies in all sectors of the Irish economy with opportunities to enhance their competitiveness by developing new and improved products and processes. [One nanometer (1 nm = 10m), to give an idea of scale, would be around 80,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair.] The particular sectors of the Irish economy in which nanotechnology either already plays or soon will play an important role include: Information and Communications Technology Electronics & Photonics Healthcare - Pharmaceuticals Healthcare Medical Devices Agriculture-Food Polymers and Plastic Construction Although each sector is exposed to a differing market dynamic and each has differing needs operating over divergent timescales, they share one common necessity - the development of a national nanotechnology capability that can match their particular requirements. There has been significant investment in research in the field of nanotechnology. The vast majority of this funding is derived from: Higher Education Authority (HEA) Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) Enterprise Ireland (EI) European Union (EU) At Trinity College Dublin an SFI Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN) is planned in partnership with University College Cork and
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University College Dublin. In accordance with the current IDA Ireland strategy, which is to anchor overseas based multinationals in this country by ensuring that more research and product development takes place, Intel Ireland will be the principal industry partner in CRANN. [5] Enterprise Ireland, with its growing number of associated investment funds, aims to support the establishment and growth of indigenous nanotechnology based companies or nanotechnology enabled products within existing companies. High potential start-ups, established indigenous companies and multinational companies with operations in Ireland all stand to benefit by developing, deploying or adopting nanotechnology. The opportunity is significant. International forecasts suggest that the global market for nanotechnology-enabled products will grow from an estimated $300 billion in 2002 to $1 trillion by 2010. The science may be small, but the stakes are large. [5]
On this basis the ICSTI Statement on Nanotechnology outlines a sustainable vision and strategy for nanotechnology in Ireland and includes recommendations that will ensure that stakeholders can work together to fully exploit the nanotechnology opportunity for Ireland [5]
Ireland is faced with a choice - it can back away from nanotechnology or it can make focused, deliberate efforts to generate a pipeline of world-class, high-impact nanotechnology innovations. A strategy of funding everything (that can be typical of government efforts to fund early-stage technologies) is no longer practicable in a field that is about to move into the commercialisation phase.
Table 1 Nanotechnologys Impact on Irish Business Sectors with High Sales/ Employment share Sector Examples Deployment Status (Year of mass Development) Manufacturing Anti-wear coatings, electrical infrastructure, Antimicrobial materials, processing aids, catalysts, antifouling and anticorrosion coatings, filtration, sensors to monitor water and air, anti-adhesion coatings/lubricants, insulation Biosensors that detect contaminants and pathogens, encapsulation systems, Design of flavours and antioxidants to improve functionality, Nanodispersions and nanocapsules for delivery of functional ingredients, Packaging technologies, Coatings- antimicrobial, wear-resistant, barrier, thermal. Introduction or Commercial Scale (ongoing)
Food
Development (2012 and beyond)
Electronics and IT
Transparent conductors, thermal management, displays, memory technologies, printed electronics, LEDs and optical components. Energy storage, Barrier coatings,
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Development or Introduction (2012 and beyond)
packaging, lithography Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Nanomaterials, coatings, polymer dispersions, micronized drugs, drug delivery, catalysts, theranostics, imaging, composites, Development or introduction (2015 and beyond)
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Courses in Ireland and Northern Ireland with Nanotechnology

Degree Courses:
Science with Nanotechnology, Level 8, DIT.
Degree courses in Ireland that contain Nanotechnology 1. Manufacturing and Design Engineering, Level 8, DIT. 2. Bachelor of Science in Applied Physics, Level 8, UL.
Postgraduate Courses 1. NanoBio Science, Degree - Masters (Level 9 NFQ), UCD. 2. Nanotechnology, Degree - Masters, Postgraduate Diploma, University of Ulster Jordanstown, 3. Nanotechnology - Advanced Materials & Bioengineering - Research, Degree Masters, Doctoral Degree, University of Ulster - Magee 4. Nanostructured Media - Research, Degree - Masters, Doctoral Degree, Queen's University Belfast
Postgraduate Courses that Contain Nanotechnology 1. Electronic Systems, Degree - Masters (Level 9 NFQ), Minor Certificate (Level 9 NFQ), Postgraduate Diploma (Level 9 NFQ), DCU 2. Telecommunications Engineering, Degree - Masters (Level 9 NFQ), Minor Certificate (Level 9 NFQ),Postgraduate Diploma (Level 9 NFQ), DCU 3. Medical Electronics, Degree - Masters, Postgraduate Diploma, University of Ulster 4. Biomedical Engineering, Degree - Masters, Postgraduate Diploma, University of Ulster - Jordanstown,
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5. Electronic Engineering - Master Engineering Qualifier, DCU. 6. Composites & Polymers - Advanced, Degree - Masters, Postgraduate Diploma, University of Ulster 7. Research Opportunities at the College of Sciences & Health, Degree - Doctoral (Level 10 NFQ), Degree - Masters (Level 9 NFQ), Dublin Institute of Technology 8. Physics - Research, Degree - Doctoral (Level 10 NFQ), Degree - Masters (Level 9 NFQ), TCD. 9. Electronics - Individual Postgraduate Modules, Degree - Masters (Level 9 NFQ), Minor Certificate (Level 9 NFQ), Postgraduate Diploma (Level 9 NFQ), DCU 10. Biomedical Sciences - Research, Degree - Masters, Doctoral Degree, (University of Ulster - Coleraine), University of Ulster 11. International Foundation Programme - Pre Masters, DCU 12. Engineering - Research, Degree - Doctoral (Level 10 NFQ), Degree - Masters (Level 9 NFQ), Trinity College Dublin 13. International Foundation Programme - Pre Masters, DCU 14. Electronic Systems - Pre Masters, Dublin City University
[Sources: CAO and PostGrad Ireland.] There may be more courses involving nanotechnology which have not been mentioned here but these are the only ones which feature in CAO and PostGrad Ireland. As you can see there is only one course in the Republic of Ireland at the moment that has the word nanotechnology in the title. There are two other degree courses which contain a module or part of a module of nanotechnology that are listed here. More than likely there are a lot more courses which contain nanotechnology but do not show up in a nanotechnology search. Overall nanotechnology and its other nano- associated disciplines do not feature in degree courses in Ireland enough. This is sure to grow over the next few years. It is important that it does if Ireland is to maintain its position in the competitive industry.
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There is also only one postgraduate course on PostGrad Ireland that has the word nanotechnology in the title. University college Dublin has the postgraduate course but there is no similar degree course in the same university. There is a longer list of post graduate courses that have nanotechnology as part of them. This is probably because it is seen as more useful that a student has a wider scientific knowledge on all areas of science before they are suitable for specialising in nanotechnology. But it must be remembered that post graduate courses are costly. The question must be asked; is it fair for the student interested in pursuing nanotechnology after their leaving cert (or other) to only have one degree course available to them? Or is it fair that the chances of them having to pay for a postgraduate course in nanotechnology are very high? With that fact just mentioned, the benefit to Ireland as a whole, and the immense role nanotechnology plays in our lives it is vital that more emphasis is made on the education of it
Proposed new Leaving Certificate chemistry syllabus has nanotechnology as a topic. What's available to teach it?
In studying nanotechnology there is a lot of theory. It is possible to teach the understanding of, the applications of and the chemistry of nanotechnology in a classroom setting. It would be easy to make the teaching of nanotechnology appealing to secondary school students because of its relevance in theirs, and everybodys, lives with regards to the coolest most modern gadgets, cars, PDAs etc. HD Images of atoms and molecules etc. as viewed under the scanning microscopes can be shown in the classroom as a teaching tool. The practical side, however, of teaching nanotechnology in chemistry would be more difficult. Chemistry and nanotechnology would revolve around the atoms and molecules and viewing them under the microscope. The microscopes used to view these are not in secondary schools. So using the instruments is out of the question. It might be possible to take school trips to nearby universities which have the microscopes. The Making of the website (note: all text which appears in a text box was copied directly from the website) The website was made on Weebly. Weebly is a site used by over seven million people to create their own website quickly and easily. I named the site Nanotechnology for Students.
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Results of Survey
Nanotechnology Survey
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Results of Survey
A survey was carried out which aimed to determine a representative sample of the general populations knowledge of nanotechnology and how many people would be interested in learning more about it (i.e. through the website). Their opinions on different aspects of nanotechnology were also asked for. 40 people were questioned from a population of secondary school students, third level students and professionals. SurveyMonkey The survey was created on SurveyMonkey.com. This is a website which allows you to easily create a professional-looking survey online completely free. The survey can then be sent by e-mail to a population directly from SurveyMonkey. It also carries out data analysis of the results for free, although representation of the data on graphs requires an upgrade on the website which comes at a cost. A screenshot of the SurveyMonkey homepage can be seen below.
. The results of the survey can be seen below. 1. 80% of people asked had heard of nanotechnology. 20% had not heard of it.
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2. 50% of people asked had encountered nanotechnology in school and college.
Places where people had encountered nanotechnology

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 CAO courses College and School Scientific Media and News Reading(internet) Science Fiction Novels
3. Items in everyday life people knew of as existing as they do today because of nanotechnology:
% of People
People were asked to mention nanotechnology items in everyday life

Don't know Refridgerator Creams Sports Items Contact Lenses Suncream Nanotubes Smart phones ipod nano Microchips Drugs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of people that said this Item
Three people had heard of nanotechnology but didnt know of anywhere is everyday life where is applied to.
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4. 97.4% of people questioned said they like the idea of an interactive environment such as computerised surfaces. Only one person said they did not like the idea of this.
5. 94.9% of people questioned said they would consider a career in nanotechnology now that they now know that it may have cures for diseases and solutions for the worlds energy problems.
6.
52.8% of people questioned said they trust scientists and the industry to control what dangerous effects nanotechnology might have on the environment. 44.4% of people said it worries them a lot that there might be bad effects on the environment that scientists cannot yet define.
Q. If you were told that scientists were largely unaware what nanotechnology and its end products might be doing to the environment, how much would it worry you?
Alot
Not Much, I trust the Industry
Dont' Care
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7. People were asked to rate what they think are the most important issues that need to be dealt with in our world today
% of people who said which world dilemma was the most important
90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% High Levels and Cancer and other Diseases Financial State of the Economy Environmental Issues i.e. Energy, Pollution
77.5% think the high levels of cancer and other diseases is the most important issue. Nanotechnology benefits the three of these major issues, but is most beneficial to medicine. This emphasizes the fact that people will agree that nanotechnology is a very important industry, especially the area of Nanomedicine. 8. As the percentages below show, not everyone will be willing to pay more for more efficient medical diagnoses. Labs on chips are just one of the things which were in mind with regards to this question. There is much work going in to figuring out how to produce these devices cheaply so as to keep patients satisfied.
Willing to pay more for better medical services, such as quick blood tests which don't have to be sent to the lab for analysis?
Willing to pay more Not willing to pay more
41% 59%
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9. Nanotechnology is on the fast track to improving drug loading and drug release as part of its role in drug delivery. As a result of this dosing regimes will become even more hassle free for patients. This would clearly be of benefit to those who had to take medicine on a regular basis, whether it made much difference to the everyday population was questionable. But 90% of people said it would be of benefit to them.
Would it be of benefit to you if a drug you had to take/are taking 3-6 times a day could be reduced to taking it once a day?
Yes No
10. 87.5% of people questioned said they were interested in knowing more about nanotechnology. This shows that people would be interested in looking at the website created for this project.
Interested in knowing more about Nanotechnology?

Yes No
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It can be concluded from this survey that Many people do not know much about nanotechnology People identify the problems that nanotechnology is solving as being very important The large majority people as individuals agree that nanotechnology will improve their lives The vast majority of people are interested in learning more about nanotechnology There is space in the market for an Irish nanotechnology website which educates the general population on the benefits and possible dangers of nanotechnology in simple language.
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The Making of the Website

Including Website Content
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The Making of the Website

(note: all text which appears in a text box was copied directly from the website) The website was made on Weebly. Weebly.com is a website used by over seven million people to create their own website quickly and easily. I named the site Nanotechnology for Students.
Idea for Website

This level eight course, Pharmaceutical and Forensic Analysis, has a subject in fourth year called Advanced Pharmaceutical Technologies and nanotechnology features as part of this subject. It was evident from class that the general population do not know what nanotechnology is, even though it is an increasingly important concept to be familiar with in everyday life. As a joint decision with my supervisor it was decided that it would be useful to create an informative base in the form of a website where students could learn about nanotechnology and especially the nanotechnology applications which are relevant to them.
Designing the Website

From the survey it can be seen that the general public have an interest in learning more about nanotechnology. The website was designed with the target audience in mind. Research was also done on how to make a website appealing to readers. Tips for website creation came in valuable. Some tips which were taken into account were: People want to be entertained Images and videos speak louder than words People dont like to be preached to, credible opinion is often preferred Make sure each page has something valuable to offer, provide compelling content Clear and easy to read text with no distracting flashing elements Make it easy to find things Break up text with images Use contrasting colours and plain back grounds Describe what links are leading to so readers can decide whether they want to click or not. [6]
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Target Audience The audience chosen to be targeted mostly are students. This is down to the fact that I am in contact with students most on an everyday basis and will be able to get the website out to students more easily. Students studying in many different areas such as computers, engineering, the sciences and health will all gain useful education which relates to their course of study. The website also appeals to the general population who are not student. Name The name Nanotechnology for Students was chosen as it is simple and states what the website is all about. It is straightforward and is more likely to appear for the right reasons when nanotechnology is searched for in internet search engines. Colour Scheme The black background and white text are contrasting so text is easy to read. As there is quite a lot of text in the website making it easy to read and not harsh on the readers eyes was of upmost importance. Black and white is also quite industrial which relates to nanotechnology and doesnt lean towards pleasing males over females or vice versa. Large images spanning across the top of each page along with the images and videos throughout each page give the website as much colour as is required. Images and videos also stand out more and appear clearer on the black background. Logo Below is the logo for the website. The technological-looking background image was chosen as it is eye-catching yet the black and bold text is easily legible when its superimposed on the image. The image also portrays the feeling of moving from the past to the future quickly, which feeds in well to the idea that nanotechnology and its applications are futuristic. The digits underneath are the C, C+ Java computer language which also relates to nanotechnology.
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Tone The overall tone throughout the website is mostly informative and scientific, but changes in places. In the lighter subject areas of the website such as the sections Changing World and Whats to Come? the tone is of a lighter informative nature in parts because the subject matter is not quite as serious as medicine or environmental issues, where the tone is strictly informative. There are some tongue-in-cheek phrases used to add a dash of humour and fun to the website. The tone changes to opinion in one section at the very end of the website in the Positives and Negative section to convey a sense of personal flavour which I thought would appeal to readers. The tone here is very positive, as I thought it was important to end the website on a positive note towards nanotechnology. Conveying Interest- Images and Videos There are many interesting and appealing images scattered throughout the website. It is common knowledge viewers respond positively when a text can be referenced with an image which backs it up. Images are essential to break up to text and keep a reader intrigued. Videos act in the same way as images in that they break up the text and add visual depth. However its important to be aware that readers will not always watch the videos so a summing up of what the videos contained was included. The videos were mainly taken from YouTube with one video from The Discovery Channel used. In my opinion all videos chosen are well worth watching by the viewers.
Screenshot of an example of a row of images used in the website

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Where the Website ties in with Pharmaceutical and Forensic Analysis

There are three sections on the website which relate to my current course of study. As it was mentioned above the subject in my course with which this website is related to is Advanced Pharmaceutical Technologies. Part of this subject deals with drug delivery, and nanotechnology is involved in this. The section of the website named Nanotech and Drug Delivery includes an essay-like piece on drug delivery on a large scale including before and after nanotechonology references, which is very relevant to my course of study. The other two sections, Nanopharmaceuticals and Nanomedicine also include references to drug delivery and pharmaceutical technologies which are beneficial to know as part of the course subject.
Content
The sections were chosen on the basis of the different areas nanotechnology is affecting plus background information of what it is all about. The pages on the website are as follows:
1. Nanoeverything
This is like a homepage and it includes an introduction to what nanotechnology is and introduces what the reader will read about in the rest of the website. The box below contains the text which is seen in this section. (It need not be read if you have already read the website) Welcome! Nanotechnology is a field which is growing more rapidly than any other field of research at the moment. Knowledge of what nanotechnology is and how it affects us is good for everyone to know. This website includes a broad look at how nanotechnology is affecting our everyday lives with a slightly more in-depth look at how nanotechnology is affecting medicine and nanopharmaceuticals. There are aspects of nanotechnology which are of interest to everyone's tastes, from technology and cars to art and science, so it is worth having a read through this website, you'd never know what you might stumble upon!
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Top Down, Bottom Up, Size Matters! 'Atoms on a small scale behave like nothing on a large scale, for they satisfy the laws of quantum mechanics. So, as we go down and fiddle around with the atoms down there, we are working with different laws, and we can expect to do different things. We can manufacture in different ways. We can use, not just circuits, but some system involving the quantized energy levels, or the interactions of quantized spins, etc.' -Richard Feynman said this in his talk called 'There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom' on December 29th 1959. This idea of playing with atoms and molecules has been around for centuries but only in the last number of years have scientists been able to visualize atoms clearly and move them. Being able to move atoms and molecules has resulted in an explosion into the relatively new scientific world of nanotechnology. Word of the promise of nanotechnology is spreading rapidly, and the air is thick with news of nanotech breakthroughs. Governments and businesses are investing billions of dollars in nanotechnology R&D, and political alliances and battle lines are starting to form. 'Star Trek', 'The Hulk', 'The Tuxedo', 'Metal Gear Solid' and the bestselling book 'The Prey' 'all have mentions of nanotechnology which reflects the rise of public awareness. There are hundrerds of commerically available products using nanotechnology currently on the market including cosmetics, sunscreens, paints and coatings, catalysts and lubricants, water treatments, security printing, textiles and sports items, medical and health cares, food and food packaging, plant production products, verterinary medicines, electronics, fuel cells, batteries and additives, paper manufacturing and weapons and explosives. So what is Nanotechnology? The word itself is a combination of nano, from the Greek nanos (or Latin nanus), meaning Dwarf, and the word "technology." Nanometer refers to the 10-9 power of a meter. For comparison, a human hair and a sheet of paper are about 100,000 nanometers thick. A mans beard hair grows 5nm per second. One nanometer is to a tennis ball what a tennis ball is to the earth.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control individual atoms and molecules. Everything on Earth is made up of atomsthe food we eat, the clothes we wear, the buildings and houses we live in, and our own bodies, so nanotechnology affects almost every aspect of our lives today.
Things are Different at the Nanoscale

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Properties not seen on a macroscopic scale now become important- such as quantum mechanical and thermodynamic properties (when the size of materials is reduced to less than 100nm the realm of quantum physics takes over). For instance, materials can be stronger, lighter and highly soluble, less hygroscopic, or with totally different physicochemical properties. Opaque substances become transparent (copper); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); insoluble materials become soluble (gold). By learning about an individual molecules properties, we can put them together in very well-defined ways to produce new materials with new and amazing characteristics. Mother Nature arranged these materials accordingly but now we can engineer materials using nanotechnology, to create entirely new materials, devices and structures.
Imaging..Trigger..BOOM! To be able to manipulate molecules and atoms they first needed to be visualised. Nanotechnology kicked off with the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope. You can't talk about nanotechnology without mentioning the microscopes involved. Click here to read about them.
On that historical note, the timeline of the major events leading to where we are today with nanotechnology can be seen in the drop down menu above, conveniently named 'Timeline'. Understanding Nanotechnology "Your Consciousness Affects the Behaviour of Subatomic Particles..'' "Particles move backwards as well as forwards in time and appear in all possible places at once".. A Lazy Layman's Guide to Quantum Physics, James Higgo 1999 For absolute understanding of the basis of nanotechnology a masters in quantum mechanics would not go astray. But let's not dwell on that! For now let us take James Higgo's advice and not think about it. Some definitions of recurring concepts might be of use though: -Nanoparticles: A particle having one or more dimensions of the order of 100nm or less. -Quantum Dots: Quantum dots are tiny nanocrystals that glow when stimulated by an external source such as ultraviolet (UV) light. How many atoms are included in the quantum dot determines their size and the size of the quantum dot determines the colour of light emitted. [1]
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-Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are large molecules of pure carbon that are long and thin and shaped like tubes, about 1-3 nanometers (1 nm = 1 billionth of a meter) in diameter, and hundreds to thousands of nanometers long. As individual molecules, nanotubes are 100 times stronger-than-steel and one-sixth its weight. Some carbon nanotubes can be extremely efficient conductors of electricity and heat; depending on their configuration, some act as semiconductors. [2] -Buckyballs (Buckminster Fullerene): A buckyball looks like a nanometer-sized soccer ball made from 60 carbon atoms. The Future is but a Nanodistance Away! So with all that serious stuff out of the way let's now look at the real reasons why we should be interested in nanotechnology. Not only is it saving lives by diagnosing and curing cancer more efficiently but it is also involved in improving the earth by pollution reduction and energy renewal, curing other potentially fatal diseases, improving transport and communications and making our lives more comfortable overall. This website intends to portray the aspects of nanotechnology which have the most impact on us and which will be of biggest interest.
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The image below is a screenshot of part of this homepage Nanoeverything.
Sub-Pages of Nanoeverything
Timeline
This section shows the list of important events which lead up to where nanotechnology stands today, starting in 1936. The table below shows the same information which appears in the Timeline section of the website. At the bottom of this section I included a nanotechnology newsfeed from www.nanowerk.com. I put the feed in this section of the website because it is related to the Timeline in that it shows the latest in nanotechnology news.
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1936
Field emission microscope invented by Erwin Mller John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs discovered the
1947
semiconductor transistor Victor La Mer and Robert Dinegar developed the theory and a process for growing
1950 1951
monodisperse colloidal materials. Erwin Mller pioneered the field ion microscope Arthur Von Hippel at MIT introduced many concepts of-and coined the term-molecular engineering Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments originated the concept of, designed, and built the
1956
1958
first integrated circuit, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 2000. Richard Feynman gave what is considered to be the first lecture on technology and engineering at the atomic scale, "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" at an American Physical Society
1959 1974
meeting at Caltech. Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBMs Zurich lab invented the scanning tunneling microscope.
1981: Russias Alexei Ekimov discovered nanocrystalline, semiconducting quantum dots in a glass matrix Rice University researchers Harold Kroto, Sean OBrien, Robert Curl, and Richard Smalley 1985 1986 discovered theBuckminsterfullerene (C60) Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate, and Christoph Gerber invented the atomic force microscope. Don Eigler and Erhard Schweizer at IBM's Almaden Research Center manipulated 35 individual 1989 xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo Early nanotechnology companies began to operate, e.g., Nanophase Technologies in 1989, 1990 Helix Energy Solutions Group in 1990, Zyvex in 1997, Nano-Tex in 1998. Sumio Iijima of NEC is credited with discovering the carbon nanotube (CNT), although there 1991 were early observations of tubular carbon structures by others as well. C.T. Kresge and colleagues at Mobil Oil discovered the nanostructured catalytic materials 1992 MCM-41 and MCM-48 Moungi Bawendi of MIT invented a method for controlled synthesis of nanocrystals (quantum 1993 1998 dots) The Interagency Working Group on Nanotechnology (IWGN) was formed
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Cornell University researchers Wilson Ho and Hyojune Lee probed secrets of chemical bonding by assembling a molecule [iron carbonyl Fe(CO)2] from constituent components [iron (Fe) and carbon monoxide (CO)] with a scanning tunneling microscope. Chad Mirkin at Northwestern 1999 University invented dip-pen nanolithography (DPN) Formation of the U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative 2000 2003 Nanotechnology Products Began to be seen on the market Naomi Halas, Jennifer West, Rebekah Drezek, and Renata Pasqualin at Rice University developed gold nanoshells Britains Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering published Nanoscience and 2004 Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertainties advocating the need to address potential health, environmental, social, ethical, and regulatory issues associated with nanotechnology. Erik Winfree and Paul Rothemund from the California Institute of Technology developed theories for DNA-based computation and algorithmic self-assembly in which computations 2005 2006 are embedded in the process of nanocrystal growth. James Tour and colleagues at Rice University built a nanoscale car Angela Belcher and colleagues at MIT built a lithium-ion battery with a common type of 2007 virus that is nonharmful to humans Nadrian Seeman and colleagues at New York University created several DNA-like robotic 2009 nanoscale assembly devices. IBM used a silicon tip measuring only a few nanometers at its apex (similar to the tips used in atomic force microscopes) to chisel away material from a substrate to create a complete nanoscale 3D relief map of the world one-one-thousandth the size of a grain of saltin 2 2010 minutes and 23 seconds. The NSET Subcommittee updated both the NNI Strategic Plan and the NNI Environmental, 2011 Health, and Safety Research Strategy, drawing on extensive input from public workshops and online dialog with stakeholders from Government, academia, NGOs, and the public, and others. 2012 Nanotech Conference & Expo 2012 june 18-21
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Instruments
This section includes information on the microscopes used to view the atoms and molecules and which play a vital part in the manipulation of these. The Catalyst of the Nanotechnology Era: The Microscope Nanotechnology is made possible because of the instruments used to see things on the nanoscale. The invention of these happened years before the term nanotechnology was coined, but their invention is of course still worth mentioning. They form the basis of nanotechnology today. Here we will see some of the key microscopes scientists and engineers use to work at the nanoscale. They allow us to be able to see at the nanoscale, to characterise with nanoscale materials and surfaces and to move things around on surfaces in order to create devices. Scanning Electron Microscope (1931) An electron microscope depends on electrons rather than light to view an object. . The electrons interact with the atoms that make up the sample producing signals that contain information about the sample's surface topography, composition, and other properties such as electrical conductivity. Electrons are speeded up in a vacuum until their wavelength is extremely short, only one hundred-thousandth that of white light. Electron microscopes make it possible to view objects as small as the diameter of an atomErnst Ruska co-invented the electron microscope for which he won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. The scanning electron microscope remains a crucial instrument in nanotechnology. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can be exploited for nanomaterials characterization but also integrated with new technologies for in-situ nanomaterials engineering and manipulation. SEM can be used for nanomaterials imaging, X-ray microanalysis, high-resolution SEM, low kV SEM, cryo-SEM, as well as new techniques such as electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). Fabrication techniques integrated with SEM, such as e-beam nanolithography, nanomanipulation, and focused ion beam nanofabrication, are major new dimensions for SEM application. Application areas include the study of nanoparticles, nanowires and nanotubes, three-dimensional nanostructures, quantum dots, magnetic nanomaterials, photonic structures, and bio-inspired nanomaterials. [4]
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Scanning Tunneling Microscope (1981) The STM works by scanning a very sharp metal wire tip over a surface. By bringing the tip very close to the surface, and by applying an electrical voltage to the tip or sample, we can image the surface at an extremely small scale down to resolving individual atoms. The STM is based on several principles. One is the quantum mechanical effect of tunneling. It is this effect that allows us to see the surface. Another principle is the piezoelectric effect. It is this effect that allows us to precisely scan the tip with angstrom-level control. Lastly, a feedback loop is required, which monitors the tunneling current and coordinates the current and the positioning of the tip.[5]
The images taken with these microscopes look like tumulose alien landscapesand researchers learned how to rearrange those landscapes, once they discovered that the scanning tunneling microscope could also be used to pick up, move, and precisely place atoms, one at a time. The first dramatic demonstration of this power came in 1990 when a team of IBM physicists revealed that they had, the year before, spelled out the letters IBM using 35 individual atoms of xenon. Atomic Force Microscope (1986) 1986 - Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber invent the Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). It Can measure surfaces in a very accurate way using a probe tip mounted on a cantilever beam like a diving board. The position of the tip is monitored with a laser beam which is refelected off the cantilever on to a detector. As the tips scan back and fourth it moves up and down with the hills and valleys of the surface, which deflects the laser beam up and down. The information is recorded on a computer. From the information collected we can understand information about the surface. It's possible to scan any surface with an AFM and at such high resolution amazing things can be seen . The AFM probe can also examine the friction of a surface. Different regions of a surface have different frictional properties as the tip scans along. The instrument can feel forces from a physical object but it can also feel forces of electric charge. The image on the left shows four silicon pads on a surface. The yellow pad looks higher than the rest but it's not. It's a representation of the distribution of electrical charge on a surface. The more elevated pads have the most charge.[6] Single-walled carbon nanotubes have been attached to the tip of an AFM probe to make the tip sharper. This allows much higher resolution imaging of the surface under investigation;
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a single atom has been imaged on a surface using nanotube-enhanced AFM probes. Also, the flexibility of the nanotube prevents damage to the sample surface and the probe tip if the probe tip happens to crash into the surface. [7] Field Emission Microscope (1936) Erwin Wilhelm Mller invented the field emission microscope. This is a device in which electrons liberated by field emission are accelerated toward a fluorescent screen to form a magnified image of the emitting surface. FE M was one of the first surface analysis instruments that approached near-atomic resolution. Field Ion Microscope (1951) Erwin Wilhelm Mller invents the field ion microscope and is the first to see atoms. FIM is an analytical technique used in materials science. The field ion microscope is a type of microscope that can be used to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip. It was the first technique by which individual atoms could be spatially resolved. On October 11, 1955, Muller & Bahadur (Pennsylvania State University) observed individual tungsten (W) atoms on the surface of a sharply pointed W tip by cooling it to 78 K and employing helium as the imaging gas. Muller & Bahadur were the first persons to observe individual atoms directly; to do so, they used an FIM, which Muller had invented in 1951.[8] Transmission Electron Microscope (1931) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a powerful tool for analysis of structure and devices with nano-meter scale dimensions. Transmission electron microscopes utilize very thin (0.5 m or less) samples illuminated by an electron beam. Images are recorded by detecting the electrons that pass though the sample to a system of electromagnetic lenses which focus and enlarge the image on a fluorescent screen, photographic film or digital camera. Magnifications beyond 1,000,000x are attainable with a transmission electron microscope. The first TEM was built by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in 1931, with this group developing the first TEM with resolving power greater than that of light in 1933 and the first commercial TEM in 1939. [9]
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Below is a screenshot of part of this section.
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2. Changing World
This page includes interesting examples of where nanotechnology can be found in everyday life. Much of the information here was not found on scientific journals or books but on websites which are dedicated more so to entertaining people with scientific facts and findings. But I looked in to the websites for most of the products themselves and took information from there also. There isn't a corner of a Room or the World that Nanotechnology will not Affect Nanotechnology is already all around us but yet it's not a word we hear all that often. It's almost a concept that is creeping up on us from every angle unknown to us, although 'creeping' is an unfairly negative term to use for this wonderful revolution. Nanotechnology is having the biggest impacts on technology, the environment and medicine and these are further discussed in different sections of this website. So here let's look at some of the interesting inventions in our everyday life that exist as they do now because of nanotechnology.
The list below shows some of the things featured on the website Anti-mildew paints and anti-graffiti paints Nanoceramic material that is three times more resistant to scratching Microorganism resistant fridges and appliances Hydrophobic coating that completely repels water Lights that are ten times more energy-efficient than regular lightbulbs and can be wrapped around poles. Self-mending spacesuits Space Travel Space elevators with cables Nanofoods Technology Graphene paper Nanoart
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Screenshot of part of the Changing world Website page
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Subpages of Changing World
Impacts on Environment
This section includes information on the positive impact nanotechnology is having on the environment. Nanotechnology is making quite an impact on the environment and this is improving all the time, so this section of the website is important. Its important that people know the good nanotechnology is doing for the preservation of the world. Let's be Positive There are some worries about how nanotechnology will effect our environment a.k.a. nanopollution. For more on the negative impacts of nanotechnology on the environment click here. In this section we will look at the major benefits nanotechnology is bringing to our environmental issues. Nanomaterials have the potential to improve the environment through the development of new solutions to environmental problems, by direct application of nanomaterials to detect, prevent and remove pollutants or by using nanotechnology to design cleaner industrial processes and and create environmentally-friendly products, [22]
Creating devices smaller than 100 nanometers opens many doors for the development of new ways to capture, store, and transfer energy. Benefits already observed from the design of these products are an increased efficiency of lighting and heating, increased electrical storage capacity, and a decrease in the amount of pollution from the use of energy. Roll up Solar Cells, The Global Energy Challenge needs You A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. IBM set a new world record for solar cell efficiency in 2010. The world record is for solar cells composed of copper, tin, zinc, sulfur, selenium, or similar materials. The new record is about 40% better than the previous best for solar cells using such materials. The efficiency rate of IBMs new technology is 9.6%. The previous best was 6.7%. According to IBM, the only other solar cells that can boast an efficiency rate of 9 to 11% are made of extremely costly indium gallium selenide or cadmium telluride.[23] The image above is of the first commercial flexible lightweight cell produced by G24 Innovation on a large scale for use as telephone chargers, G24 has been the first to realize
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large-scale, role to role production of lightweight flexible cells, which are sold presently on the market for mobile telephone charging. G24 said the module (pictured above) generates electricity both indoors and out to recharge devices such as mobile phones, cameras and portable LED lights. It is produced using a roll-to-roll manufacturing process. This was brought out in 2009.
Even more innovative; researchers at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) have developed an inexpensive solar cell that can be painted or printed on flexible plastic sheets. The process is simple, said lead researcher and author Somenath Mitra, PhD, professor and acting chair of NJITs Department of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences. Someday homeowners will even be able to print sheets of these solar cells with inexpensive homebased inkjet printers. Consumers can then slap the finished product on a wall, roof or billboard to create their own power stations. Application of this DSC (Dye Sensitive Cell) in building integrated PV has already started and will become a fertile field of future commercial development.[24]
Global Photonic Energy Corporation says that you can use a spray painting method to paint their solar cells onto a car or other places that use spray paint, such as cell phone cases. The paint can come in virtually any color. They want to license their PowerPaint solar cells to manufacturers, but so far, they havent announced which car manufacturer will be the first to use it.
The rate at which developments are occurring in the field of solar cells and solar power is becoming increasingly expeditious. Every week there seems to be new developments and improvements in the world of solar cells. Watch this space for updates. The Fuel Cell Definition: A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction. Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one negative, called, respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions that
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Water Treatment produce electricity take place at the electrodes. [25] Small fuel cells are being developed which lend themselves to eliminating the use of batteries in PDAs and other handheld devices such as laptops. Companies are calling them direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) as methanol is the fuel of choice. DMFCs last longer than conventional batteries and can be plugged in and out in order of required usage, which means no more plugging in of devices to electrical outlets. In 2007, Angela Belcher of MIT developed a new battery using an environmentally harmless virus, demonstrating that biotechnology and nanotechnology will become closely intertwined. Advocates of nanotechnology suggest that this area of research could contribute to solutions for some of the major problems we face on the global scale such as ensuring a supply of safe drinking water for a growing population, as well as addressing issues in medicine, energy, and agriculture. Nanoparticles can be used to convert pollutants to less harmful chemicals in the environment using the properties of large surface area, high reactivity and enhanced transport of nanoparticles. For instance, zero-valent iron nanoparticles have been used primarily in the United States to remediate ground water contaminated with chlorinated carbon compounds and for the removal of arsenic from anoxic groundwater. Dendrimers can be used for chelating metal ions such as Cu(II), Ag(I), Fe(III) and so on from the aqueous phase and from soils (Xu and Zhao, 2006)
Nanosensors and semi-conductor nanostructures can play an important role in developing smart materials that can simultaneoulsy sense and destroy contaminants from the environment (Kamat and Meisel, 2003). With these degradation becomes operational only when contaminants are sensed. Improvements Nanoparticle by Nanoparticle - Cerium oxide nanoparticles can be used as additive in diesel and diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blend to improve complete combustion of the fuel and reduce the exhaust emissions significantly [27]. - Nanoparticles in paint technology offer the possibility of thinner, and therefore lighter, coatings, which could reduce, for example, the weight of aircraft, increase fuel efficiency and so reduce carbon dioxide emissions. - More efficient windmills
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- Advanced filtration may enable more water recycling and desalination, which enable more energy-efficient water purification (Miyaki et al. , 2000) . Batteries The US-based Altair Nanotechnologies Inc. has developed battery electrode materials that bring about a three-fold increase in the power observed in the existing lithium ion batteries. In addition to having the advantage of recharge times measured in a few minutes rather than hours, these batteries would cost the same as lithium ion batteries available in the market. Altair Nanotechnologies Inc policy: ''Whether its reducing our dependencies on coal-fired generation facilities, reducing carbon emissions, or accelerating the adoption of renewable integration and alternative-fuel vehicles, Altairnano is helping to achieve sustainable, and economically sensible, power and energy management practices.''[28]
Screenshot of part of this page
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Nanotechnology in Ireland
This section has similar content to the Nanotechnology in Ireland section of this document. This section makes the website different to other nanotechnology websites, making it more specific to Ireland. There are no other Irish nanotechnology websites that I could find that approach nanotechnology in the same manner as is done with this website. This section of the website mentions some of the main nanotechnology bodies in Ireland. Screenshot of Part of this Page
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3.
Healthcare (and
Nanopharmaceuticals)
Categorising what goes under what heading in nanopharmaceuticals I found to be slightly more complicated than other sections. There are references to nanopharmaceuticals on this page , in the Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery and the Nanomedicine sections also. All three pages are very similar but contain a lot of information so it was best to separate them somehow. Healthcare and Nanopharmaceuticals Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionise healthcare for the next generation. There are three key areas in which it could do this: Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment. Areas of healthcare which have been impacted by nanotechnology are: Pharmaceuticals Biotechnology Patient Care Medical Devices Clinical Diagnostics This website concentrates on nanopharmaceuticals and somewhat on biotechnology. Nanopharmaceuticals NanoPharmaceuticals are the pharmaceuticals designed using "nanotechnology". They are broadly classified as: NanoCarriers and Nano Engineered Drugs. NanoEngineered Drugs Pharmaceutical scientists can change drug molecules to improve their efficiency to carry out a desired effect in the body. Scientists attempt to make drug molecules more stable for use in pharmaceutical compounding or to increase their bio-availability (amount of drug that carries out the effect it was meant for). Nano-design of an existing drug molecule may:
increase its solubility and bioavailability (nano crystalline material to increase oral bio-
availability
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benefit the development of different dosage forms (nano-suspensions) aid in exploring diff routes of administration (nasal, ophthalmic) [29]
(This website concentrates more on the other section of Nanopharmaceuticals which is NanoCarriers. Nanocarriers encompass the broad section of drug delivery.) NanoCarriers/ Drug Delivery Nanocarriers ferry medicine into diseased cells. After i.v. administration of particulate drug carrier they will be cleared from the circulation by spleen and liver depend upon the size of the particles. It was reported that particles less than 200 nm can escape this physical screening, hence, nanoparticulate carriers might be of great interest. Nanoparticles with hydrophilic surfaces avoid reticuloendothelial system (RES) uptake and are long circulating. Nanoparticles which are long circulating might get targeted to tumour tissue by a mechanism known as enhanced permeation and retention (EPR). Where in nanoparticles permeate into leaky vascular for a typical tumour tissue, subsequently they will be retained due to the primitive lymphatic system development. [29]
The first product which saw the day of light based on NanoCarriers strategy is Doxil PEGylated liposomal formulation for doxorubicin. Theses liposomes are called as Stealth liposomes with size <200nm which are long circulation. These nanoCarriers can also be attached with ligands for active targeting. Hence nanotechnology is a holy grill for fundamental problems of drug targeting. Have a look at the the 'Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery' section of this website for more information.
Ecnomics of NanoPharmaceuticals Past Predictions (current figures are difficult to find): According to a report from NanoMarkets, an industry consulting firm based in Sterling, USA, nanotechnologyenabled drug delivery systems will generate over $1.7 billion ($US) in 2009 and over $4.8 billion in 2012. The global drug delivery products and services market were projected to surpass US$67 billion in 2009. Lux Research reported that that big Pharma companies are flat footed in their initiative about nanotechnology, however, medical device companies are more aggressive in perusing nanotechnological strategies. In a nutshell nanotechnology is there to stand and show its impact on design of drug molecules, the benefit of which will be
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seen in augmenting the product life cycle, patent life, along with their therapeutic efficiency. [30]
Sub-Pages of Healthcare and Nanopharmaceuticals
Nanotech and Drug Delivery

This is the section which links in with the course of study Pharmaceutical and Forensic Analysis. Some of this section was written from college lecture notes. Why Drug Delivery is a Crucial Part to Pharmaceuticals and How Nanotechnology is Advancing Drug Delivery ''The importance of nanotechnology in drug delivery is in the concept and ability to manipulate molecules and supramolecular structures for producing devices with programmed functions." Kinam Park
For a drug to be successful it must satisfy the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic requirements. Pharmacokinetic requirements are that it must be absorbed, distributed, metabolised, excreted sufficiently and non-toxic. Pharmacodynamic requirements are that the drug must have sufficient efficacy (ability to carry out the desired effect) and selectivity. When a drug enters the body there are certain biological barriers that the drug molecule must first pass to get to its target organ. For example, when a drug is taken orally it must pass barriers in the stomach, the small intestine, the blood and the liver before it reaches the target organ. Barriers which must be overcome in these regions are cell membranes, metabolic enzymes, efflux transporters and binding proteins. Needless to say, there are many criteria which a drug must possess in order to enter circulation successfully.
About 70% of drugs today are taken orally. Most pharmaceutical companies aim to develop an oral dosage form of their drug with a dosing regimen of once per day. Drugs of this type have reasonable manufacturing and storage costs and high patience compliance. Drug delivery for drugs administered orally usually involves encapsulating the drug using polymers. Liposomes are the main drug delivery system used today in oral administration.
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Drugs administered by parenteral routes (those which do not encounter the stomach or the GI tract) must also cross certain barriers. However, the basis of drug release from drug delivery systems is the same for all routes. Drug release is from: diffusion, degradation, swelling, and affinity-based mechanisms. *Most common types of administration Oral Topical (skin) Transmucosal- Nasal, buccal, vaginal, ocular, rectal Inhalation
Liposomes, polymeric micelles, nanoparticles, dendrimers and nanocrystals are a remaining portion of conventional drug delivery systems that happen to be on the nano-scale. Nanotechnology and its effects on drug delivery refers more correctly to the current drug delivery systems which include microchips, microneedle-based transdermal therapeutic systems, layer-by-layer assembled systems, and various microparticles produced by ink-jet technology. * To appreciate the true meaning of nanotechnology in drug delivery, it may be beneficial to classify drug delivery systems based on the time period representing before and after the nanotechnology revolution. The main problems with the current methods are the low drug loading capacity, low loading efficiency, and poor ability to control the size distribution. Utilizing nanotechnologies, such as nanopatterning, could allow manufacturing of nano/micro particles with high loading efficiency and highly homogeneous particle sizes. The pharmaceutical industry has been slow to utilize the new drug delivery systems if they include components (also called excipients) that are not generally regarded as safe. Going through clinical studies for FDA approval of a new chemical entity is a long and costly process; there is resistance in the industry to adding any untested materials that may require seeking approval. Nanotechnology for drug delivery will mature faster and become more useful if its appreciated that the real potential of nanotechnology in drug delivery is based on utilization of nano/micro fabrication and manufacturing, rather than on dealing with delivery systems in the nano/micro scale. [31] To describe what nanotechnology can do to manufacture nano/micro drug delivery systems, one can use manufacturing of nano/micro particles (or capsules) as an example. Imagine that the current soft gelatin capsules, which are in the centimeter scale, are manufactured at the
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nano/micro scale. The following are among the important technological advantages of nanoparticles as drug carriers: high stability (i.e., long shelf life); high carrier capacity (i.e., many drug molecules can be incorporated in the particle matrix); feasibility of incorporation of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances; and feasibility of variable routes of administration, including oral administration and inhalation. These carriers can also be designed to enable controlled (sustained) drug release from the matrix. [32] Example of where Drug Delivery by a nanostructure is required: Small interfering RNAs is a potential new universal drug for treatment of a variety of human diseases but efficient delivery into diseased cells remains a major challenge. Polymeric nanocarriers containing the drugs may solve the problem. Within the body, naked siRNA is degraded by enzymes. To avoid this they have incorporated siRNA in nanoparticles able to reach target cells intact. Microencapsulation technology has been used to surround nanoparticles in a bio-degradable coat for sustained release delivery. After release the nanoparticles bind to receptors in the cell membrane and are subsequently transported into the cell. Inside the cytoplasm, the nanoparticle matrix dissolves and the drug is released. [33] Liposomes ('Old' Nanotechnology) Liposomes are nano sized artificial vesicles of spherical shape that can be produced from natural phospholipids and cholesterol. The properties of liposomes in addition to the general properties of surfactants those make them useful for different applications are -Structural stability on dilution -Varying permeability of the bilayer to different molecules. -Ability to entrap both water soluble and insoluble substances and deliver them into desired environments.
The size, lamellarity (unilamellar or multilamellar) and lipid composition of the bilayers influence many of the important properties like the fluidity, permeability, stability and structure -these can be controlled and customized to serve specific needs. The properties are also influenced by external parameters like the temperature, ionic strength and the presence of certain molecules nearby. Liposomes is extensively studied for encapsulation of drugs. When lipid self assemble to liposomes water-soluble drugs will be trapped inside the liposomal cavity; fat-soluble drugs
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are incorporated within phospholipid bi-layer. The lipid bilayer of the liposome can fuse with other bilayers (e.g. cell membrane), thus delivering the liposome contents. Liposomal formulations are the first NanoPharmaceuticals introduced to market, Doxil PEGylated liposomal formulation for doxorubicin is the first product based on liposomes. Theses liposomes are called as Stealth liposomes with size <200nm which are long circulation with hydrophilic (PEG) surface. These long circulating liposomes found to target to tumour tissue by a mechanism known as enhanced permeation and retention (EPR). Hence liposomal formulation of doxorubicin considerably reduced the cardio-toxicity of drug. Many lipososmal products are under various phases of clinical trials. Liposomes are currently investigated for a variety of additional therapeutic agents; anticancer drugs such as paclitaxel, camptothecin, cisplatin; antibiotic such as amikacin, vancomysin, ciprofloxacin; biologics such as antisense oligonucleotides, DNA Transdermal Micro-Array Patch ('New-ish' Nanotechnology) A MicroArray Patch technology is being developed for the transdermal delivery of large molecule drugs, without the use of injections. The patch is in a band-aid format, and the surface of the patch is structured with polymer microneedles, from which the drug is delivered. The drugs can be attached to the external surface of the polymer microneedles, integrated into the polymer, or both.
When the patch is applied, the microneedles cross the stratum corneum and penetrate into the epidermis. The microneedles do not penetrate deep enough to enter blood capillaries or nerves, hence the delivery is non-invasive and pain-free.
The drugs for delivery are present in a nanostructured form, facilitating uptake into the body. The microneedles are made of a polymer that is biocompatible and biodegradable. This reduces the risk of trauma to the skin and infection.
The MicroArray Patches have been designed for the delivery of peptides, proteins, hormones, vaccines and skin repair agents. The use of MicroArray Patches will enable a wide range of medications to be effectively delivered to humans in a safe and non-invasive manner.[34]
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Nanoparticles that act Like Red Blood Cells In the short clip on the right we see particles which measure 6micrometers in length passing through membranes half their width. They mimic red blood cells shape and consistency in that they are flexible and fold-able. Basically in this experiment it was proven that the more flexible the molecules are the longer they last in the circulatory system. It was also seen that molecules with different flexibility ended up in different organs. This may prove to be a very beneficial advancement in drug delivery. De Simone, the chemist who worked on this says with regards to these findings that hopefully 'applications for the delivery of cancer drugs could be in early clinical trial stages within four years.' UNC ChapelHill. Heart Disease Building on their previous work delivering cancer drugs with nanoparticles, MIT and Harvard researchers have turned their attention to cardiovascular disease, designing new particles that can cling to damaged artery walls and slowly release medicine. The particles, dubbed nanoburrs, are coated with tiny protein fragments that allow them to stick to damaged arterial walls. Once stuck, they can release drugs such as paclitaxel (taxol), which inhibits cell division and helps prevent growth of scar tissue that can clog arteries.[35] Lab-on-a-Chip Implant for Osteoporosis Drug About 15 years ago, MIT professors Robert Langer and Michael Cima had the idea to develop a programmable, wirelessly controlled microchip that would deliver drugs after implantation in a patients body. The MIT researchers and scientists from MicroCHIPS Inc.reported that they have successfully used such a chip to administer daily doses of an osteoporosis drug normally given by injection. The results, published in the Feb. 16 online edition of Science Translational Medicine, represent the first successful test of such a device and could help usher in a new era of telemedicine delivering health care over a distance, Langer says. You could literally have a pharmacy on a chip, says Langer, the David H. Koch Institute Professor at MIT. You can do remote control delivery, you can do pulsatile drug delivery, and you can deliver multiple drugs. [38]
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Nanoengineered Surfaces Enhance Drug Loading and Adhesion To circumvent the barriers encountered by macromolecules at the gastrointestinal mucosa, sufficient therapeutic macromolecules must be delivered in close proximity to cells.1 Previously, we have shown that silicon nanowires penetrate the mucous layer and adhere directly to cells under high shear.2 In this work, we characterize potential reservoirs and load macromolecules into interstitial space between nanowires. We show significant increases in loading capacity due to nanowires while retaining adhesion of loaded particles under high shear. [36] Drug Delivery on a Larger Scale: The Pharmaceutical Industry and the Counterfeiting Problem is being helped by Nanotechnology Nanotechnology protects capsules from counterfeiting and diversion. 'Employing nanotechnology-based encryption onto pharmaceutical capsules before theyre filled adds overt, covert, and forensic-level protection for Pfizers Capsugel division. When it comes to pharmaceutical brand authentication/protection, track-and-trace, and anti-counterfeiting, exciting new technologies continue to emerge at the packaging level. But capsule manufacturer Capsugel, a div. of Pfizer Inc., is providing authentication, anti-counterfeiting, and diversion protection beyond packaging. Those benefits are delivered via NanoGuardian's NanoEncryption, an on-dose, brand-protection technology that serves to trace and authenticate every dose from plant to patient.' -Jim Butschli, Features Editor of Packaging World. [37] Latest Developments in Anti-Cancer Treatment: 'Nano-Sized Protein Clusters Address Major Challenge of Drug Delivery'- (2012)o-Sized Protein Clusters Address Major Challenge of Drug Delivery AUSTIN, Texas A new form of proteins discovered by researchers at The University of Texas at Austin could drastically improve treatments for cancer and other diseases, as well as overcome some of the largest challenges in therapeutics: delivering drugs to patients safely, easily and more effectively. Aim? To deliver the proteins in high concentration intravenously by self injection like insulin.[39] Problem? Delivering proteins in high concentrations as they tend to form aggregates that can be dangerous to patients and impossible to inject. Solution? The Cockrell School research team has introduced a new physical form of proteins, whereby proteins are packed into highly concentrated, nanometer-sized clusters that can pass through a needle into a patient to treat disease. The novel composition avoids the pitfalls of
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previous attempts because drug proteins are clustered so densely that they dont unfold or form dangerous aggregates. On a Similar Life-Saving Note... For those who are interested in both nanomedicine and computer games and doubted that these would ever be combined, don't despair for Nano-Mission is here! Click here for the link to download the nanomedicine game =) Screenshot of Part of this website
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Nanomedicine
This section includes the effects nanotechnology has on the treatment, diagnosis and detection of more specific health issues. Nanotechnology affects every aspect of the health sciences. There are now such subject areas as Nanobiotechnology and DNA Nanotechnology. Engineered vaccines contain proteins with nanoscale dimensions. Here we'll focus on the broader classification of nanomedicine which includes examples of nanopharmaceutials. Nanopharmaceuticals and nanomedicine are vast areas of expertise which are developing at an impressive rate. Here are some of the major advances which nanotechnology has brought to these fields. Nano-particles and Nano-encapsulation Metal nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, polymers can be used in different ways in medicine especially when combined with antigen-specific coatings or functional groups on their surfaces. Their size, physical properties and chemical composition determine their usefulness. The small size of these structures lends itself to their use and ease of circulation but they mustnt get lodged in capillaries and other microanatomies. Nanoparticles for Medical Imaging
Nanoparticles have been used as contrast and image enhancing agents for x-ray and computed tomography (imaging via any kind of penetrating wave) imaging (CT). Conventional methods of imaging use iodinated benzoic acid derivatives but these have risk factors and side effects associated with intravenous iodine injection. These derivatives are of low molecular weight so clear from the body rapidly and are difficult to direct to disease sites. Iodinated molecules have been encapsulated to overcome these problems but stability and concentration of agent delivered to imaged site is low.
In order to enhance an X-ray image an agent must deliver detectable numbers of heavy atoms into the imaged tissue without toxic effects. Suitable nanoparticles are those made of elemental heavy metals such as gold as these have high densities and are still biologically inert and stable. To overcome the cost issue associated with gold researchers at General Electric developed nanoparticles made of heavy metal compounds encapsulated in gold shells. By adding thiol groups gold nanoparticles can be coated with selectively binding
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antigens, antibodies or target compounds for receptor on the surfaces of cells. By targeting receptors unique to certain types of cancer cells, gold nanoparticles can be made to enhance an x-ray image by increasing the ability to detect the the cancer cells by many orders of magnitude. As well as this: -Metal and Silicon Nanoparticles can be used to enhance Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Silicon Particles fabricated into shapes and coated with conductive layers have enhanced magnetic resonance interactions. -Nano-engineered particles could enhance the visibility of many biomedical devices, both implantable and interventional, that today are difficult to image due to problems that interfere with magnetic fields and hence MRI. -Nanoparticles can be also used to reduce interference of pacemakers, defibrillators, neurostimulators, guidewires, endoscopes and other devices with MRI fields, allowing their impeded use with MRI. -Nanoshell particles with optical resonances in the IR region have been used to enhance imaging of cancer cells. Work on this type of nanoshell for cancer treatment is being carried out by research groups at Rice and Arizona universities.
In the journal Angewandte Chemie ("Phosphorescent Nanoscale Coordination Polymers as Contrast Agents for Optical Imaging"), a team led by Wenbin Lin at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA, in March 2011 introduced a novel contrast agent that marks tumor cells in vitro. The dye is a phosphorescent ruthenium complex incorporated into nanoparticles of a metalorganic coordination polymer, which allows an extraordinarily high level of dye loading.
Fluorescent dyes accumulate in varying amounts in different types of tissue. Such contrast agents make it possible to use optical imaging to differentiate between healthy and tumorous tissue. However, this method is limited by the fact that very high concentrations of dye are needed to produce sufficiently strong fluorescence. Organic dye molecules packed at high concentrations into nanocapsules tend to quench each other's fluorescence. Materials that fluoresce more strongly, such as quantum dots, are often not biocompatible.
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Nanoparticles for Targeting Cancer cells This is a rapidly advancing area of research. Cancer cells are released into the blood stream in large numbers by microscopic tumours too small to be detected by imaging modalities. If these could be detected and concentrated from a blood test it would provide a means of early detection of cancer before tumours were big enough to be detected by imaging. This would lead to a much better prognosis for cancer patients. To do this ferromagnetic micro- and nanoparticles are functionalized with antibodies, allowing cancer cells to be separated out of tissue samples such as concentrated blood for diagnostic analysis. [39] Nanomagnetic particles can be used also for magnetic controlled drug targeting. It works by binding these particles to anti-cancer drugs which allows them to accumulate in one area. Eg. At a tumour by means of a magnetic field. The drug then desorbs from the ferrofluid and attacks the tumour. Magnetic particle separation can also be used to separate cancer cells from bone marrow and other tissues, and for the isolation, identification and genetic analysis of specific DNA sequences. [42] Nano-Encapsulation for Drug Delivery to Tumours Nanoparticles can be filled with absorbed or encapsulated drugs and targeted onto cancer cells or disease agent. The aim is to deliver nanoparticles with concentrated anti-cancer drug straight to the tumour site without affecting healthy cells. Drug laden nanoparticles can be injected into tumours with procedures that are minimally invasive. Their effect can be enhanced by using drugs that are further activated by radiation. Some of these drugs may have problems getting to the tumour site due to physiochemical properties, including high toxicity, and so it helps for them to be embedded directly in to the tumour. When the encapsulated drug is embedded in the tumour the polymer and nanoparticle shell are degraded for the controlled release of the highly toxic chemotherapeutic drug into the tumour, without affecting other tissues. The video on the right describes this process in simple terms with good animations which help explain the concept. An example of an anti-cancer drug that can be enhanced by nanoparticle drug delivery is lapachone. This is a napthoquinine found in the bark of a South American tree which induces cytotoxic effects in malignant human cell types such as colon, lung, prostate, breast, pancreatic, ovarian and bone cancers as well as some blood cancers and cancer of the retina (retinoblastoma). They found that -lapachone interacts with an enzyme which is present in high levels in some types of solid cancer tumours. In tumours the drug is metabolized and the
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metabolite kills the tumour. Normal cells are not affected as they dont contain the enzyme. But the problem is that when this drug is injected into the tumour it is carried away rapidly in blood circulation. Dr. Boothman and his group in the University of Texas are developing a variety of polymer implants that can be placed in the tumour to slowly release the anticancer drug in an effective manner. The implants included nanoscale polymer drugs moulded from nanocells derived from a number of natural nanomaterials: [41] Nanoencapsulation for Penetration of Blood Brain Barrier In the central nervous system epithelial cells lining the walls of blood vessels overlap in tight junctions, unlike those in the rest of the body. This closes off easy transport of large molecules (about 500DA molecular weight) between blood and brain. This helps protect the sensitive and vital central nervous system from disturbance by chemicals and pathogens (e.g. viruses). The barrier is lipophillic. To get past molecules must be small and lipophillic. Many of the drugs designed to treat diseases of the brain such as Alzheimers disease, Huntingtons disease, stroke and brain cancer depend on carrier-mediated transport and other such mechanisms to cross the blood brain barrier.
Nanotech offers a possible alternative for transport through the blood brain barrier that is more generally applicable to a wide range of drugs. Drugs can be encapsulated in biodegradable polymers to make artificial liposomes. The coatings contain active sites to which antibodies can be attached. The antibodies are recognised by the brain capillary brain receptors, which mediate their passage through the blood brain barrier. Once inside the liposomes release the drug. [42]
The radio labelled Cu2+ or Fe3+ metal chelator clioquinol, which has a high affinity for plaque which is a factor in neurodegenerative disease, has been encapsulated in liposomes capable of crossing the blood brain barrier.
The fact that some nanoparticles cross the blood brain barrier could be as much of a curse as it is a blessing. The blood brain barrier protects the brain from toxic chemicals that could damage it and the fact that nanomaterials can cross this barrier is a worry for some doctors.
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Nanoparticles and Nanoencapsulation for Insulin The main cause of Type I (insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus is degradation of insulinproducing cells in the Islets of Langerhans. Insulin must be injected to treat this disease because it is a peptide and will be broken down by digestive enzymes. There are risks of improper dosage and rates of release related to the administration route. Insulin needs to be released in controlled amounts.[42] Nanoencapsulation of Insulin Nanoencapsulation would allow its release after passing through the digestive system. A lot of research has gone in to developing alternative methods of drug administration. The use of polymeric micro- and nanoparticles is an actively pursued concept for the delivery of insulin and other bioactive peptides. Administration by oral route remains a formidable challenge due to their insufficient stability in GI tract and their poor absorption pattern. [42]
Inhalation routes of administration have been extensively investigated with regards to insulin delivery. The surface area of the human lungs is roughly the size of a tennis court so if insulin could be delivered to the capillaries and alveoli of the lung there is high potential for direct absorption into the bloodstream.
Nanotechnology has much to contribute to solving lung diseases as well as for finding new effective inhalation drug delivery methods. Inhalation routes are an important and growing area of biomedical research in many ways besides diabetes and are likely to be an area where nanotechnology will make a large impact. Nanoencapsulation for the Protection of Implants from the Immune System Most work on transplanting encapsulated cells has been in the area of insulinproducing pancreatic beta cells. After years of having experiments that result in the implants being smothered by plaques and invaded by the immune system of the host, promising results are beginning to appear using new nanoengineered encapsulation materials and techniques. Encapsulation of pancreatic islets allows for transplantation in the absence of immunesuppression.[43] Guiding and Stimulating Tissue Function and Growth Tissue scaffolding or tissue engineering is an emerging technique in surgery and wound healing which is being given new options by the development of new nanomaterials and
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nanostructures. There are nanotechnologies aimed at bridging the nerve generation gap which may one day be applied to restore mobility to patients with spinal nerve column damage. Nanotechnology can help reproduce or repair damaged tissue. Tissue engineering makes use of artificially stimulated cell proliferation by using suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds and growth factors. For example, bones can be regrown on carbon nanotube scaffolds. Tissue engineering might replace today's conventional treatments like organ transplants or artificial implants. Advanced forms of tissue engineering may lead to life extension.The area of nanoguides for neural growth and repair is a very diverse and complicated area of research in which a lot of work is being done.[42] Neuronal Stimulation and Monitoring Nanotechnology advances devices such as cardiac pacemakers, cardiac defibrillators, cochlear implants, bone growth stimulators and neural stimulators with improved battery technologies, biocompatible materials, and surface treatments for enclosures and leads electrode miniaturizations and efficiency improvements, and smaller sized integrated circuits for control and power, while speed and processing capabilities increase. [42] Leg, Knee, Foot and Hand Prostheses This is a very active and exciting area for application of new nanotechnology. Miniature electronic motors or pneumatic muscles have yet to be replaced by nanoengineered artificial muscles in an integrated design for an artificial hand. The realm of neuroplastics is one being implicated by nanotechnology on many different levels. This field again is very broad and complex. [42] Neuroprosthetics Neural interfaces to nano- and micro- electronic devices open new opportunities to design more powerful neurostimulators for prosthetics.
Nanotechnology will have a great impact on medicine with assemblies of cooperating interconnected networks of computing, communicating and sensing nanoprocessors driving assemblies of modular interworking nanoactivators to make up a micro- or macro- device like a subtle but powerful motor neuroprostheses. For example glasses and external hearing aids are prostheses, but a sensory neuroprotheses is an active device that delivers electrical stimulus to the nervous system, such as cochlear (ear) implants or artificial retina.
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Applications of nanotechnology may come up with convenient, low-cost nanoengineered smart acoustical materials that could filter out damaging frequencies and noise levels for ear prostheses. [42] Visual Neuroprostheses Research devices are expected to provide enough visual perception of contours, outlines and shades of light to allow a blind person to move more freely in unfamiliar environments. Retinal prostheses can be implanted in the eye to electronically stimulate the optical nerves, by-passing a damaged retina. [42] Diagnostics; Lab-on-a-Chip These little devices could quite possibly be the most widely useful piece of equipment which nanotechnology has allowed scientists to create. At the moment in doctors surgerys everywhere patients are giving blood samples and are then sent away to wait for results for a few days. Labs-on-chips would eradicate this waiting period as they allow a tiny drop of blood to be tested immediately and results to be given there and then in the doctors surgery. Some have already been created such as the one for diagnosing HIV. The advancement in nanotechnology has made it possible for you to have an entire medical lab reduced down to the size of a high-powered chip. Researchers are working hard towards creating a nano sized lab that performs a variety of tasks. These tasks signify conducting multiple diagnostic tests, which would take an entire team of doctors, at least, a week to provide results. The reason they have not been widely available yet is because of the cost issues. But in the long term it would seem costs would balance out with the money saved on not needing as many full-scale labs and analysts. Examples of advances in nano chips: Magnetic nanoparticles, bound to a suitable antibody, are used to label specific molecules, structures or microorganisms. Gold nanoparticles tagged with short segments of DNA can be used for detection of genetic sequence in a sample. Multicolor optical coding for biological assays has been achieved by embedding differentsized quantum dots into polymeric microbeads. Nanopore technology for analysis of nucleic acids converts strings of nucleotides directly into electronic signatures. [8]
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Diagnosis of HIV on a Chip The Guardian, in their article, The incredible shrinking laboratory or lab-on-a-chip, states that Professor Tom Duke of the London Centre of Nanotechnology is working on a labon-a-chip to test HIV. In this chip, nanometer-sized pillars separate a drop of blood in such a way that the larger elements such as blood cells and proteins are trapped. The virus particles then pass through this trap where the come across a series of levers that are coated with antibodies. These antibodies then tend to bend when hit. The more they bend indicates the amount of virus present. This is just one application that the lab-on-a-chip possess. There are many other features that are also present.
The LOC will be of big benefit to developing countries where full-scale laboratories are not accessible. Treatment of Tuberculosis The WHO estimates that approximately one-third of the global community is infected with M. tuberculosis. In 2006, an estimated 9.2 million incident cases and approximately 1.7 million deaths due to TB occurred worldwide making it the worlds leading causes of mortality. The safety and uptake of the nanoparticles is being tested in TB-infected mice and the effectiveness of the nanodrug is being compared to conventional therapy to see whether a weekly nano dose is as effective as the standard daily treatment regime. Human trials for the antibiotic, called Rifanano, are scheduled for this year. Diagnostics: The Central Scientific Instruments Organization of India designed a nanotechnology-based TB diagnostic kit, which is currently in the clinical trials phase. This kit does not require skilled technicians for use and offers portability, efficiency, userfriendliness and availability for less than US$1. The research is also ongoing for an optical biosensor for rapid TB detection in the Medical Sciences division of the U.S. Department of Energy. Another group at RMIT University, in Australia, is conducting research into the application of novel tethered nanoparticles as low-cost, colour based assays for TB diagnosis.
Treatment: The micro-encapsulation of pharmaceutical substances in biodegradable polymers used in controlled drug delivery has seen as an emerging technology. Carrier or delivery systems such as liposomes and microspheres
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have been developed for the sustained delivery of anti-TB drugs and have found better chemotherapeutic efficacy when investigated in animal models (e.g. mice).
TB Vaccination, The aerosol vaccine- under development through collaboration between Harvard University and the international not-for-profit Medicine in Need (MEND) - could provide a low-cost, needle-free TB treatment that is highly stable at room temperature. While most new TB vaccines continue to call for needle injection, but this new vaccine could provide safer, more consistent protection by eliminating these injections and the need for refrigerated storage. [44] New Biomaterial A new biomaterial designed for repairing damaged human tissue doesn't wrinkle up when it is stretched. The invention from nanoengineers at the University of California, San Diego marks a significant breakthrough in tissue engineering because it more closely mimics the properties of native human tissue.
Shaochen Chen, professor in the Department of NanoEngineering at the UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering, hopes future tissue patches, which are used to repair damaged heart walls, blood vessels and skin, for example, will be more compatible with native human tissue than the patches available today. His findings were published in a recent issue of the journal Advanced Functional Materials.
The team includes postdoctoral researchers in multiple disciplines: David Fozdar with the University of Texas at Austin, Department of Mechanical Engineering; Li-Hsin Han with the Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Orthopeadic Surgery; and Pranav Soman and Jim Woo Lee at the UCSD Jacobs School of Engineering Department of NanoEngineering. [45] In the Surgery It's an endless list of ways in which nanotechnology is advancing medicine. Other areas such as robotic surgery and implantable sensors for blood pressure have also seen improvements. It's going to majorly affect, like all industries, communication devices, data storage, information displays and other instruments within the hospital.
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Screenshot of part of the Nanomedicine page
4. Whats to Come?
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This section includes some of the predictions made by nanotechnology scientists. It looks like there is colourful future for nanotechnology which deserved a page to itself. This page includes some very interesting predictions which is sure to arouse interest in nanotechnology for some readers if they have not yet been impressed. Nanotechnology Scientists have Wonderful Imaginations Nanobots look to have a busy future ahead of them with mending the ozone layer and selfreplicating to create new forms. Those are just a couple of the (outrageous?) predictions scientists are making. In the future, computers will become even faster, more power efficient, and versatile as a result of nanotechnology developing new transistor materials and data storage equipment. Nanotechnology will change our lives as we know it. That is a fact. The predictions on this page of the website are not yet fact but are surprisingly well backed up by experts.
Looking through these ideas it is difficult not to think of Isaac Asmitov, best known as an influence for Star Trek, and other science fiction writers and wonder if they are, in fact, that far a cry from fiction. The idea of a world run by robots is not so ludicrous now. For every idea in nanotechnology there are many more critics waiting to laugh at it. But the history of technological development is littered with people, including scientists, eventually proven wrong by persistent optimists with great ideas. The Wright brothers and the inventors of the STM were both hounded by skepticism and criticism before and after breakthroughs so we shall keep open minds. Energy Generating Windows If a new development from labs at MIT pans out as expected, someday the entire surface area of a buildings windows could be used to generate electricity without interfering with the ability to see through them. Lead researcher and author Somenath Mitra, PhD, professor and acting chair of NJITs Department of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences said Someday homeowners will even be able to print sheets of these solar cells with inexpensive home-based inkjet printers. Consumers can then slap the finished product on a wall, roof or billboard to create their own power stations. [46]
On that solar power note Power Up with Nano FlakesNano flakes sound like something we'd
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eat but they're not; what they may be is the next generation of clean energy production. Nano flakes are semi-conducting nanostructures that can absorb the sun's energy more efficiently and cheaply than current solar panels. The scientists working on this project, which is in the prototype stage, believe nano flakes will be able to convert up to 30 percent of solar energy into electricity. That's approximately twice the amount of electricity produced by solar panels [source: Science Daily].
The real pay-off will come when the fabric in your clothing can help power your cellphone. The army is already investigating this possibility. Amazing Utility Fog 'Nanotechnology is based on the concept of tiny, self-replicating robots. The Utility Fog is a very simple extension of the idea: Suppose, instead of building the object you want atom by atom, the tiny robots linked their arms together to form a solid mass in the shape of the object you wanted? Then, when you got tired of that avant-garde coffeetable, the robots could simply shift around a little and youd have an elegant Queen Anne piece instead.
The color and reflectivity of an object are results of its properties as an antenna in the micron wavelength region. Each robot could have an antenna arm that it could manipulate to vary those properties, and thus the surface of a Utility Fog object could look just about however you wanted it to. A thin film of robots could act as a video screen, varying their optical properties in real time.
Rather than paint the walls, coat them with Utility Fog and they can be a different color every day, or act as a floor-to-ceiling TV. Indeed, make the entire wall of the Fog and you can change the floor plan of your house to suit the occasion. Make the floor of it and never gets dirty, looks like hardwood but feels like foam rubber, and extrudes furniture in any form you desire. Indeed, your whole domestic environment can be constructed from Utility Fog; it can form any object you want (except food) and whenever you dont want an object any more, the robots that formed it spread out and form part of the floor again. You may as well make your car of Utility Fog, too; then you can have a new one every day. But better than that, the *interior* of the car is filled with robots as well as its shell. Youll need to wear holographic eyephones to see, but the Fog will hold them up in front of
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your eyes and theyll feel and look as if they werent there. Although heavier than air, the Fog is programmed to simulate its physical properties, so you cant feel it: when you move your arm, it flows out of the way. Except when theres a crash! Then it forms an instant formfitting seatbelt protecting every inch of your body. You can take a 100-mph impact without messing your hair. But youll never have a 100-mph impact, or any other kind. Remember that each of these robots contains a fair-sized computer. They already have to be able to talk to each other and coordinate actions in a quite sophisticated way (even the original nano-assemblers have to, to build any macroscopic object). You can simply cover the road with a thick layer of robots. Then your car calls ahead and makes a reservation for every position in time and space it will occupy during the trip. As long as youre covering the roads with Fog you may as well make it thick enough to hold the cars up so they can cross intersections at different levels. But now your car is no longer a specific set of robots, but a *pattern* in the road robots that moves along like a wave, just as a picture of a car moves across the pixels of a video screen. The appearance of the car at this point is completely arbitrary, and could even be dispensed withall the road Fog is transparent, and you appear to fly along unsupported.'' -Utility Fog: The Stuff that Dreams Are Made OfJuly 5, 2001 by J. Storrs Hall [47] Gray Goo It has been suggested that self-replicating "nanobots" could become a new parasitic life-form that reproduces uncontrollably. Grey Goo is a hypothetical end-of-the-world scenario involving molecular nanotechnology in which out-of-control self-replicating robots consume all matter on Earth while building more of themselves, a scenario known as ecophagy ("eating the environment").Self-replicating machines of the macroscopic variety were originally described by mathematician John von Neumann, and are sometimes referred to as von Neumann machines. The term grey goo was coined by nanotechnology pioneer Eric Drexler in his 1986 book Engines of Creation, stating that "we cannot afford certain types of accidents." In 2004 he stated "I wish I had never used the term 'grey goo'." [Source: Wikipedia] Nano-robots and Medicine
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Current research points to nanorobots that could be used to target and destroy tumors, deliver medicine to specific points in the body or break up blood clots. How they'll move will depend on the design. Ideas include an internal power source or using the patient's body to generate power. Sperm are even being considered to send these tiny bots all around the body [48]. Brains in Cars The Discovery Channel say that the day is coming when your car will have a brain ten thousand times faster than yours. Predictions for cars are out of this world. These predictions include coatings which 'heal' themselves when the car is scratched, much like out own skins healing powers. With the tiny information processors which nanotechnology offers the automobile industry the possibilities in car manufacture are endless. Imagine not having to deal with the noise and hassle of replacing windshield wipers. This is exactly what Italian Car Designer Leonardo Fioravanti has done with his prototype Hindra. The windshield not only filters out UV rays, it repels water. Nano-dust forces dirt to the glass edges activated by sensors. Electricity is used to run the entire mechanism. The process is completed by drag which allows freer flowing air over the windshield. The US Army An Institute has been set up called the Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies. The ISN is a three-member team designed to leverage the unique capabilities of the US Army, industry, and MIT. Their mission includes not only decreasing the weight that soldiers carry but also improving blast and ballistic protection, creating new methods of detecting and detoxifying chemical and biological threats, and providing physiological monitoring and automated medical intervention. The ultimate goal is to help the Army create an integrated system of nanotechnologies for Soldier protection.
Corning Glass Manufacturers When it comes to permeating mainstream nanotechnology the glass company 'Corning' are ahead of the game. Corning, the company behind the famous Gorilla Glass used in smartphones and tablets has released a concept video showcasing the possibilities of
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transparent tablets/display in the future. With over eighteen million views on one of their two YouTube videos, 'A Day Made of Glass', they're making a splash. Take a look at 'A Day made of Glass 2' (shown below) which is even more impressive.
Basing Nano on Nature Nature's NanocreaturesMarine algae, known as diatoms, contain light-bending nanostructures that convert sunlight into energy needed for reproduction. Scientists think replicating these structures could help develop biosynthetic devices such as a light-activated drug delivery system [50].
The beautiful blue wings of the Morpho Rhetenor butterfly of Brazil are the result of layers of nanostructures. These nanostructures absorb light and reflect a wavelength creating an optical interference and the resplendent blue we see. Laboratories can use this same process to analyze light [49]. It may also be possible to replicate the construction of nanostructures in butterflies' wings to create improved "optic effects" in products like paint and varnish [51].
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Screenshot of part of the Whats to Come? section
Subpage of Whats to Come?
Positives and Negatives

It is very important to create awareness that there are also negative aspects to the subject. People must be made aware that there are worries around the safety of nanoparticles. It is quite tedious finding information on the regulation of nanotechnology, this section of the website would have been covered more thoroughly with more time. This is the final informative section of the website. It signs off on a lighter note with an opinion paragraph.
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The Good, the Bad & the Ugly There's clearly plenty to talk about when it comes to discussing the positive aspects of nanotechnology- life-saving developments in medicine, overcoming the worlds current environmental problems, other beneficial effects presented in this website and of course other positive additions which have not been mentioned on this website. It's also worth mentioning that there are new developments everyday which have yet to be documented or made publicly accessible. For me, having spent the last five months delving into the world of nanotechnology and what it's bringing to the table, the negatives would need to be highly weighted in order to sway my opinion that nanotechnology is anything other than brilliant! But there are certainly many sensible concerns surrounding nanotechnology, in particular the fate of nanoparticles. These may be particularly important if potential negative effects of nanoparticles are overlooked before they are released. Other points of thought in the positive/ negative discussion are mentioned below. Positive Efficiency and Environmental Friendliness 'Molecular Scale Manufacturing ensures that very little raw material is wasted and that we make only what we intend to make, no more. Factories begin to look more like clean rooms' Rogers, B Adams, J & Pennathur, S (2008) Nanotechnology Understanding Small Systems. Boca Raton: Taylor and Francis Group. A study in 2007 details how nanomaterials can be created that are not only safe, but also cost less and perform better than conventional materials. "Green Nanotechnology: It's Easier Than You Think," was written by the Washington D.C. think tank, the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. The study, which is free online, is based on a series of dialogues with scientists, policymakers and industry representatives about green nanotechnology.
Financial Benefits for Countries involved in Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is expected to be a $2.6 trillion market by 2015.[30] Each country involved, including Ireland, have a bright financial future ahead when it comes to gaining money with nanotechnology. For us in Ireland nanotechnology has received excellent funding which is good to hear as nanotechnology could be a useful ploy in helping with our current national financial situation.
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Negative Weapons of War On the instrumental level, concerns include the possibility of military applications of nanotechnology (for instance, as in implants and other means for soldier enhancement like those being developed at the Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT) as well as enhanced surveillance capabilities through nano-sensors. There is also the possibility of nanotechnology being used to develop chemical weapons and because they will be able to develop the chemicals from the atom scale up, critics fear that chemical weapons developed from nano particles will be more dangerous than present chemical weapons.
Fear of the Unknown Nanotechnology is quite a new concept and some effects are time dependent so it's difficult for experts to predict the damage nanoparticles might do. There are concerns about how nano-particles may accumulate in nature. Could large amounts be ingested by fish? And if so, would if be harmful? Would the particles be passed along the food chain like DDT. Thresholds need to be determined. It's vital to find out how to remove or simply detect nanomaterials if they become problematic.
The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies (PEN), also Washington-based, says it has inventoried more than 600 consumer products in 20 countries with nano-scale materials, and "new nanotech products are hitting the market at the rate of three to four per week." The interest in nanomaterials is coming at a time of growing awareness of how chemicals many of which we don't know are manufactured into the products we use on a daily basis may be causing us harm.
What happens to nanoparticles such as silver nanoparticles which are used quite a bit, for example is certain socks? In an experiment reported at the American Chemical Society meeting, two Arizona State University scientists, Troy Benn and Paul Westerhoff, washed seven brands of nanosilver socks and then tested the wastewater. All but one pair leaked silver. That silver, of course, ends up in our sewers, rivers and lakes. Results like this have strengthened the calls among scientists and environmentalists for a closer examination of nanoparticles and their effects on humans and the environment. You can find nanosilver in products from clothing and shoes to mattresses and pillows to appliances like Samsung's SilverCare washers, and Conair's Infiniti Nano Silver hair straighteners. The TTC also
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intends to paint the stanchions in its new subway cars with antimicrobial silver. Considering how quickly the market is expanding worldwide, scientists doubt that current regulations are sufficient. They also point out the lack of regulations that specifically address nanoparticles and say that not enough is being spent on their health effects. For the full article on this click here. [52]
Of the US$710 million spent in 2002 by the U.S. government on nanotechnology research, only $500,000 was spent on environmental impact assessments.
False Hype Some worry that nanotechnology will end up like virtual reality -- in other words, the hype surrounding nanotechnology will continue to build until the limitations of the field become public knowledge, and then interest (and funding) will quickly dissipate. Social Justice and Civil Liberties ''Those nations, governments, organizations, and citizens who are unaware of this impending power shift must be informed and enabled so that they may adequately adapt'' James Canton, President of the Institute for Global Futures, said of nanotechnology and its disruptive economical potential.
Social justice and civil libertiesConcerns are frequently raised that the claimed benefits of nanotechnology will not be evenly distributed, and that any benefits (including technical and/or economic) associated with nanotechnology will only reach affluent nations. The majority of nanotechnology research and development - and patents for nanomaterials and products - is concentrated in developed countries (including the United States, Japan, Germany, Canada and France). In addition, most patents related to nanotechnology are concentrated amongst few multinational corporations, including IBM, Micron Technologies, Advanced Micro Devices and Intel. This has led to fears that it will be unlikely that developing countries will have access to the infrastructure, funding and human resources required to support nanotechnology research and development, and that this is likely to exacerbate such inequalities.
The agriculture and food industries demonstrate the concentration of nanotechnology related patents. Patents over seeds, plant material, animal and other agri-food techniques are already
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concentrated amongst a few corporations. This is anticipated to increase the cost of farming, by increasing farmers' input dependence. This may marginalize poorer farmers, including those living in developing countries. Scrinis G, and Lyons K (2007). "The Emerging NanoCorporate Paradigm and the Transformation of Agri-Food Systems". International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food 15.
Producers in developing countries could also be disadvantaged by the replacement of natural products (including rubber, cotton, coffee and tea) by developments in nanotechnology. These natural products are important export crops for developing countries, and many farmers' livelihoods depend on them. It has been argued that their substitution with industrial nano-products could negatively impact the economies of developing countries, that have traditionally relied on these export crops. [8]
It is proposed that nanotechnology can only be effective in alleviating poverty and aid development "when adapted to social, cultural and local institutional contexts, and chosen and designed with the active participation by citizens right from the commencement point" (Invernizzi et al. 2008, p. 132) Robots Taking over the World Believe it or not there is a very real fear out there of robots controlling the world one day. This is not as far removed as one might think as robots are becoming freakishly independent. Nanotechnology is playing a major role in the creation of these robots. Take a look at the video on the right made in February of this year which has gone viral. The video shows robots which are completely autonomous playing an eerie version of the James Bond theme tune on various instruments: Regulating Nanotechnology Regulatory bodies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Health & Consumer Protection Directorate of the European Commission have started dealing with the potential risks of nanoparticles. The organic food sector has been the first to act with the regulated exclusion of engineered nanoparticles from certified organic produce, firstly in Australia and the UK, and more recently in Canada, as well as for all food certified to Demeter International standards. [8]
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The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates a wide range of products, including foods, cosmetics, drugs, devices, veterinary products, and tobacco products some of which may utilize nanotechnology or contain nanomaterials. Nanotechnology allows scientists to create, explore, and manipulate materials measured in nanometres (billionths of a meter). Such materials can have chemical, physical, and biological properties that differ from those of their larger counterparts.- FDA My Take on Nanotechnology Concerns A concern which I have not encountered is that of good will and intentions in the nanotechnology 'industry'. There is so much money involved in nanotechnology and such profits to be made that I think there may be a problem with industries' goodwill. I think that because nanotechnology is on the fast track of combining specialized science and worldwide consumer goods that they may take advantage of the general public's lack of knowledge in the area. It's very important for everyone to be aware that there are concerns with the safety of the products which have yet to be sufficiently regulated. Where there are huge sums of money in question I would be sceptical that there isn't a hint of snobbery or possessiveness against the general public in the way of withholding trade secrets, trade secrets which may actually be required if regulations are to be sufficiently carried out. With a hint of this pretension; carbon nanotubes are poised to become a major traded commodity with the potential to replace major conventional raw materials. However, as their use expands, anyone seeking to (legally) manufacture or sell carbon nanotubes, no matter what the application, must first buy a license from NEC or IBM.
I think it is also worth mentioning a report I came across on e-paper (nanotechnology based) which details forecasts and markets of the product. None of this report was available to the public. In order to read this short report of 151 pages one must buy it in PDF or hard copy form for 2750! ''The total market size for e-paper displays in 2012 is $1.03 billion rising to $8.59 billion in 2022. Growth is predominately from demand of e-readers but other applications such as signage will become a substantial market.'' [53] Personally this strikes me as slightly ominous.
Overall, from what we know so far, the positives of nanotechnology tip the scale. I personally am of the mindset that the future is bright and wonderful with a world that is an easy and
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wholesome place to live in! If there's one lesson which can be taken away from all of this let it be ANYTHING IS POSSIBLE!
Contact
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This page gave the readers a chance to express their opinion of the website. It included a pole, section for comments and a personal sign-off from me, the author.
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Bibliography with Evaluation

Fiona Donovan K00101576
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References for this Document in Order of Appearance

(References for the website text can be seen below)
[1] David A. Dana. (November 14, 2011), The Nanotechnology Challenge: Creating Legal Institutions for Uncertain Risks, New York: Cambridge University Press. [2] Forfs. (2010). Irelands Nanotechnology Commercialisation Framework, 2010 2014. Forfs. [3] Institute of Nanotechnology, http://www.nano.org.uk/nanotechnology-reports/34 ( Feb 15th 2012) Book on this website: (Unavailable). (Jan 2012), E-Paper Displays: Markets, Forecasts, Technologies 2012-2020, (Unavailable): (Unavailable). [4] Nanowerk, http://www.nanowerk.com/nanotechnology/introduction/introduction_to_nanotechnology_1a. php , ( March 20th 2012) [5] Forfs. (2010). Nanotechnology in Ireland: A Snapshot. Forfs. [6] http://www.websitehelper.com/ (November 26th 2011)
References (in order of appearance on website)
[1] http://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1814 , Quantum Dots, Dec 15 2006 (last accessed: Apr 3rd 2012) [2] http://eng3060.pbworks.com/w/page/18918986/nanotube, Nicholas Adam Berkholz, July 2009 [3] http://www.nano.gov/timeline (Last accessed: March 20 2012) [4] Zhou, W and Zin Wang, Zhong (2006). Scanning Microscopy for Nanotechnology Techniques and Applications. New York: Springer. 95-96. [5] http://www.nanoscience.com/education/STM.html (Feb 22nd 2012) [6] http://www.aip.org/png/html/afm.htm Gil Lee, Naval Research Laboratory, 2007 (March 17th 2012) [7] http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/nanoquest/carbon/index.html Carbon Nanotubes and Buckyballs, 2008 (March 17th 2012)
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[8] Wikipedia [9] http://www.fei.com/products/transmission-electron-microscopes/ (March 17th 2012) [10] http://jumpthecurve.net/nanotechnology/15-ways-nanotechnology-is-making-life-bettertoday/ Jack Uldrich, June 30 2011 [11] http://science.howstuffworks.com/nanotechnology3.htm Products with Nanotechnology, Kevin Bonsor and Jonathan Strickland.(Feb 22nd 2012) [12] http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/ (Feb 22nd 2012) [13] http://curiosity.discovery.com/topic/nanostructures/10-ways-nanostructures-changingworld8.htm Joanna Burgess. (Feb 23nd 2012) [14] http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NTN/is_38/ai_108882042/ Under Your Skin, Gail Nakada, Dec, 2002 (Feb 23rd 2012) [15] www.apollodiamond.com (Feb 23rd 2012) [16] WilsonCentre, 2006, New Report on Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Food Looks at Potential Applications, Benefits and Risks, [press release], September 7, 2006, available at <<http://www.nanotechproject.org/process/assets/files/6014/090706nanotechnology_agifood _report_pr.pdf>> [17] [removed, same as [10] above] [18] http://www.zimbio.com/Nanotechnology/articles/EkCABhwnqLH/Most+Interesting+De velopments+Nanotechnologies January 2, 2012 | Filed under Articles, Innovation, Technology Posted by Paracha [19] http://www.nanoprotect.co.uk/nano-for-car.html (product) [20] www.liquipel.com (product) [21] Ranjbartoreh,Ali R. Wang, Bei. Shen,Xiaoping. Wang, Guoxiu . (2011). Advanced mechanical properties of graphene paper. Journal of Applied Physics. 109 (1). [22] 2009. Environmental and Human Health Impacts of Nanotechnology. 1 Edition. WileyBlackwell. [23] http://cleantechnica.com/2010/02/14/ibm-sets-new-solar-cell-efficiency-world-record/ Zachary Shahan, February 14, 2010 [24] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070719011151.htm Science Daily Article, Solar Panels, July 19 2007 (March 12th 2012) [25] http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/basics.htm 2008 Smithsonian Institution (Jan 12th 2012) [26] http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-132128-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html Hydrogen Fuel Cells, Lynn K.
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Mytelka [27] V. Arul Mozhi Selvan, R. B. Anand and M. Udayakumar, 2009. Effects of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticle Addition in Diesel and Diesel-biodiesel-ethanol Blends on the Performance and Emission Characteristics of a CI Engine. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences , 4 (7) [28] http://www.altairnano.com [29] http://www.nanopharmaceuticals.org/ [30] http://www.luxresearchinc.com/ [31] Park, K, 2007. Nanotechnology: What it can do for drug delivery, 1, [32] Ref: J.P., Mathuria. (2009). Nanoparticles in Tuberculosis Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention: A Hope for Future. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures Vol. 4, No.2, June 2009, p. 309 312 [33] J, Kjems and K, Howard. (2005). Drug Delivery: Nanocarriers ferry medicine into diseased cells. iNano Annual Report 2004. 1 (1), 10-11. [34] http://www.azonano.com/nanotechnology-video-details.aspx?VidID=28 (Jan 26th 2012) [35] http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2010/nanoburrs.html Anne Trafton, MIT News Office, January 19, 2010 [36] Kathleen E. Fischer, Aishwarya Jayagopal, Ganesh Nagaraj, R. Hugh Daniels, Esther M. Li, Matthew T. Silvestrini, and Tejal A. Desai. (2011). Nanoengineered Surfaces Enhance Drug Loading and Adhesion.Nanoengineered Surfaces Enhance Drug Loading and Adhesion. [37] http://www.packworld.com/machinery/fillingsealing/nanotechnology-protects-capsulescounterfeiting-and-diversion (Feb 12th 2012) [38] http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2012/wireless-drug-delivery-0216.html Anne Trafton, MIT News Office, (February 16, 2012) [39] http://www.utexas.edu/news/2012/02/01/nano_protein_clusters/ (Feb. 1, 2012) [40] http://www.tutuz.com/nanoparticles-ferromagnetic-theory-cancer/ Tigran H. & V. Shapoval South Carolina, USA, 5 November 2011 (Jan 27th 2012) [41] Sutton D, Wang S, Nasongkla N, Gao J, Dormidontova EE.. (2007). Doxorubicin and beta-lapachone release and interaction with micellar core materials: experiment and modeling.. Experimental Biology and Medicine (Maywood N.J). 232 (8), 1090-9. [42] Gabor L. Hornyak, 2008. Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Edition. CRC Press. [43] P. De Vos, A.F. Hamel and K. Tatarkiewwicz, Considerations for successive
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transplantation of encapsulate pancreatic islets, Diabetologica, 45, 159-172 (2002). (Jan 27th 2012) [44] [removed- see [32] ]
[45] http://inventors.about.com/b/2011/06/02/nanoengineers-invent-new-biomaterial.htm Mary Bellis, About.com Guide, June 2, 2011 (Feb 28th 2012) [46] http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2011/transparent-solar-windows-0415.html David L. Chandler, MIT News Office, April 15, 2011 (March 15th 2012) [47] J. Storrs Hall (2001). Utility Fog: The Stuff that Dreams Are Made Of. London: KurzweilAI.net. [48] http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/22333518/#.T4CzSZnlPIw Sperm to power robots, Bryn Nelson, 1/2/2008 (Feb 23rd 2012) [49] http://www.nnin.org/nnin_nature.html Nanostructures in Nature, Sandrine Martin (Univ. Mich.) , 2004 (Feb 25th 2012) [50] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7608369.stm Diatom nanostructures bend light, Elizabeth Mitchell, 10 September 2008 (March 12th 2012) [51] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080117201947.htm Jan. 17, 2008 (March 19th 2012) [52] http://www.thestar.com/article/426978 Particles as health problems, Andrew Chung, May 18 2008 (March 17th 2012) [53] http://www.nano.org.uk/nanotechnology-reports/34 E-paper forecasts (Feb 15th 2012)
Evaluation of References
Nanotechnology is a new area and so it would be preferable if sources of information were in the last few years. In the bibliography is can be seen that references begin from 2002 with many references from 2012 sources. As with any science discipline there are new discoveries all the time, but this applies even more-so with nanotechnology. It was not possible to have all the most up to date information and discoveries but there are some references above from February 2012. It is also difficult to get information on the latest discoveries because as they may be released in scientific news forums, the official scientific journals take longer to publish.
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The bibliography above contains many different sources of references such as books, scientific journals, reports, news articles, product websites and educational websites. The references I found to be most useful were:
1. Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (Book)

[42] Gabor L. Hornyak, 2008. Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Edition. CRC Press Published: December 22, 2008 by CRC Press - 1,640 Pages Author(s): Gabor L. Hornyak, NanoThread, Inc., Golden, Colorado, USA; H.F. Tibbals, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, USA; Joydeep Dutta, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand; John J. Moore, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, USA I found this to be an excellent source of information for gaining background knowledge on the subject before beginning the website. Once the website began it continued to be an excellent source particularly with providing insightful, easily understood and complete information on nanomedicine. Much information was taken from this regarding how nanotechnology affects the diagnosis, prevention and detection of particular illnesses such as diabetes. It was also a great source of information on nanopharmaceuticals particularly nano-encapsulation and its benefits. Although this book was published back in 2008 the information remains relevant today.
2. Environmental and Human Health Impacts of Nanotechnology (Book)

[22] 2009. Environmental and Human Health Impacts of Nanotechnology. 1 Edition. WileyBlackwell.
Jamie R. Lead (Editor), Emma Smith (Co-Editor) ISBN: 978-1-4051-7634-7, Hardcover, 456 pages, August 2009, Wiley-Blackwell
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3. Jump the Curve (Website, Jack Uldrich)

http://jumpthecurve.net/nanotechnology/15-ways-nanotechnology-is-making-life-bettertoday/ Jack Uldrich, June 30 2011 Jack Uldrich is a renowned global futurist, independent scholar, sought-after business speaker, and best-selling author. This authors writing on the latest and useful applications of nanotechnology in our everyday lives saved is worth a mention as it saved time in researching through reams of information on new nano applications. His writing on this has been referenced by many other nanotechnology writers also.
All the other reference sources above were trustworthy. There were a couple of places where Wikipedia [8] was used as a reference but this was only to gain definitions of what I had already known and for insight into some of the negative aspects of nanotechnology.
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Discussion and Conclusion

Including Feedback on the Website
K00101576
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Feedback on Website
Some comments left on the website: Fiona, you have done a great job! Well done.!! very well laid out, the titles and images were very good, as well as the videos. Very interesting sections, informative and surprisingly entertaining, A+! Wow! Well done. I really enjoyed this website. The look and the layout are very professional and the content is presented in a very appealing manner which wants me to learn more about the subject. Good job. Well done Fiona Excellent simplification in ordinary language of a complex technology. Design and clarity of website is appealing and easy to navigate. I found the website really interesting and I got a very useful insight into nanotechnology, even though I don't have a very scientific background or knowledge I was still able to understand it and I learned a lot of things I did not know before.
Results of Poll 1 on Website
Did this website stir up some interest in you with regards to nanotechnology?
Yes
100% 13 votes
No
0% 0 votes
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Results of Poll 2 on Website
Did this website succeed in providing you with sufficient information on nanotechnology?
Yes
100% 13 votes
No
0% 0 votes
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Conclusion
From looking at the comments and pole results above the website succeeded in providing sufficient information on nanotechnology. It also succeeded in provoking interest in individuals towards nanotechnology. The comments were all hugely positive and viewers of the website found it interesting and informational.
Discussion
The website was a success and achieved all the aims it set out to achieve. The tools which were used- Weebly.com, surveymonkey.com and polldaddy.com were all simple to use and there was no failure in use even though they were all used online.
Final Word
As a final word I would like to add that I was grateful for the opportunity to work on researching nanotechnology. I found the whole subject very interesting and fascinating at times. I hope it transcends in the writing that there was genuine interest involved in writing this project. I would like to think that any readers of the website will be able to tell that this was not simply a forced project which was a burden, as I think it will make their reading a more enjoyable experience. Writing a website is very different from other final year projects which one would expect from a science degree but there is much to be gained from such a project. The science world is a big place full of opportunity in many diverse subject areas and to get the opportunity to research such a new and relevant subject which encompasses every aspect of science is great. Having knowledge on all aspects of nanotechnology goes hand-inhand with having a good understanding on how the science world works with regards to both industrial science and scientific research and development. It was found in the survey that people are interested in knowing more about nanotechnology and now they can learn about it from a website which is relevant to Irish people wanting to have a grasp on the subject. Hopefully in the years to come there will be more of an opportunity in Ireland for secondary school and third level students to study nanotechnology because, as it can be seen in this project, there is need for more emphasis on the subject. I hope all readers of the website enjoy reading it as much as I did writing it.
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Acknowledgements
*Content Removed*
Link to Website: www.nanotechnologyforstudents.weebly.com *The webstie has also been formatted so as not to contain any personal information.
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