Ch. 11 Heat 11.

.1 Heat and Internal Energy Internal Energy U the energy associated with the microscopic kinetic (translational, vibrational, and rotational) and potential (intermolecular forces) energies of the system. Heat is a mechanism by which energy is transferred between a system and its environment because of a temperature difference between them. We will thus not talk about how hot something is, but how much energy Q is transferred to a system due to a temperature difference. Heat is thermal energy, the ability to change the T of a system in contact. Historical Unit: calorie 1 calorie is the energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5C to 15.5C. Note: the familiar Calorie used in determining the chemical energy of food is actually 1 kcal (1000 cal). Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 1 cal ! 4.186 J Example: Problem 7 A 75.0 kg weight-watcher wishes to climb a mountain to work off the equivalent of a large piece of chocolate cake rated at 500 (food) Calories. How high must the person climb? (1 food Calorie = 103 calories). 11.2 Specific Heat Some substances require more/less than 4.186 J to raise 1 g by 1C (or 4186 J for 1 kg by 1C). We use specific heat to describe and quantify this fact. or 1 Cal ! 4186 J

specific heat

c!

Q m"T

J kg #1 !C #1

where !T = T final " Tinitial . NOTE ORDER! By definition, the specific heat for water is c = 4186 J kg-1 C-1. So the energy required to raise the temperature of a system of mass m by "T is:

Q = mc !T

Sign Convention: When T in a system increases, energy flowing into the system - Q and "T are positive When T in a system decreases, energy flowing out of the system - Q and "T are negative Application: Sea breezes Specific heat of sand is lower than that of water. Daytime heating causes breeze from sea to land as hot air rises over the sand. Exercise: Problem #2 A 50 g sample of copper is at 25C. If 1,200 J of energy is added to the copper by heat, what is its final temperature? Quick Quiz 11.1 Imagine you have 1 kg each of iron, glass, and water, and that all of the samples are at 10C. (a) Rank the samples from lowest to highest temperature after 100 J is added to each by heat. (b) Rank them from least to greatest amount of energy transferred by heat if enough energy is transferred so that each increase in temperature by 20C.

11.3 Calorimetry Suppose we put a warm object into cooler water: For any isolated system exchanging heat amongst its components: Qcold = !Qhot or Qcold + Qhot = 0 Here, Qcold = Qwater = mw cw T ! Tw

Qhot = Qsubstance x = mx cx T ! Tx mw cw so cx
w x x x

( ) (T ! T ) = !m c (T ! T ) m c (T ! T ) = m (T ! T )
w w x w x

Sign Convention: The energy transfer Qhot is negative because energy is leaving the hot substance. The minus sign in Qcold = !Qhot insures that Qcold is positive, since it is the cold object that is gaining energy. Note that Qcold + Qhot = 0 . This is may be easier to remember. Example: Problem 15 An aluminum cup contains 225 g of water and a 40-g copper stirrer, all at 27C. A 400 g sample of silver at an initial temperature of 87C is placed in the water. The stirrer is used to stir the mixture gently until it reaches its final equilibrium temperature of 32C. Calculate the mass of the aluminum cup. Example: Problem 18 A combination of 0.250 kg of water at 20.0C, 0.400 kg of aluminum at 26.0C , and 0.100 kg of copper that is at 100C is mixed in an insulated container and allowed to come to thermal equilibrium. Neglect any energy transfer to or from the container and determine the final temperature of the mixture.

10.4 Latent Heat & Phase Change Phase Changes: vapor#liquid liquid#solid vapor#solid solid1#solid2 boiling/condensing melting/freezing sublimation

Energy associates with phase change Q = mL , where L is the latent heat of the substance for that particular phase change. Sign Convention: Q = +mL adding energy
Q = !mL

( example : melting ice cube) removing energy ( example : freezing water )

Heat of fusion melting/freezing Heat of vaporization boiling/condensing Heat of sublimation

Remember, in solving problems: 1. consistent units 2. Q = mc!T only if no phase change

Q = mL fusion (solid#liquid); Q = mLvapor (liquid#vapor)

3. remember signs, and that !T = T final " Tinitial

Example: Taking ice at T=-30.0C to vapor at T=120.0C (at constant pressure)

Part A. Warming ice, T changes Q = mcice !T Part B. Melting ice, T constant Q = mL fusion Part C. Warming water, T changes Q = mcwater !T Part D. Vaporizing water, T constant Q = mLvapor Part E. Warming vapor. T changes Q = mcsteam !T Exercise: Problem 23 What mass of steam that is initially at 120C is needed to warm 350 g of water and its 300-g aluminum container from 20C to 50C?

11.5 Thermal Conduction Conduction net transfer of energy due to vibrational motions of atoms, molecules, and (in the case of electrical conductors) mobile electrons without a net flow of the material.

!=

Q = k ! "t thermal

conductivity

$T # Tcolder ' "T = kA & hotter ) "x % "xhotter #cooler (

!=

A Thotter # Tcolder Q A Thotter # Tcolder = = "t Li k Rnet $ !i i $ Ri

i

Can you think of another example where the flow goes inversely with the resistance?

Example: Problem #39 A copper rod and an aluminum rod of equal diameter are joined end to end in good thermal contact. The temperature of the free end of the copper rod is held constant at 100C, and that of the far end of the aluminum rod is held at 0C. If the copper rod is 0.15m long, what must be the length of the aluminum rod so that the temperature at the junction is 50C?

11.6 Convection Convection heat transfer by macroscopic movement of matter. Natural Convection lower density creates buoyancy - heated roadways, campfires, etc. Forced Convection using fans, pumps, etc. some heating systems

Mathematically, convection is very difficult to deal with far beyond the scope of this course! (Notice that the textbook has NO problems for this section!)

11.7 Radiation All objects with T > 0 K radiate electromagnetic radiation at a rate of: ! = " AeT 4 Watts Stefan's Law

" = 5.699x10#8 W m#2 K #4 A = surface area e = emissivity An object in radiative contact with surroundings at temperature T0 will absorb an amount of energy !abs = " AeT04 So the net gain/loss of energy by radiation is !net = " Ae T 4 # T04

(Actually its a little more complicated than this, because here we have assumed that e is the same for the absorption and emission i.e. that the absorption and emission occur over the same wavelength ranges.) Thermogram of a human.

Example: Problem 11.44 Calculate the temperature at which a tungsten filament that has an emissivity of 0.25 and a surface area of 2.5x10-5 m2 will radiate energy at a rate of 25 W in a room where the temperature is 22C. 11.8 Resisting Energy Transfer

Thermos bottles (more appropriately called Dewar flasks) help thermally isolate their contents thermally from the rest of the world.

The Hubble Space Telescope reduces T fluctuations from entering & exiting the Earths shadow using a blanket of highly reflective insulation.

11.9 Global Warming & Greenhouse Gases The low e in the infrared due to various gases raises the T of the earth above what it would be in the absence of an atmosphere. This greenhouse effect is a misnomer, as real greenhouses get most of their T increase from inhibiting convective energy transport.

CO2, one of the major greenhouse gases, is on the rise. A doubling of CO2 could lead to a global increase in T of 2C (according to one estimate), which could have a significant impact on the climate of the Earth.

In addition to CO2, CH4, N2O, and SO2 contribute. 2/3 of the greenhouse effect is due to H2O!! This was not included in climate models until about 10 years ago.

There is some evidence that the Earth is warming slightly in the past century (although not all parts of the atmosphere seem to be doing the same thing, so it is complex). Changes in solar irradiation may also be contributing to this trend.