(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

A01-16923

AIAA2001-1147

Past, Present & Future of Aircraft Electrical Power Systems

J. Weimer Air Force Research Laboratory Wright Patterson AFB, OH

39th Aerospace Sciences Meeting & Exhibit 8-11 January 2001 Reno, Nevada
For permission to copy or to republish, contact the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500, Rcston, VA, 20191-4344.

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE

OF

AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS Joseph A. Weimer Power Division Propulsion Directorate Air Force Research Laboratory Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-7251

ABSTRACT The first aircraft electrical power system generated and distributed hundreds of watts of electricity to a very small number of loads. Today's aircraft electrical system has grown by 3 orders of magnitude in the amount of power generated and distributed (1.2 megawatts on the USAF E-4B Command Post). During the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s aircraft electrical power requirements and complexity grew. The Air Force and Navy instituted research and development programs to make electrical power systems more reliable, fault tolerant and autonomous. The Air Force focused on 400-hertz systems, developing variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) generator technology and autonomous/fault tolerant power distribution. The Navy developed 270 VDC power generation and distribution system technologies. These technologies, though different in approach, made their way on to several military aircraft. In the 1990s the Air Force and Navy led the nation in a new initiative in aircraft electrical power, taking advantage of the technologies developed in the prior three decades. The Air Force/Navy and its university and industrial partners have pursued an extensive research and development on electrical power system and component technologies to enable a "more electric" aircraft power system. This initiative has been commonly called the More Electric Aircraft (MEA). The MEA initiative has recently completed the first generation milestones through a Joint Strike Fighter technology maturation effort. The Air Force continues to pursue MEA technologies, which will enable electrical starter/generators to be integrated into the turbine engine. The MEA initiative endorses the notion of driving aircraft subsystems electrically, which have been powered by hydraulic, mechanical and pneumatic means. The purpose of this paper is to briefly review the

history of conventional aircraft power systems prior to the MEA initiative, review the MEA initiative by discussing recently completed programs and on-going technology programs, and a brief look at what's beyond. INTRODUCTION The past, present and future of aircraft electrical power systems cannot be captured in a single technical paper. Therefore, it is the intent of this paper to review significant historical events that have shaped today's aircraft electrical power systems. The paper will also briefly project the future of military aircraft electrical power systems. This paper places emphasis on military aircraft electrical power systems, since it has paced the development for all aircraft power systems. PAST Electrical power has played a significant role from the first powered flight to the present day. The Wright brother's first flight was dependent upon electrical power to supply energy to the engine's ignition system. In 1936, the first DC-3 aircraft had two 50 ampere 14.25 VDC generators who combined power was 1425 watts, comparable to today's automotive electrical system. As power demands increased, the industry developed higher voltage 28 VDC electrical systems in order to minimize the weight impact. The first military aircraft to use AC power was the B-36 in 1946. The engineers selected the 115/200 VAC, 3phase, 400-hertz electrical system because it offered the lightest weight solution for increased power demand. This system would become the standard for the industry and is still used today in modern military aircraft. The clear advantage of this 400-hertz AC system over the 28 VDC system was lower weight, which was a critical issue, as aircraft became larger and hungrier for electrical

This paper is declared a work of the U.S. Government and is not subject to coovrisht nrotection in the United States. 1 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

power. However, in the 1980s, high voltage direct current (HVDC) power or 270 VDC power would prove to be the power of choice for reducing aircraft mass. 270 VDC power was selected over 400-hertz for the F-22 because of reduced weight. Also during the 1980s and 1990s, other forms of power were investigated for aircraft utilization. This included high frequency AC power or 20kilohertz power, variable frequency variable voltage (VFVV) and variable frequency constant voltage (VFCV) systems. NASA Lewis Research Center led the research and development of 20kilohertz power. The 20 kilohertz power system never transitioned to any production aircraft. The VFVV and the VFCV systems are the simplest forms of producing electrical power and require no power electronics in the output stage. The VFVV system can be implemented with a permanent magnet generator and was initially proposed for the all-electric aircraft in the late 1970s. The VFCV system was implemented with a synchronous generator and the output is regulated to a constant voltage over the entire speed range. This type of system is used today on a select few aircraft. A synchronous generator coupled to constant speed drive (CSD) transmission has been the preferred method to produce 400-hertz power on military and commercial aircraft. The CSD is typically located on an aircraft mounted accessory drive (AMAD) or gearbox. This gearbox has a variable speed, due to changes in the engine speed (typically a 2 to 1 speed ratio). The CSD changes the variable speed to a constant "synchronous" speed (i.e. 6000 RPM) to drive the generator. Most electrical systems, in use today, employ a CSD/synchronous generator. Figure 1 shows schematically the key elements of the system. In the 1970s, Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) generator systems were developed to offer an alternative approach to generate 400hertz power. The main advantage of the VSCF system over the CSD system was the potential improvements in reliability. This technology was enabled by advancements in power electronic devices. Two VSCF converter topologies were developed and produced primarily for military fighter aircraft.

GEAR DIFFERENTIAL VARIABLE SPEED INPUT

VARIABLE FIXED DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT

HZHD%. .j
HYDRAULIC UNITS

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of a Constant Speed Drive

The first VSCF converter topology was the cycloconverter, which used silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) thyristors for switching. The cycloconverter changed higher frequency AC power (typically 1200 to 2400-hertz) to lower frequency 400-hertz power. The cycloconverter is a matrix converter, which required multiple AC switches that interconnected each input phase from the generator to each of the 3 output phases to produce 115/200 volt, 400-hertz power. Figure 2 illustrates the schematic of the VSCF cycloconverter system. Figure 3 shows the resulting output 400-hertz waveform. The number of SCRs to implement the cycloconverter was high (36 to 54 devices depending on the number of input phases) thus impacting the overall reliability of the system. However, the cycloconverter produced near sinusoidal power which reduced output filter size and weight and was capable of bi-directional power flow, which would be advantages for starter/generator applications.

Figure 2. VSCF Cycloconverter Schematic

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

GEN FREQ

Figure 3. Resulting 400-Hertz Waveform from Cycloconverter

The other competing VSCF topology was the DC link VSCF system. The DC link VSCF system used a 2-stage power conversion approach to produce 400-hertz power. A synchronous generator would produce variable frequency power and the output would be rectified to DC. The DC power would be filtered to establish a low impedance voltage source or DC link, which would be inverted by a 3-phase bridge to produce 400-hertz power. Figure 4 shows the block diagram of the DC-link VSCF generator system. The advantage of this system is that a wide variety of modulation techniques could be used to produce 400-hertz sinusoidal power. The disadvantage of the system was the power handling limitation of the inverter's power semiconductors and the inability of the system to be used as a starter/generator.

and more powerful power electronic devices and sponsored key demonstrations of the technology. During this same VSCF development period, the Air Force Material Laboratory was leading a national effort in the development of rare earth permanent magnets. In 1974, the Air Force Material Laboratory and the Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory jointly awarded a contract to demonstrate a 150 KVA samarium cobalt VSCF starter/generator system. The program was completed in 1978. Later that year, the Air Force initiated an advanced development program to flight test a 60 KVA starter/generator for the A-10 aircraft. This program demonstrated that VSCF could electrically start a turbine engine (General Electric TF34 engine) and produce primary electrical power for the aircraft. The combined function of starting the turbine engine and providing primary electrical power into one system greatly reduced the weight and improved the overall aircraft reliability.
The Air Force continued to look at other options to make VSCF power generating systems. This included the development of the cascaded doubly fed VSCF generating system which showed promise to greatly improve power density and the resonant link VSCF generating systems which enable significant improvement in efficiency and power density. Both systems were developed and demonstrated in the laboratory, but never brought to flight qualified hardware. Today, VSCF electrical generating systems flies on several military aircraft including the F-18, F-16, AV8-B, TR-1, and F-117 to name a few. In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, the Air Force invested in research and development of autonomous power management and distribution systems. Electrical power systems were now flight critical due to the implementation of "fly-bywire". Now electrical systems were "flight critical" and the approach at the time was to use a "brute force" method to provide back up, fault reliable tolerant electrical power. Unfortunately, this method was heavy and unreliable due to the increase number of electrical system components. Key to the development of an autonomous power management and distribution system was the solid state power controller (SSPCs) which replaced electromechanical circuit breakers and electro-mechanical relays. A dedicated serial data bus was developed to interface the SSPCs with a

Figure 4. Block Diagram of the DC-link VSCF Generator System In 1972, VSCF power generation equipment was needed to solve an A-4 electrical system problem. The excellent results obtained in the A-4 program, coupled with the ever-increasing high life-cycle costs of constant speed drives, drove the Air Force to invest in VSCF technology. The Air Force invested in the development of higher temperature

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

system controller. A considerable amount of weight could be saved with the serial data bus by replacing hardwire analog controls with a dual redundant serial data bus. The system controller could provide a load management function by autonomously powering loads during different phases of flight. It could also autonomously shed loads in the event the demand exceeded the total power generation capacity. The B1-B bomber was the first aircraft to use data bus control on the electrical system. However, the B1-B bomber did not use SSPCs, instead it used electromechanical relays for control and thermal circuit breakers for over current protection. The B1-B bomber was the first aircraft to use a "double voltage system which increased the voltage of the existing 400-hertz, 3-phase system from a 115/200 volts to a 230/400 volt system. The double voltage system, in addition to the~serial data bus control, would significantly reduce wire weight. In 1984, the Air Force went on contract with Boeing to develop a 400-hertz fault tolerant electrical power system (FTEPS) for an advanced fighter aircraft. The objective of this program was to develop and laboratory demonstrate a reliable fault tolerant electrical power system through the integration of VSCF generators and bus contactor controls with SSPCs. This highly integrated system would minimize weight and volume and reduce the likelihood of cascading faults in the electrical system. In fact, the system was to be considered to be "bullet proof and would provide highly reliable power to flight critical loads that previously required dedicated permanent magnet generator backup.
While the Air Force was developing VSCF technologies in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, the Naval Air Development Center was developing 270 VDC technologies for aircraft utilization during this same time period. This was a major shift from conventional 400-hertz power. Generating 270 VDC power was less complicated and inherently more reliable than CSD or VSCF power generation technology. The 270 VDC generating system was like the DC-link system without the inverter. A block diagram of a 270 VDC generator system is shown in Figure 5. Though the generator was simple and straightforward, there were other concerns with the use 270VDC that needed to be addressed. The Navy implemented several research and development programs that mitigated the risk of using 270 VDC.

AC

270 VDC.

Figure 5. Block Diagram of a 270 VDC Generator System Also, during the 1970s the Air Force pursued high power electrical generators based on a perceived need for high power electronic warfare (EW) systems and directed energy weapon (DEW) systems in the future. The Aero Propulsion Laboratory entered into a research contract with the AiResearch Manufacturing Company to develop a 10-megawatt power generation system(s) for EW and DEW applications. The contractor selected a 5-megawatt permanent magnet design (2 generators in parallel to meet the 10-megawatt requirement) that would operate at 18,000 RPM, with a line to line voltage of 1000 volts. The generator was designed for a lifetime of 100 hours with a 5 minute run time and a 5minute cool down period. The projected weight of the system was an impressive 530 pounds! The hardware was developed, but problems were encountered in the testing of the rotor structure. Figure 6 shows a conceptual design of the 5megawatt generator. Because of the technical problems, the generator was never fully tested. This class of generator never went into production and is considered today to be ahead of its time.

Figure 6. Conceptual 5-megawatt Generator

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

Present (The MEA

In the early 1990s, the Air Force formulated the More Electric Aircraft (MEA) initiative, which embraced the concept of using electrical power for driving aircraft subsystems that are typically driven by hydraulic, pneumatic and mechanical power. Mechanical power is extracted from the core of the propulsion engine through a tower shaft to drive engine gearboxes and the AMAD. The engine gearbox drives accessories dedicated to make the engine function. For example, the engine gearbox drives a fuel pump to deliver fuel to the engine, a hydraulic pump for nozzle and vain control and typically a small generator to provide power to the engine controller and sensors. The AMAD is linked to the engine gearbox via a power take off (PTO) shaft. The AMAD drives the aircraft electrical generator and hydraulic pumps, which are used for utility and flight control actuation. Pneumatic power is directly extracted from the main propulsion engine to drive the environmental control system's (ECS) compressor. Figure 7 illustrates a typical aircraft power system and its complexity with pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical and electrical power. The MEA initiative emphasized the use of electrical power in lieu of hydraulic, mechanical and pneumatic power for optimizing the aircraft(s) warfighting capability and life cycle cost. For example, the MEA would replace hydraulic actuators and hydraulic plumbing with an electric motor driven actuator and electrical wiring. Studies for the Air Force have shown that the MEA concept provides significant improvement in reliability, maintainability and supportability. The decision to convert to electrically driven subsystems depends on the overall cost and warfighting benefit. Each subsystem would be studied to determine the benefit. Therefore, a MEA could be as simple as adding an electric fuel pump (more electric) or a full implementation where all subsystems are driven electrically (all electric). In the 1990s the focus has been on the "more electric" where as the near future is focused to the "all electric". The "all electric" aircraft will totally eliminate mechanical and pneumatic power extraction from the main propulsion engine and will integrate an electric starter/generator into the propulsion engine's turbine core. Integrating the starter generator into the engine will eliminate the tower shaft, gearboxes and AMAD, which will reduce cross sectional area and drag torque

during engine starting. Figure 8 illustrates the allelectric aircraft power system and its relative simplicity when compared to the conventional secondary power system.

Figure 7. A Typical Aircraft Power System

Figure 8. The All-Electric Aircraft Power System The MEA initiative has been characterized as a revolutionary concept, however from a technology viewpoint it is evolutionary. In 1943, the engineers at the Douglas Company made the trade between using electrical power and hydraulic power for flight control and utility actuation. The state-of-the-art for electrical power in 1943 was 24 VDC brush generators and motors and electro-mechanical relays and potentiometers for controls. They concluded that a vast improvement in electrical generators, motors and drives must be made before the low weight and efficiency of hydraulic pumps and motors can be equaled. The roots of MEA initiative goes back to the work accomplished by the Air Force/Navy in developing and maturing VSCF electrical power generator systems, fault tolerant electrical power systems, high energy density permanent magnet

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

materials for motors and generators, and 270 VDC system and component technologies. In 1991, Mr. Richard E. Quigley Jr., Chief of the Aerospace Power Division, Aero Propulsion and Power Division, Wright Laboratory, United States Air Force laid out the vision for the More Electric Aircraft initiative. He knew the concept was not new, but the timing was right, since several key technologies were in place to make it happen. In 1992, the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board recommended that the MEA initiative invest in 4 key technology demonstrations in order to be successful. The four key technologies were 1) the integral starter/generator, 2) the integrated power unit, 3) the fault tolerant 270 VDC electrical power system, and 4) the high horse power electric actuator. Once these technologies were demonstrated and in place, it was conceivable to transition the MEA concept to a fighter aircraft. Figure 9 pictorially shows the 4 key technologies to be demonstrated. The Air Force and Navy jointly funded the four key demonstration programs and these technologies are described below.

reluctance technology needed to be demonstrated external to the engine, before it would be integrated into the engine. This decision was based on cost and risk. The machine of choice for the internal starter/generator was switched reluctance. Switched reluctance machines were an old technology that was enabled by advancements in power electronics and digital signal processors. Switched reluctance machines have several advantages over conventional type of electrical machines. First, the machine has a very simple electro-magnetic structure, thus inherently reliable. This consists of a salient pole rotor made of only soft magnetic material and salient pole stator made with soft magnetic materials with independent coil windings. Second, the machine could operate in a high temperature environment (i.e. at internal engine temperatures) but was limited by the magnetic material and winding insulation temperatures. Third, the machine is capable of being fault tolerant since the phase windings are electrically isolated, and a failure in a winding could be isolated by the power electronics. Fourth, the machine could seamlessly transition from motoring to generating mode, which was critical for aircraft applications. A 270 VDC, 250-kilowatt starter/ generator was developed and laboratory demonstrated. This machine laid the groundwork for a follow-on flight test demonstration for the Joint Strike Fighter Office. Figure 10 shows the switched reluctance starter/generator under test.

Figure 9. The Four Key MEA Technologies External Integral Starter/Generator (EIS/G) The external integral starter generator combines the engine start function and the generation of primary electrical power into a single "integral" device. The machine developed for the external starter/generator would also have to work for the internal starter/generator application. It was decided early in the MEA initiative, that switched

Figure 10. Switched Reluctance Starter/Generator

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

Integrated Power Unit (IPU) The Integrated power unit is an electrical starter/generator directly coupled to a high-speed turbo-machinery prime mover. The purpose of the IPU is to combine three separate functions (and hardware) into a single unit. The IPU provides main engine starting whether on the ground or during flight (when linked to the integral starter generator), auxiliary power for ground checkout, and emergency power for in-flight backup of primary electrical power. This is a critical element in the MEA concept and is primarily responsible for the elimination of most of the ground support equipment necessary to support a conventional fighter aircraft power system. For example, the IPU can power an electric motor driven environmental control system compressor, in addition to providing aircraft power for ground maintenance and checkout of avionics and other subsystems. Thus eliminating the need for ground power carts and other ground support equipment. The Air Force entered into an exploratory development contract with AlliedSignal Aerospace Inc. to demonstrate an IPU. Several new technologies were explored and integrated into the design. This included a high speed switched reluctance machine (SRM) to electrical start the turbo-machinery and provide 270 VDC electrical power, magnetic bearings for long life and high efficiency, and high speed power and control electronics to process the power. The system was designed to integrate the electric machine between the compressor and the turbine of the turbo-machinery and would use the compressor air for cooling. This integration eliminated the need for additional bearings for the SRM. The program successfully demonstrated a high speed SRM producing over 30 kW of 270 VDC power at 30,000 RPM on magnetic bearings. The Air Force awarded a follow-on advanced development program to Sundstrand Aerospace to develop a flight packaged IPU with an integrated power head. The starter/generator is a SRM, but is mounted external to the turbomachinery. The program objective was to develop an IPU that meets the major goals identified in Table 1. The program is nearing the completion of the fabrication phase. A test phase will follow to verify the performance of the unit.

Power

125 kW continuous - standard day 200 kW desirable - cold day 270 VDC output electric electromagnetics - air electronics - liquid no lubrication Table 1. Major IPU Goals

Start Cooling Bearings

Power Management and Distribution (MADMEL) The MEA will need a highly reliable, fault tolerant, autonomously controlled electrical power system to deliver high quality power from the sources to the load. This type of system has similar requirements to the FTEPS, but with several unique challenges. First, the MEA concept adds a substantial amount of high power and dynamic motor loads to the power system, which impact power quality. Second, most of these loads will have a low input impedance EMI filter that presents an in-rush current problem during powerup. Third, most of these loads have a constant power characteristic, which tends to destabilize the power system during transient events. Fourth, MEA loads such as flight control actuators produce regenerative electrical energy that must either be consumed in the actuator as heat or transferred back to the power distribution system for utilization. Fifth, a high percentage of the loads are flight critical and loss of power to these loads could result in the loss of the aircraft. Thus, the performance and integrity of the power distribution system becomes critical. In order to address these electrical power system challenges, the Air Force awarded a contract to Northrop Corporation in the fall of 1991 to develop and demonstrate a power management and distribution system for a MEA. The contract, commonly called MADMEL, brought together several state-of-the-art and emerging technologies to laboratory demonstrate a highly reliable, fault tolerant power system. The majority of the more electric and avionic loads required 270 VDC power. The generation anc distribution of 270 VDC power has its own set o technical issues that were addressed under th< program. The MADMEL program was successful!1 completed in the spring of 1999.

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

High Horsepower Electric Actuators The Air Force recognized the need to demonstrate a high horsepower electrical actuator to meet the demands of the horizontal tail for an advanced fighter aircraft. This demonstration was considered to be essential for electrical actuation to transition to the next generation fighter. Electric actuation had been demonstrated on small horsepower surfaces, but this was not sufficient to transition the MEA concept. Several aerospace companies under internal funding initiated the development of high horsepower electrical actuators. This included the electro-mechanical actuator (EMA) and the electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA). The EMA used an electric motor to drive a ball screw actuator and the EHA used an electric motor driven hydraulic pump, which drove a hydraulic cylinder. These units"were laboratory demonstrators and did not meet the power density goals necessary to transition to an aircraft. The Air Force entered into an agreement with Sundstrand Aerospace to develop a high horsepower, electro-mechanical actuator. The focus of this agreement was to reduce the size and weight of an electric actuator motor drive by a factor of 2! The Join Strike Fighter Office was also interested in the high horsepower, electrical actuators and funded an additional effort to mature the technology. J/IST Program In 1995, the Joint Strike Fighter Office initiated a multi year $118 million Joint/Integrated Strike Fighter (J/IST) program to mature critical MEA subsystem technologies and reduce associated risk. The Joint Strike Fighter Office recognized MEA technologies offered advantages through subsystem integration. Benefit studies conducted by the J/IST contractors showed a 2-3% reduction in life cycle cost and 500-700 pound reduction in gross take off weight by using MEA technologies in a JSF type vehicle. Given this motivation, the J/IST program established 4 major technology maturation demonstrations. This included 1) thermal energy management module (T/EMM) system demonstration, 2) the T/EMM engine integration demonstration, 3) the electric power integration demonstration and 4) the electrical power & actuation flight demonstration. The J/IST demonstration programs were a logical extension of the Air Force/Navy MEA program. The critical

technologies such as the high speed SRM and magnetic bearings used in the T/EMM were initially demonstrated under the MEA IPU programs. The electric actuation and flight demonstration program used the AFTI/F-16 as the test vehicle. Many of the technologies used in the AFTI/F-16 flight test program were developed under the MEA initiative. This includes the EIS/G and MADMEL 270 VDC distribution technologies. Figure 11 illustrates the key MEA technologies demonstrated in the AFTI/F-16. All of the J/IST programs were recently and successfully completed.

Figure 11. The AFTI/F-16 Key MEA Technologies FUTURE It is anticipated that military aircraft electrical power systems will evolve again to have a major impact on weapon systems. This time it will enable directed energy weapon (DEW) systems on aircraft. The amount of power needed for these DEW systems ranges from hundreds of kilowatts to tens of megawatts of average power. Low average power/high pulse power (gigawatt and higher) systems will also be needed. MEA technologies will enable the lower end of the power spectrum, but new power technologies will be needed for these high power (>megawatt) and pulse power systems. Compact and lightweight generators, capacitors, power conditioning and thermal management technologies are the key technologies to enable aircraft DEW electrical power systems. The Air Force is formulating electrical power technology programs to meet the future aircraft DEW needs. SUMMARY

Aircraft electrical power have evolved from a "hundreds of watts" system to today's "hundreds of kilowatts" system. Through out this evolution

8
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

several major milestones were accomplished. This includes: 1) The development of the CSD/synchronous generator, which enabled 400hertz systems and is still the workhorse today. 2) The development of the VSCF and 270 VDC technologies in the 1960s and throughout the 1980s, were the precursors to the MEA. 3) The foresight to start the MEA initiative by recognizing that timing was right for an old idea. 4) The J/IST demonstration programs, that mitigated the risk to transition MEA technologies. These developments are the product of the ingenuity, perseverance and dedication of the industry. References: 1. R. E. Quigley Jr., "More Electric Aircraft," Conference Record, IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference, March 7-11, 1993, pp. 906-911 2. J. A. Weimer, et a!., "Power Technology for the More Electric Aircraft," Conference Record, AIAA/AHS/ASEE Aerospace Design Conference, February 16-19 1993 3. C. A. Ferreira and E. Richter, "Detailed Design of a 250kW Switched reluctance Starter/Generator for an Aircraft Engine," SAE 1993 Transaction, Vol102, Journal of Aerospace, Section 1, pp. 289-300 4. G. P. Koerner and E.U.A. Siddiqui, "Permanent Magnet Variable Speed Constant Frequency Power Generation System," Air Force Technical Report - AFWAL-TR-852112, March 1986 5. "Aircraft Electrical Engineering," Copyright, 1943, by The McGraw-Hill Book Company, The Maple Press Company, York PA. 6. P. G. Colegrove, "Integrated Power Unit for a More Electric Airplane," Conference Record, AIAA/AHS/ASEE Aerospace Design Conference, February 16-19 1993

9
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics