CHEMICAL BONDING

Cocaine

Chemical Bonding
Problems and questions How is a molecule or polyatomic ion held together? Why are atoms distributed at strange angles? Why are molecules not flat? Can we predict the structure? How is structure related to chemical and physical properties?

Review of Chemical Bonds

There are 3 forms of bonding: _________complete transfer of 1 or more electrons from one atom to another (one loses, the other gains) forming oppositely charged ions that attract one another _________some valence electrons shared between atoms _________ holds atoms of a metal together

Most bonds are somewhere in between ionic and covalent.

The type of bond can usually be calculated by 4 finding the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms that are going together.

Electronegativity Difference
If the difference in electronegativities is between: 1.7 to 4.0: Ionic 0.3 to 1.7: Polar Covalent 0.0 to 0.3: Non-Polar Covalent
Example: NaCl Na = 0.8, Cl = 3.0 Difference is 2.2, so this is an ionic bond!

Ionic Bonds
All those ionic compounds were made from ionic bonds. Weve been through this in great detail already. Positive cations and the negative anions are attracted to one another (remember the Paula Abdul Principle of Chemistry: Opposites Attract!)

Therefore, ionic compounds are usually between metals and nonmetals (opposite ends of the periodic table).

Electron Distribution in Molecules

Electron distribution is
depicted with Lewis

(electron dot) structures This is how you decide how many atoms will bond covalently!

G. N. Lewis 1875 - 1946

(In ionic bonds, it was decided with charges)

Bond and Lone Pairs

Valence electrons are distributed as shared or BOND PAIRS and unshared or LONE PAIRS.

Cl

shared or bond pair

lone pair (LP)

This is called a LEWIS structure.

Bond Formation
A bond can result from an overlap of atomic orbitals on neighboring atoms.

Cl

Cl

Overlap of H (1s) and Cl (2p)

Note that each atom has a single, unpaired electron.

Review of Valence Electrons

Remember from the electron chapter that valence electrons are the electrons in the OUTERMOST energy level thats why we did all those electron configurations! B is 1s2 2s2 2p1; so the outer energy level is 2, and there are 2+1 = 3 electrons in level 2. These are the valence electrons! Br is [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5 How many valence electrons are present?

10

Review of Valence Electrons

Number of valence electrons of a main (A) group atom = Group number

11

Steps for Building a Dot Structure

Ammonia, NH3
1. Decide on the central atom; never H. Why? If there is a choice, the central atom is atom of lowest affinity for electrons. (Most of the time, this is the
least electronegative atomin advanced chemistry we use a thing called formal charge to determine the central atom. But thats another story!)

12

Therefore, N is central on this one

2. Add up the number of valence electrons that can be used. H = 1 and N = 5 Total = (3 x 1) + 5 = 8 electrons / 4 pairs

Building a Dot Structure

3. Form a single bond between the central atom and each surrounding atom (each bond takes 2 electrons!)

13

H N H
H

4. Remaining electrons form LONE PAIRS to complete the octet as needed (or duet in the case of H). 3 BOND PAIRS and 1 LONE PAIR.
Note that N has a share in 4 pairs (8 electrons), while H shares 1 pair.

H N H
H

Building a Dot Structure

5. Check to make sure there are 8 electrons around each atom except H. H should only have 2 electrons. This includes SHARED pairs.

14

H N H

6. Also, check the number of electrons in your drawing with the number of electrons from step 2. If you have more electrons in the drawing than in step 2, you must make double or triple bonds. If you have less electrons in the drawing than in step 2, you made a mistake!

15

Carbon Dioxide, CO2

1. Central atom = 2. Valence electrons = 3. Form bonds.
C 4 eO 6 e- X 2 Os = 12 eTotal: 16 valence electrons

This leaves 12 electrons (6 pair). 4. Place lone pairs on outer atoms.

5. Check to see that all atoms have 8 electrons around it except for H, which can have 2.

Carbon Dioxide, CO2

C 4 eO 6 e- X 2 Os = 12 eTotal: 16 valence electrons How many are in the drawing?

16

6. There are too many electrons in our drawing. We must form DOUBLE BONDS between C and O. Instead of sharing only 1 pair, a double bond shares 2 pairs. So one pair is taken away from each atom and replaced with another bond.

Double and even triple bonds are commonly observed for C, N, P, O, and S

17

H2CO

SO3

C2F4

18

Now You Try One! Draw Sulfur Dioxide, SO2

Violations of the Octet Rule

(Honors only)

19

Usually occurs with B and elements of higher periods. Common exceptions are: Be, B, P, S, and Xe. Be: 4

B: 6
P: 8 OR 10 S: 8, 10, OR 12

SF4

BF3

Xe: 8, 10, OR 12

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

20

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

21

VSEPR
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory.
Most important factor in determining geometry is relative repulsion between electron pairs.

Molecule adopts the shape that minimizes the electron pair repulsions.

Some Common Geometries

Linear

22

Trigonal Planar

Tetrahedral

VSEPR charts
Use the Lewis structure to determine the geometry of the molecule Electron arrangement establishes the bond angles Molecule takes the shape of that portion of the electron arrangement Charts look at the CENTRAL atom for all data! Think REGIONS OF ELECTRON DENSITY rather than bonds (for instance, a double bond would only be 1 region)

23

24

25

Other VSEPR charts

Structure Determination by VSEPR

Water, H2O
The electron pair geometry is TETRAHEDRAL

26

2 bond pairs

2 lone pairs

The molecular geometry is BENT.

27

Structure Determination by VSEPR

Ammonia, NH3 The electron pair geometry is tetrahedral.
N H H H lone pair of electrons in tetrahedral position

The MOLECULAR GEOMETRY the positions of the atoms is TRIGONAL PYRAMID.

Bond Polarity
HCl is POLAR because it has a positive end and a negative end. (difference in electronegativity)
+d -d

28

H Cl

Cl has a greater share in bonding electrons than does H.

Cl has slight negative charge (-d) and H has slight positive charge (+ d)

Bond Polarity
This is why oil and water will not mix! Oil is nonpolar, and water is polar. The two will repel each other, and so you can not dissolve one in the other

29

Bond Polarity
Like Dissolves Like Polar dissolves Polar Nonpolar dissolves Nonpolar

30

31

Diatomic Elements
These elements do not exist as a single atom; they always appear as pairs When atoms turn into ions, this NO LONGER HAPPENS!
Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine

Remember: BrINClHOF

Chemical Bonding

32

What is Chemical Bonding?

Chemical Bonding is two or more atoms combining by sharing electrons so that a new substance is produced that has different physical and chemical properties than its component elements Chemical bonding occurs when atoms share valence electrons Atoms want to share electrons so that their valence shells are full and they are chemically stable -- for most elements, this means having 8 valence electrons -- for hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium (who can have a full 1st energy level), this means having 2 valence electrons

33

Lewis Structures
Other than the Bohr Model, there is a much simpler way that we can show the valence electrons of an atom. . . This is known as either an electron-dot diagram or, more scientifically, a Lewis Structure When drawing a Lewis Structure, you place the atomic symbol at the center and put dots around the symbol to indicate the valence electrons. -- DO NOT pair electrons until all four sides have at one electron Examples: least

34

Na

The Octet Rule

Atoms themselves can gain or lose electrons so that they have a full valence shell of 8 (or 2) electrons. . . -- when atoms gain or lose electrons, they are called ions

35

Depending on whether or not the atom gains or loses an electron, it can be positively-charged (cation) or negatively-charged (anion)
This need to be stable and have 8 electrons is called the octet rule

In addition to forming ions, atoms can also share their valence electrons with other atoms, giving each atom 8 valence electrons

Types of Chemical Bonding

There are two ways in which atoms can share electrons to satisfy the octet rule:

36

Ionic Bonding occurs when two or more ions combine to form an electrically-neutral compound
-- the positive cation loses an electron (or 2 or 3)

-- the negative anion gains the electron (or 2 or 3)

-- the electrons ARE NOT shared between the two atoms, as the anion steals the electrons from the cation

Covalent Bonding occurs when two or more atoms combine to form an electrically-neutral compound
-- the electrons are shared between the two atoms

-- neither atom had a charge to begin with, and the compound remains with zero charge

Ionic bonding is the combining of two or more ions to form an electrically-neutral compound

Ionic Bonding

37

How Ionic Bonding Works

1) The giving atom loses a valence electron (or 2 or 3) so that it has a full valence shell, but a positive charge

2) The gaining atom gains a valence electron (or 2 or 3) so that it has a full valence shell, but a negative charge
3) The negative and positively-charged ions are attracted to each other (like a magnet) based on their opposite charge

If you look at your periodic table, you will see that ionic bonding usually occurs in compounds formed between one metal and one nonmetal

Metals in Ionic Bonds

In ionic bonds, metals are always the cation -- metals are on the left side of the periodic table and only have 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons

38

-- it is very easy to lose these electrons and become positively charged

Nonmetals in Ionic Bonds

-- nonmetals all have 4 or more valence electrons, so it is very easy for them to gain electrons to get a full valence shell -- when nonmetals gain electrons, they get a negative charge

39

Nonmetals (with the exception of hydrogen) are always the anion in ionic bonds

Drawing Ionic Bonds

When a nonmetal is exposed to a metal, the metal will lose electrons and the nonmetal will gain electrons, forming a new compound -- that new compound is held together by an ionic bond The individual atoms will have a charge, but the overall compound will be neutral

40

When we draw the compound, using Lewis Structures, we show the extra electron around the anion and the cation as having no valence electrons -- each ion in the compound is shown as being charged Example:

Na +

Cl

Na Cl

Diagram of Ionic Bonding

41

Polyatomic Ions
There are some ions that are made up of more than one type of atom, these are called polyatomic ions For example, the polyatomic ion known as ammonium NH4+ has 4 atoms of hydrogen and one atom of nitrogen, HOWEVER, the whole ion has an overall charge of +1 -- you will be given the charges of any polyatomic ions

42

43

Naming Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds all have two-word names The first word in the name is the same as the name of the first ion (for example, sodium, ammonium, potassium, etc)

44

The second word in the name is either:

1. If the second ion is polyatomic, it is just the name of the polyatomic ion

2. If the second ion is an element, the end of the elements name changes to ide
Example: chlorine chloride

oxygen oxide

Practice Naming Ionic Compounds

Na2CO3 - CaSO4 - KBr - MgS --

45

BeCl2 - NH4F --

Writing Ionic Compounds From Name

REMEMBER THAT THE COMPOUND MUST BE NEUTRAL
So, I have Potassium, K, which will lose 1 electron and gain a positive charge, making it K+

46

If I have an ionic compound, for example, potassium sulfate, how do I know what the formula is?

And, I have Sulfate, a polyatomic ion, which has a charge of -2

Therefore, I need 2 potassium ions to balance out my one sulfate ion, making my formula, K2SO4

-- this is why we have subscripts in chemistry

What About. . .
What if I have to put multiple polyatomic ions in a compound, for example, magnesium nitrate?

47

Magnesium has a charge of +2

Nitrate is polyatomic and has a charge of -1 Therefore, we need 2 nitrate ions for each magnesium In this case, we put the entire polyatomic ion in parenthesis and put the subscript outside the parenthesis Our answer would be Mg(NO3)2

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds have the following properties: Crystal Pattern every ion is attracted to all other ions with the opposite charge

48

-- this results in a repeating 3-dimensional crystal pattern

Properties of Ionic Compounds contd

High Melting Point the attraction in the crystal pattern leads to very strong bonds, making it hard to break apart ionic compounds
-- ionic compounds melt at high temperatures Conductivity when dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity -- in water, the bonds dissociate (fall apart), leaving of ions to carry charge Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity very well -- melted ionic compounds do conduct electricity fairly well lots

49