2 2

Early Evidence for Tantric Religion

David N Lorenzen David N. Lorenzen

The history of early Tantric religion is not easy to write. Although manuscript history religion not easy Although libraries contain hundreds, even thousands of different Tantric texts, both Hindu of different even and Buddhist, no manuscript bearing a date before the mid-ninth century has Buddhist, no manuscript bearing a date before the has been found, a date long after the initial rise of this movement. Relevant contempoRelevant contempoafter of this rary inscriptions, a key element in any chronological and geographical reconstruca geographical reconstruction of the early stages of Tantric religion, are unfortunately very few in number. early stages are very few Another problem is that the range of phenomena covered by the term Tantric Another of phenomena covered by term "Tantric religion has been subject to different interpretations. In spite of all this, much of religion" has been subject to different interpretations. headway has already been made in overcoming these problems and, today, scholars headway has scholars can speak with some assurance about at lleast the broad outlines of the early history speak east of the early history of the movement. The present essay attempts to give an overview of the conclumovement. The present essay overview of sions historians have so sions historians have so far reached in this eld.' reached eld.1 The rst problem is that of denition. Does the term "Tantric religion" rst problem is that Does the Tantric religion cover only those cults directly associated with the Sanskrit texts known as Tantras, associated as Samhits and Agamas, or does it also include a wide range of popular religious a Satphitas and Agamas, of "popular" classied as phenomena that can be broadly classied as being magical in character? Are the "magical" the and followers Haha Yoga t especially Ntha Knaphaa a a t texts and followers of Hatha Yoga tradition, especially the Natha or Kanaphata yogs, as yogis, to be considered as Tantric? Are all, or nearly all, of the Hindu and Buddhist of the traditions dedicated Tantric?2 religious traditions dedicated to female deities Tantric? Differences of opinion about these questions exist for the simple reason that of opinion 2 two different denitions of Tantric religion are possible and indeed both are used. A narrow denition considers as Tantric only religious phenomena directly associconsiders as Tantric only religious phenomena directly associ ated with the Tantras, Samhitas and Agamas. Since these texts are almost all with the Tantras, Samhits and Agamas. Since these texts are almost a Sanskrit, it can be assumed that the social base of Tantric written in Sanskrit, it can be assumed that the social base of Tantric religion has been upper narrowly dened in this way has been mostly literate, upper caste, and resident in or near towns and cities. near towns and cities. A wide denition of Tantric religion adds to the religion based on these of adds based these an Sanskrit texts an ample range of popular "magical" beliefs and practices including popular magical a of Skta and Haha Yoga traditions. To the extent that these popular t much o f a.kta and Hatha Yoga traditions. To the extent that these popular are many are vernacular anguages. religions are literate, many of their texts are written in vernacular llanguages. The social base more dened assumed main social base of this more widely dened Tantric religion can be assumed to 25

26 26

d N. Lorenzen David N. Lorenzen

have been less well-educated, lower caste, and generally more rural than its more been less well-educated, generally Sanskritic counterpart. counterpart. In this essay I will accept a wide denition of Tantric religion, but this dual essay accept of Tantric dual character o f the movement remains a signicant problem. Stated somewhat of the movement remains a signicant problem. Stated somewhat differently, there is a clear sense that the more elitist and Sanskritized manifestathere a sense manifestations of Tantric religion are more Tantric than those that are more popular and religion are more those popular magical in character. character. Even if we use a wide denition of Tantric religion, however, the epigraphic of Tantric epigraphic evidence evidence for its existence is quite limited. This makes a close determination of its existence of its geographic spread and its historical chronology quite difcult. As for geography, chronology geographic spread and for geography, we know that Tantric religion was primarily a northern phenomena, although it was phenomena, although also had some following in parts of the South. Its chief centers of inuence have Its chief also had some inuence have been eastern north India (Bihar, Bengal, and Assam), Kashmir, Nepal, and Tibet, eastern Bengal, and perhaps the Punjab and Rajasthan (depending in part on whether one counts perhaps and whether one counts the Nath tradition as Tantric). As for chronology, the earliest clear and datable Nth tradition as Tantric). As for chronology, the earliest clear and datable a evidence of full-blown Tantric religion appears in four literary texts written in Tantric religion appears texts evidence of Sanskrit of the seventh century C.E.: Banabhatta's Kadambari and Harywartita, of seventh century ..: Bnabhatas K dambar a t a Haracartita, s Mahendravarmans Mattavil sa, and Dandins Daakum racarita. The a s a Mahendravarman's Mattavilasa, and Danclin's agakumaracarita. The surviving Tantric texts themselves seem to nearly all date from a slightly or considerably later themselves seem a or considerably later period, from approximately the eighth to the eighteenth centuries. from approximately These two facts t h e northern and medieval provenance o f Tantric two factsthe northern and medieval provenance of Tantric traditionmake the recovery of its history particularly difcult since the northern tradition ma ke of its since region was under the direct control of the Muslim rulers from about the beginning was of of the twelfth century. With the curious exception of the patronage given by the twelfth century. With the curious exception patronage given by several of the Mughal emperors, including both Akbar and Aurangzeb, to the Nth a Akbar the Nth yogis of Jakhbar in the Punjab, none of the Muslim rulers of India is known to Punjab,3 yogis lakhbar have been aesupporter fof Tantric religious cults. An unknown number of Tantric number of Tantric 3 n been a supporter of o n o centers, most notably the Buddhist monastaries at Nalanda and Vikramasila, were t h e most u s l destroyed by Mulsim armies. In any case, royal patronage for all probably i m any for M probably destroyed non-Muslim religions, except at the level of minor vassals and zamindars (land religions, except at the level vassals and zamindars r u l e r s owners), evidently mostly dried up in the regions dominated by Muslim overlords. by Muslim o f 1200 .., For most of the period from 1200 to 1800 C.E., this included most of the Indian of I n i subcontinent. subcontinent.4d a 4 A third major problem concerns the nature of the social institutions of problem concerns the nature of social institutions of i s Tantric religion. Surviving early epigraphs relating to religious institutions almost almost k register donations of land and/or money and other goods and services to n o all register donations of land and/or money and other goods and services to w n temples, monasteries, and Brahmin agrahara (landgrant) villages. It is known that monasteries, and agrah ra a t ascetics themselves sects, orders, "preceptorial many Tantric ascetics organized themselves into "sects," "orders," or preceptorial lines such as those Kaulas, Kplikas, and Nths. also seems be a a a o lines" such as those of the Kaulas, Kapalikas, and Ndths. It also seems to be the case that only a few of these sects and orders established large temples or monasa temples or monasof teries. There has always been something secretive, individualistic, and counterThere has always been something secretive, and countercultural about Tantric religion, rather like Gnostic Christianity in Europe and about Tantric religion, rather Gnostic Europe and North Africa, and this has tended to discourage the creation of Tantric temples Africa, and has tended of Tantric temples

Early Evidence for Tantric Religion Evidence for

27

and monasteries, although Buddhist monasteries under Tantric inuence such as monasteries, although under inuence such as those at Nalanda and Vikramasila, not to mention many in Nepal and Tibet, at Nalanda and Vikramasila, not many Nepal and represent an obvious exception to this rule. an obvious exception Most of the sources that document the early stages of Tantric religion are sources early stages of Tantric are reasonably well known. The discussion that follows will represent a didactic review reasonably a review of these sources, treating separately each of the different constituent components sources, treating separately of components of the wide and loosely organized complex that comes to be known as "Tantric wide and loosely organized complex comes as Tantric religion. This procedure should clearly illustrate that while some components are religion." some components are quite ancient, the complex as a whole cannot be documented before the fth or ancient, the as a or sixth centuries C.E. The existence of a specic Hindu Tantric sect, that of the centuries .. The existence a specic sect, of the Kplikas, also a a Kapalikas, is also rst documented about that time. By about the seventh century, seems several monasteries of Bihar. Tantric Buddhism seems to have been ourishing in several monasteries of Bihar. basic categories each major The basic categories of documentation, each relating to a major component of of dened Tantric religion, can be conveniently arranged as follows: (1) broadly dened Tantric religion, can be conveniently arranged as follows: (1) relating shamanic those sources relating to shamanic and yogic beliefs and practices; (2) those relating to a Skta worship, especially worship of the Mattlas and demon-killing forms of Mtks and demon-killing ar a of al(ta worship, especially worship and Buddhist goddesses; (3) those relating specic of Hindu and Buddhist goddesses; (3) those relating to specic schools of Tantric as Kplikas a a themselves. religion such as the Kapalikas and Kaulas; (4) the Tantric texts themselves. Whenever possible, emphasis be given epigraphic ever possible, emphasis will be given to epigraphic documentation. earliest sources The earliest sources relating to shamanic and yogic beliefs and practices in widespread. India are mostly literary and are ancient, abundant, and widespread. This is hardly hardly since such beliefs and practicesthose over surprising since such beliefs and practicesthose that aim at control over the the body, and the physical worldare a universal bemind, the body, and the physical world a re a virtual universal of human beThe evidence havior. The most striking early evidence for shamanic-yogic practices in India is wild muni (seer) found in the famous "wild muni" (seer) hymn of the Rg Veda (10.136), probably of / dating from about the beginning of the rst millennium before the Common Era. of the . In this hymn, the munis are described as having ecstatic, altered states of con? gthis hymn, a munis 0 .described as having ecstatic, altered states of conV e d the ( 1 are 1 3 6 ) , sciousness and also the l y sciousness and also the magical ability to y on the wind. p r o b a b is perhaps more surprising the evidence of Vedic What is perhaps more surprising than the evidence of this Vedic hymn, is the however, is the quite early development of a systematized set of yogic beliefs and of a of yogic beliefs that eventually became classical Yoga-s tras of Patanjali u n practices that eventually became codied in the classical Yoga-sutras of Pata jal in later Haha Yoga texts such as the Haha Yoga Pradpik of Svatmarama. t t a a a and in later Hatha Yoga texts such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipilea of Svtmarma. beliefs and practices are already clearly evidence the Ch ndogya a These beliefs and practices are already clearly in evidence in the Chandogya as Upaniad (8.6.6) and the Svetvatara Upaniad (2.813), texts dating respectively s Upani,s (8.6.6) cad Sveta;vatara Upani,cad (2.8-13), texts dating respectively about the and from about the early and middle rst millennium before the Common Era. The Ch ndogya refers to the mystical anatomy of nadis (veins or nerves), while the a n ds a nerves), while Chandogya refers to the mystical anatomy as vatara describes the basic Svetvatara describes the basic meditative posture and techniques of sense and techniques of sense and Svetdi control. These beliefs and practices were expounded systematic breath control. These beliefs and practices were expounded in more systematic Pata jals Yoga-s tras, n u form in Patanjall's Yoga-sutras, possibly about the beginning of the Common Era. of the n Although Pata jals text is not usually considered to be Tantric in character, Patanjall's usually considered be Tantric in character, the Haha Yoga t emphasis the transition to the more Tantric Hatha Yoga involves more a shift in emphasis a change t than a basic change in the nature of yogic beliefs and practices. Specically, Haha of yogic Hatha emphasizes Yoga emphasizes the development of the psychic control over the natural processes of the over natural processes

28 28

d N. Lorenzen David N. Lorenzen

of aging and death (already a signicant aim of Yoga in the Yoga-sutras and the aging and death (already a Yoga Yoga-s tras u Bhagavad-gt ), control over the sexual organs through such practices as the vajrol Bhagavad-gita a), over the sexual organs through such practices as the vajroli mudr (retention of bodily uids), and the interior visualization of and control mudra a and interior of and control over the mystical anatomy of nadis and cakras. This control over the mystical the mystical anatomy n ds and cakras. This control over the mystical a anatomy is also thought to lead tto knowledge o f and control over the is also thought to lead o knowledge of and control over the microcosmic-macrocosmic links between this anatomy and the external world of between anatomy external of nature. This in turn leads to the acquisition of the supernatural powers known This turn leads acquisition supernatural powers (siddhis). Hatha Yoga adepts also invoke the supposed magical power of sacred oral Haha Yoga adepts also t the supposed magical power of sacred oral formulas (mantras) and sacred diagrams (yantras and mandalas). Even these for(mantras) and sacred diagrams (yantras man alas). Even these d and diagrams, however, have back Vedic mulas and diagrams, however, have a history going back to Vedic times. appears a This shamanic-yogic component of Tantrism rst appears in a more clearly of Tantrism clearly Tantric form in the seventh century texts of Bduabhatta and Dauclin. In Bd r the seventh Bnabhata a t Dandin. Banas Har as Harywarita, a great aiva" (mahaiva) ascetic . sacarita, a "great Saiva (mahas'aiva) ascetic from the southern Deccan named Bhairav a Haras ancestor PuTabhati. Pupabh ti s s u s u Bhai acrya said have la 'sravacarya is said to have befriended HarF's ancestor Pupabh ti. PuTabhati assists Bhairavcrya a a (mah mantra) a assists Bhairavacarya in the realization of a powerful spell (mahamantra) called the of a Mahklahdaya. The object of the spell is to subdue a zombie (vetata). Bhairaa a r spell a (vet la). Bhairaa Mahakalaht-daya. The vcrya is said to reside near an old temple of the Mothers (m ts). The ceremony a a near ar vacarya of the Mothers (matrs). ceremony itself takes place at "an empty building near a great cremation ground on the takes place at an empty building near a great cremation ground fourteenth night of the dark fortnight and involves the celebration of a re rite in of dark fortnight" of a re rite in the mouth of a corpse. Bakia's portrait of a Tantric ascetic from southern India in Bnas a ascetic of a of a K dambar is more comic i in tone bbut similar i in content. Dauclin's a Kadambari is more comic n tone u t similar n content. Dandins Daakum racarita, on the other hand, describes its Tantric ascetic as an evil siddha s a other as an evil siddha Das'akumaracarita, ascetic (one with supranormal powers). Another seventh century text, Mahendravarman's Another Mahendravarmans century Mattavil sa features a Tantric Kapalika ascetic, but he is portrayed more as a a features a Kplika ascetic, but he portrayed more as a a a Mattavilasa hedonistic clown than as a shamanic yogi. After the seventh century, Tantric clown than as a shamanic yogi. After seventh century, Tantric ascetics are frequently mentioned in Sanskrit literature. are literature.5 ascetics A second major component of Tantric religion is the worship of female second major component of of female 5 deities, particularly those who manifest a erce character. Like the shamanic-yogic erce shamanic-yogic component of Tantrism, the worship of female deities has a long history in India the has female and may be regarded as a near universal characteristic of human societies. The may be regarded as a near universal characteristic societies. The Vedic antecedents of goddess worship appear in a series of hymns dedicated to the appear a series of hymns Vedic of goddess goddess of the dawn, I.Jas, and a number of hymns dedicated in whole or part to Uas, s number of hymns or river goddesses, to the goddess of speech, Vac, or to other minor female deities. goddesses, to the goddess Vc, a other None of these hymns, however, negates the obvious fact that Vedic religion is hymns, however, negates the obvious fact Vedic decidedly patriarchal in character. Early hymns to the Great Goddess, the Goddess Goddess of whom all individual goddesses are merely forms or aspects, are found in the all goddesses are merely aspects, are the Mah bh rata and Harivams'a, the Devi Mahatmya section of the Markalideya a a s a a a d Mahabharata and Harivama, the Dev M h tmya section of the M rkan eya Pur na, a d s a t Pural the Can i-ataka attributed (probably falsely) to Bnabhata, and the 6 Ga davaho of Vakpati. u a .Gadavaho of Vkpati. All these texts refer to the erce, demon-killing forms of the A l l s destroyer of Mahipmardini, 6 Goddess, most ia, Goddess, most prominently the form named Mahiamardin, the destroyer of Mahia. The s as a the buffalo demon Mahip. The battle between this Goddess, often identied asa h tt h e s e of Durg-Prvati, and Mahia is mentioned a a s all these sources (except form of Durgd-Parvati, and Mahiga is mentioned in all these sources (except t e e x t s r C ae f e r t o q i t h e s ' e r a t

Early Evidence for Tantric Religion Evidence for

29

perhaps the Harivams'a) and is recounted in detail in the Dev M h tmya and the Harivama) and s the Devi Mahatnlya and the a a Can(li-s'ataka. Can i-ataka. d s Sculptural representations of Mahiamardin have been found that date to representations Mahiamardini s date 7 and the Gupta period 7 and the earlier Kushan period.8 The earliest epigraphic menperiod. tion of this goddessrislprobablytthat found in a late sixth century C.E. Nagarjuni .. Nagarjuni 8 T h e goddess probably e a i e s Hill (Gaya r a p h i c Hill i g cave e p(Gaya District) cave inscription of Anatavarman of the Maukhari Dynasty. m e n May the Devis foot, its gleaming nails emitting a mass of rays, point the way Devi's a mass of rays, way to the abode of riches. Her foot challenges with its splendor the full beauty the abode challenges splendor beauty blossomed lotus. of a blossomed lotus. With its twinkling anklet it contemptuously rests on s as petitioner the head of Mahiasura. It rewards your condition as petitioner that suits the Mahiasura. expression devotion.9 expression of rm devotion. 9 The same inscription mentions Katyayani and Bhavani as the alternate names of same Bhvan as a names of this same Great Goddess. This inscription and the hymns to the Great Goddess in same Goddess. Goddess the above-mentioned texts illustrate the relatively early development of mature above-mentioned texts illustrate the relatively early development a Skta religion and its increasing association with erce, demon-killing forms of the dkta erce, demon-killing of the Goddess, forms that can said to be Tantric-avored, if not necessarily fully Tantric. if not necessarily fully seems Goddess worship seems to have become more denitely Tantric in character denitely Tantric character connection with the rise group (or more) goddesses known as in connection with the rise of a group of seven (or more) goddesses known as or Mtks. They are mentioned in the Mah bh rata as well as early ar a a a mothers or Matt-kas. They are mentioned in the Mahabharata as well as early Puranic literature, Brhatsamhita and other relatively ancient texts. In Bnabhatas Bhatsamhit r a other aa B r t Haracarita, the Tantric ascetic Bhairavacarya is said to stay near an old temple a a Har,wcarita, the Tantric ascetic Bhairavcrya said stay near . s u dedicatedt t to 'the Matt-kas. Bhasa's Caruclatta, 171ctraka's Mrcchakatika, and dedi ated a the ar a a a r t l a bch a to s Mtks. Bhsas C rudatta, S drakas Mcchakaika, and Bnabhatas Kadambarialso refer to these goddesses especially in connection with a t a goddesses especially in Bakiabhatta's K dambar also refer offerings made at crossroads. made at crossroads.10 In the present text, however, more important is a reference to these godthe present text, however, more important a reference these god1 desses in the stone inscription of Vivavarman, found at Gangadhar in Rajasthan stone s Gangadhar desses Vivavarman, () and dated in 423 ..11 This is often identied as the earliest epigraphic evidence dated c.E. for Tantric religion.12 11 Tantrici religion. Two other important early epigraphic references to these T h s goddesses appear in the Bihar stone pillar inscription of Skanda Gupta or P ru stone Skanda u goddesses o Psu 12 i s T w appear the Guptah e century c.E.?)13and the rock inscription of Svmibhaa (sixth century (fth rn ..)13 a t of Svamibhata century o tf t .. p o t r i t f ar a also regularly C.E. ?) e n Deogarh in Jhansi District.14 The Mtks are also regularly invoked District." Mattlas m i d ?) from Deogarh in the preambles of the inscriptions of the Kadambas and Early Calukyas from the preambles of the a i en dt mid-fth century onward. century onward.15 e a sr a Mtks ar a Gangadhar 15 The description of the Matt-kas found in the Gangadhar inscription merits of l t some y h The passage them has been a discussion. The passage that refers to them in this record has been given a g e p somewhat idifferent interpretation by J. F. Fleet16 and by A. L. Basham.17 Verse F. He e t r e 6 aa np d states: y a r hl b twenty-three states: 1 A . i c. s B a s h a m . e t L r e 7e the sake ofe p the V For fi sake religious merit, theeking's minister had them construct this them 1 r s the kings e terrifying home of the Mothers, lled full of female demons (cldkini) . . . e Mothers, lled demons (dkin) a g r a home n c e c p h i s e v i t d e o n c t e

30 30

d N. Lorenzen David N. Lorenzen

these Mothers impel the great booming of the rain clouds and rouse the Mothers impel the great booming clouds and rouse ocean with the mighty wind that arises from the Tantras.18 the that arises Tantras. 18 In this passage from the Gangadhar inscription, the words dakin and tantra passage Gangadhar (lakiniand both clearly suggest an association with Tantric religion. According to Monierclearly suggest an association According Williams, the dakins are said to feed on human esh. It is, I think, quite probable (bkinis said esh. that the word tantra here refers to the Tantras themselves, but, as Basham points the themselves, as Basham out,19 the word has several other meanings including "a drug" and "a spell out," the word has several other meanings including a drug and a spell (mantra). One must reluctantly agree with Basham that here we must leave the (mantra)." agree with Basham that here "we must leave the question [of the meaning of the word tantra] open, recognizing that this inscripopen, of gives no proof of existence developed of Tantrism tion gives no proof of the existence of a developed literature of Tantrism in the fth century ..20 A .D. ar a a a " 2 The classic description of the Mtks is found in the Dev M h tmya, a text of the Mattlas Devi Mahatmya, a traditionally included as a part of the Markawleya Pur na.21 It is generally acincluded as a M rkan eya Puralya. a d a ceptedtas thesearliest and mostrimportant text of Skta religion. Most portions of of a dl(ta of 21 I as the earliest e n e a l l y i g and this text can be said with some condence to have been written before the close of with some condence to have been written "before the close of this c be a text can - said ar a the sixth century ..22 The text describes the Mtks as being created from the A .D. energiesh(aktis) of the gods Brahma, iva, Skanda, Visnu (the s'aktis Vainav, gods Brahma, Siva, Skanda, aktis s s "energiT s e " 2 2 es" (s'aktis) V e , a a Candika order Goddess destroy Varahl, t Nrasimh) t arhxand Narasitphi) Indra, and Cauclika in order to help the Goddess destroy 23 the e s cof rthe demons Sumbha and Nisumba. armies d armies i demons Sumbha and Nisumba. b 23 s An interesting Kalacuri inscription from Pujaripali, near Sarangarh, Chhatfrom near Sarangarh, Chhate tisgarh, praises several of these and other demon-killing goddesses in verses that praises several and other goddesses verses t h e are evidently directly inspired by the Devi Mahatmya. The inscription is dated evidently directly inspired by the Dev M h tmya. The a a dated M d aboutt1150 .. or 1088 .. It clearly shows t either in about 1150 C.E. or in 1088 C.E. It clearly shows that, by this time, the - kMahatmya was accepted as a basic source of Skta religion. Dev a d s a Devi M h tmya was accepted as a basic source a al(ta a early evidence existence specic sects and vows of Tantric The early evidence for the existence of specic sects and vows of Tantric s Kplikas, a a as Somasiddhtins a religion pertains mostly to the Kapdlikas, sometimes identied as Somasiddhatins b Mahvratins. They are rst mentioned e or Mahavratins. They are rst mentioned in several literary sources including a several literary sources including dubious references in the Maitrayalyiya Upaniad and the Yaj avalkya sm ti and a i n Maitr yanya Upani,cad and a s n r Ya:Mavalkya smrti and a Halas G tha-saptasat (third a more credible reference in Hala's Gatha-saptasati(third to fth century ..) and in g century c.E.) in two texts of the astronomer-mathematician Varhamihira (c. 500575 ..). a c texts o f the astronomer-mathematician Vardhamihira (c. 500-575 c.E.). r e Mahendravamans a Startingt with Mahendravaman's early seventh century farce, the Mattavil sa, literMattavilasa, a e references to Kplikas become quite common.24 a a ary references to Kapdlikas become quite common. As far as epigraphs are d concerned, therea rin facta s there are as only three or four that have been clearly identied as 24 A s r f are f registeringg r a pto h from Kapalika ascetics. These are the following: (1) an a a e p i donations or s Kplika ascetics. These o Igatpurir(Nasik district) copper plate inscription o f the early Cdlukya king (Nasik district) copper plate inscription of the early Clukya king a a magavardhana e N (seventh century ..) that registers a Kplevara a a s Nagavardhana (seventh century c.E.) that registers a donation to a Kapdlevara t a temple and the Mahvratin ascetics residing in it; (2) a Tilakwada (Baroda District) Mandvratin ascetics District) h ..) Parmara a copper plate inscription (1047 c.E.) of a subordinate of the Pardmara king Bhoja of e registers a donation to "the muni Dinkara, a Mahvrata-dhara who was like the the muniDinkara, Mandvrata-dhara a that was Kplin Sa kara bodily form; (3) the Kalanupaka a a n A.P.) Kapalin atikara in bodily form"; (3) the Kalanupaka (Nalgonda District, A.P.) .. that by a Kplika ascetic a a inscription 1050 C.E. that registers a land grant made by a Kapdlika ascetic named Somibhataraka an t Candamayya; Somibhattaraka to an individual named Cauclamayya; and (4) a sixth century C.E. century ..

Early Evidence for Tantric Religion Early Evidence for Tantric Religion

31

inscription from Bangalore District that registers a land grant by aking Durvinta to Bangalore a by a king Durvinita a Brahman named Kpliarman (who may or may not be Kplika). In addition, a a Kapaliarman a a s or may Kapalika). a a a clear reference to a Somasiddhantin ascetic named Vagiga Bhata is found in a1171 Somasiddhntin ascetic a Vgi Bhatta a s t a 1171 .. inscription from Tiruvorriyur (Chingleput District, Tamilnadu).25 C.E. Tiruvorriyur District, Tamilnadu). 1050 .. inscription Kplika Somibhataraka particularly a a t 25 The 1050 C.E. inscription of the Kapalika Somibhattaraka is particularly important since it includes a physical description of this ascetic and his vestments of this ascetic vestments that agrees remarkably well with the descriptions of the Kapalika vestments in agrees remarkably the descriptions Kplika vestments a a texts by the Vaisrjava theologians Yamunacarya and Ramarmja, even to common Vainava s Ymuncrya a a a Rmnuja, even a a use of the term ,canmudra (six insignia) to identify the key items.26 The same two anmudr s a key items. theologiansealso identify the Kaldmuldaas as being Tantric ascetics, but this atidentify e a a t w o ascetics, 26 T h also s a mthe Klmukhas as being tribution of a Tantric character to them was probably willfully mistaken.27 The a character them was probably mistaken. numerous inscriptions registering donations to Kaldmukha ascetics and temples inscriptions registering Klmukha ascetics aa 27 T h e clearly show them to belong to a non-Tantric South Indian sect descended from show sect descended the Pa.upatas. Whatever the case may be, the earliest epigraphs refer to the Pupatas. Whatever the case may be, the earliest epigraphs refer as the Kalamukhas, dated 806 and 810 C.E., were found at Nandi Hill in Kolar District Kolar Klmukhas, dated 806 and aa .., were at Karnataka.28 Another early record, the undated Tandikonda grant of the eastern Karnataka. Clukya king Ammaraja II (946-970 c.E.), registers a donation to a group of a a group of Calukya king Ammaraja II (946970 ..), registers a donation 28 Klmukhas located at a temple at Vijayawada (Bezwada) about sixty miles from a Kala from Aa n o t h located ther mouth of the Krishna River. Also worth mentioning is a short inscription mouth Krishna River. Also worth a e found at Anaji in Dharwar District that records a gift of land to a temple conrecords a conof e a at l r a nected with the Kalamukha Skti-priad.29 Klmukha akti-parisad. aa a s y references other sects such as the Kaulas appar29 e Epigraphic references to other Tantric sects such as the Kaulas are apparr c be ently quite rare, but systematic research on this question remains to be done. Mark Mark o r d has, however, made considerable progress in sorting out the Kaula Dyczkowski has, however, made considerable progress sorting , afliation of many Tantric texts." Also relevant in this context is a Cambodian texts.30 Also relevant context a t h of about 1052 C.E. that tells how "king layavarman II's court priest about 1052 .. that tells how king Jayavarman IIs inscription eivalakaivalya at the beginning of the ninth century (A.D. 802?) installed a royal Sivalakaivalya (.. 802?) a royal of u based upon the four Tantric books brought from elsewhere . T .h e texts in n books elsewhere . The cult based upon the s Sammohana, r question are the Siracheda, Nayottara, Sammohana, and Vnikha.31 Although d a are irakheda, V i as thesee a texts may not be specically Kaula, they belong to the tradition of v ma (left) Kaula, of vama (left) . t Tantras, a . " of which are associated directly with the Kaulas. some associated l da i k h some of When we turn u the earliest evidence the existence 3 T 1 aA l we h o to the earliest evidence for the existence of Tantric Budt turn g h dhism, we nd that this consists primarily of sculptures of erce deities such as we consists of erce deities as n d Trailokyavijaya, Cunr and Samvara and of sexually engaged (yuganaddha) male Cu da, i k and female deities. The principal monasteries where such Tantric sculptures female deities.32 . o been n have been found are those at Nalanda in Patna District, at Antichak in Bhagaipur Patna Antichak in Bhagaipur 32 a a n ic la ,T h e d d Districtnl c v p r (often a identied with ancient Vikramasila), at Paharpur Rajshahi (often identied with ancient Vikramasila), at Paharpur in Rajshahi p a S r ir i i g District, and in other sites in the northeastern region.33 Nalanda seems to be the District, and region. a l r oldest of these n d a sites.eIts e m s has been dated to the mid-fth oldest of these monastic sites. Its foundation has been dated to the mid-fth monastic s foundation 33 o n a l ad s m a N n a a century C.E. It is unclear, however, whether the Tantric iimages found at this site .. It is unclear, however, whether mages t b t o e o f ithe earliest stages e development.34 s n ong rto theeearliest stages of its development. belong h bel to t e w s eFinally, we come to the question of hx u dates earliest specically t we come to the question of the dates of the earliest specically 34 e a l rl y Tantric texts, especially the Tantras, Samhitas, and Agamas belonging to different Samhits, a Agamas o e n g f s a g u e t c d h h T y a u ( e

32 32

d N Lorenzen David N. Lorenzen

Tantric sects or schools. Apart from the somewhat dubious reference to tantra in sects Apart tantra in the Gangadhar inscription of 423 C.E., the earliest clear reference to Tantric texts Gangadhar of .., clear texts seems to occur in Bakiabhatta's Kadambari. In his description of a South Indian seems occur Bnabhatas K dambar. a t a of a South Tantric ascetic, Bakiabhatta says that "he had made a collection of manuscripts of Bnabhata says a t he made a of manuscripts of jugglery, Tantras, and mantras (which were written) in letters of red lac on palm mantras letters of red lac on palm leaves (tinged with) smoke." leaves (tinged smoke.35 Sircar,36 35 According to D. C. Sircar, Buddhist tradition claims that Padmavajra, author36 the HevajrahTantra, was the preceptor of Anagavajra, a son of king of the u d d Tantra, was the preceptor of B Hevajra i s t a son Gopala whoafoundedtthe Pdlan Gopla who founded the Pla dynasty in Bengal about the middle of the eighth at r a about of d i i o century .. Sircar also notes that some scholars date the composition of this text c A.D. a l i m as early as "shortly before 693 A.D. D. L. Snellgrove similarly estimates that the .. as " s as shortly Hevajra-Tantra [was] a existing its present form towards the end eight " rc r . S iD .t a L h [was] existing in its present form towards the end of the eight century.37 l g the o v e century." S n te l On r other hand, Alex Wayman has ascribed another early Buddhist a l s the a tentative basis, . Tantra, the iGuhyasam jatantra, on 37 i m Guhyasamajatantra, "on a purely tentative basis, . t .oto the fourth s o " P l a a dr lm y century ..38 m a t O n s A.D."i His reason for suggesting this early date does not bear scrutiny. e n oa t tv a j r a older than Buddhist counterpart, 38 H i s Tantrism is probably t h ssHindu Tantrism is probably slightly older than its Buddhist counterpart, e e early , Hindu Tantras cannot be dated with any precision. Some earlier Panbut t ah s cannot be dated Some earlier Pna r eearlyh o h t a texts, insofar as these are Tantric character, may date the caratra texts, insofar as these are Tantric in character, may date from the fth o r e n t t a .., but these dates are speculative.39 century C.E., but these dates are highly speculative. Much the same comments f r h o a t " be made about h h e Agamas preserved s be made about the aiva Agamas preserved mostly in southern India.40 can M u c h the Saiva India. 39 ud g t s n e o a Goudriaan claims that the oldest surviving Tantric manuscript known, a manuscript known, a 40 s e sm t e claims that the oldest surviving g , m of m Pm se n t bears copyoof the Paramelvaramata, bears a ninth century date equivalent to 858 or 859 aramevaramata, s or c n g i A ..41 He also notes, however, that the mention of many other Tantric texts as c.E. e t l venerable a venerabl authorities in Abhinavaguptas great Tantr loka, written sometime 41 c he authorities" in Abhinavagupta's great Tantratoka, written sometime s i e around MOO .., renders it at least probable that Tantric literature existed H os 1000 C.E., "renders it at least probable that Tantric literature existed h 42 e ready two or more centuries before. .. . ". 42 x a already more centuries before. al e l a r W s In terms of its philosophical sophistication, Kashmiri Saiva tradition repreaiva reprea r years has been a sents y l of Tantric a the richest development of Tantric literature. In recent years there hasbeen a l d ood publications this e ld . veritable ood of scholarly publications in this eld.43 Its greatest traditional d y s a scholar, Abhinavagupta, twrote such Tantric works as Tantratoka, Tantrasara and as Tantr loka, Tantr sara a a 4 s g r e a e s t a 3 I t Abhinavagupta, wrote such m o t a a Par trimsik vivarainao about the early middle part of the eleventh century.44 A Paratrimsikavivaralya of century. t r a d i t in n a l a n A e amount about the earlier history of Kashmiri Saivism is known, above all from fair above all from earlier of Kashmiri aivism 44 e n o discussions of Abhinavaguptas Tantr loka. Nonetheless, few any t discussions o f Abhinavagupta's Tantraoka. Nonetheless, few if any of the a the d h t h except be earlier sources, except for some of the Saiva Agamas themselves can be dated before of aivaAgamas themselves o eighth a e eighth or ninth centuries. centuries. the e s s c o interesting Buddhist Tantric school is represented by the Buddhist One interesting Buddhist Tantric school is represented by the Buddhist s a ddha authors of the CaryagitikoA a collection of religious songs written in a Siddha authors Cary gtikoa, a a s songs Si , m n s nguage most scholars regard as an early form of Bengali. These songs, in fact language most scholars regard as an of These la h p o o c an form of a represent the oldest examples of Tantric literature written in an early form of a o s i the oldest examples t language. Snellgrove45 r modern vernacular language. D. L. Snellgrove and Per Kvaerne46 place most of w i t thesea n din aboute releventh century. It is possible that a few of the Siddhas to a few of the Siddhas b songs i 45 songs P the e o n whom a e of the songs are attributed may have lived a century or two earlier. In a century or e b v some r n e K v o a 6 e 4 p l a c e e f r d m o s t r t s a o f , h c n t i r o h s

Early Evidence for Tantric Religion Early Evidence for Tantric

33

particular, Saraha may date from the ninth century and Lui (perhaps the same as Saraha century and (perhaps same as Matsyendra) from the late ninth or early tenth century.47 from early century. Another Tantric Tantra-inuenced) sect that has had an impressive 47 Another Tantric (or Tantra-inuenced) sect that has had an impressive literary output, in both Sanskrit and vernacular llanguages, is that of the Nths or vernacular anguages, of the Naths or a Kanphata Yogs.48 Knphaa Yogis." Most of its texts deal with aspects of Haha Yoga. None can be a t of Hatha t be safely dated before the tenth century C.E., however, the legendary founders of the safely .., legendary founders of the sect, Gorakhndth and his teacher Matsyendra, probably did not live much earlier Gorakhnth a teacher earlier than a century or two before this date.49 It is notable, however, that this tradition a date. spreadtthroughout India a b l medieval period, including even in the South the e , the South 49 I throughout India in the medieval period, including even i s n o t where itwis represented rby ,the Tamil Siddhas. Basing himself on Zvelebil, represented Zvelebil,50 h o it is e v e by the Tamil Siddhas. Basing himself Goudriaan claims that: "the oldest Tamil Siddha, Tirumular, perhaps ourished in Siddha, perhaps ourished in 5 t h a t the the seventh century A.D.; the apogee of the Tamil Siddha literature, however, lasted ..; of t h i s fromrthe tenth d the fteenth century.51 the a to the t i i century." The Nt th traditiontseems to have historical connections with the earlier The N h tradition seems to have historical connections with the earlier a 51 n o Kplikas,52 but this is too poorly documented to be of much help in dating the a a Kapa1ikas, a was beginnings of Nth inuence of this 52 b u t of Nth tradition. The main inuence of this tradition was in northern India iduring the later medieval period. During the early nineteenth century it century t h during the later medieval period. During s became a virtual state religion in the kingdom of Man Singh in Jodhpur, Raa state religion the kingdom Mn Singh a /6 i s jasthan.53 It also had a strong historical inuence on the devotional Vrakar a jasthan. t o tradition of Maharashtra (through the preceptorial line of J anevar), and later preceptorial of Janevar), n s later 53 I t o Kabir, Raids, Gur Nnak, Dd and others. Kabr, a u a a u a l o Raidas, Guru,, Nanak, Dadu and others. p s can as In summary, it can be said that Tantric religion asa recognizable complex of complex of o r l o and practices is rst documented, in very sketchy fashion, the beliefs and practices is rst documented, in very sketchy fashion, in the fth h a y .. and relatively increased succeeding century C.E. and relatively rapidly increased its inuence in succeeding centuries d o d both Hinduism and Buddhism. became within both Hinduism and Buddhism. It became particularly strong in North a u c Bangladesh India (excepting perhaps the state of Uttar Pradesh, but including Bangladesh and of Uttar s te Pakistan), in Nepal and Tibet, and in parts of southern India. By the ninth m of parts of southern By r tenth centuries, Tantric religion, both Hindu and Buddhist, had become exand Buddhist, had become or o n tenth centuries, Tantric religion, both t n g inuential, perhaps even dominant, in many of these areas. perhaps even dominant, many areas. tremely e d h i Buddhist Tantrism together with other forms of Buddhism, died out in Tantrism together with other forms died out t s t by the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It has survived in Nepal and India by the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. has survived Nepal and o has Tibet o r but has lost inuence in Tibet since Chinese occupation and the introducintroducb secular education. popular tion i cof modern secular education. Hindu Tantrism remained popular during all e seems have the medieval of its popular a medieval period, but it seems to have lost most of its popular and intellectual o l as support during the nineteenth century, largely as a result of the efforts of Indian of of Indian i f reformers, both liberals and conservatives, to "purify" Hindu tradition. Nonboth liberals and conservatives, to purify Hindu tradition. Nonn m ss, Tantrism continued to have an active presence in at least the Benares ethelss, at least the Benares ethel Tantrism continued to have an active presence f u region until the early decades of the twentieth century.54 Today it no longer exists decades longer 54 Today l a signicant organized force in India or other countries (with the possible c a signicant organized force in India or other countries (with the possible as as u h exceptions many of its exceptions of Bali, Bhutan, Tibet, and Nepal). Nonetheless, many of its beliefs and e practices are now well-integrated within more mainstream Hinduism and Budare now mainstream Budh n In at least this assimilated Tantric remains dhism. In at least this assimilated form, Tantric religion remains alive and well. e c l e p o i n n t d

34 34

d N Lorenzen David N. Lorenzen NOTES NOTES

1. The best surveys are those of Teun Goudriaan, Introduction, History and PhilosoThe Teun "Introduction, and Philosophy," Hindu Tantrism, ed. Teun Goudriaan, Sanjukta Gupta, and Dirk Jan Hoens (Leiden: phy, and Jan E.J. Brill, 1979); and "Hindu Tantric Literature in Sanskrit," Hindu Tantric and Sakta Brill, 1979); and Hindu Sanskrit, Hindu Tantric and Sakta Literature, ed., Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, eds., (Weisbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1981). See also the discussions of Andr Padoux, R e Recherches sur la symbolique et lenergie de sa 1981). See of Andre echerches sur la symbolique et fenergie desa parole, 2d ed. (Paris: Edicions E. de Boccard, 1975), and, "Tantrism," in Encyclopedia of 2d ed. (Paris: Edicions E. de Boccard, and, Tantrism, Encyclopedia of parole, Religion, vol. 14, ed. Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 273-75; P. V. Kane, vol. 14, ed. Mircea 27375; P. History of Dharmaastra, vol. 5, pt. 2 s vol. of Dharmaijstra, 2. Goudriaan and Padoux have written intellegent attempts to dene Tantrism. See Goudriaan and Padoux have dene See Goudrian, "Introduction, History and Philosophy," 7-91; and Padoux, "Tantrism," Introduction, History and Philosophy, 791; and Padoux, Tantrism, 14:273-75. 14:27375. 3. B. N. Goswamy and J. S. Grewel, The Mughals and the Jogis of Jakhbar (Simla: B. N. Goswamy S. The Mughals and the Jogis oakhbar (Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1967). Advanced 4. See Sheldon Pollock for a partly opposing argument that patronage for nonSee Sheldon Pollock for a partly opposing argument that patronage for nonMuslim culture, at least in the case of Sanskrit literature, did not dry up to the extent at least the case the claimed by Alberuni and most modern historians; Rmyana and the Political Imaginary a a "Ramayana and the Political Imaginary in Medieval India," The Journal of Asian Studies 52, no. 2 (1993): 26197. India, Journal of Asian Studies 261-97. 5. The descriptions of these and other Tantric ascetics and rites found in such literary The these ascetics and in such literary texts are quoted in translation and discussed in more detail in David Lorenzen, The are quoted translation and discussed more detail David The K p likas and K l mukhas: Two Lost Saivite Sects, 2d rev. ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, a a aa Lost Kapalikas and Kallimukhas: Saivite 1991), 16-23, 54-55. 1991), 1623, 54 55. 6. J. N. Tiwari, Goddess Cults in Ancient India: With Special Reference to the First Seven J. Tiwari, Goddess Cults in Ancient India: With Special Reference to the First Seven Centuries A.D. (Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1985), 6194. Centuries A.D. 61-94. Thomas B. Coburn, Dev Milhatmya: a a 7. Thomas B. Coburn, Devi M h tmya: the Crystallization of the Goddesss Tradition of the Goddesss (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984), 92-93; and J.N. Banerjea, The Development of Hindu 9293; The Development of Hindu (Delhi: Iconography, 3rd ed. (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1974), 497-500. ed. (New 497500. 8. Gridi Von Mitterwallner, The K sana Type of the Goddess Mahiasuramardin as Gritli u Type of the Goddess Mahiasuramardini as s "The K.ana Compared to the Gupta and Medieval Types," German Scholars on India (Bombay: 1976), Types, Scholars on India 2: 196- 213. 196213. 9. My translation. See John Faithful Fleet, Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and My See John Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (Varanasi: Indological Book House, Successors, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum (Varanasi: Indological Book Their 1963r), 22628. The goddess Bhadrry or Bhadryak, possibly a form of Prvat-Durg, a a a a a a 1963r), 226-28. Bhadrarya Bhadrayaka, possibly a form of Parvati-Durga, is mentioned in the Bihar pillar inscription of Skanda Gupta or Paru Gupta; see D. C. mentioned in the Bihar Skanda P ru u see a is Sircar, Select Inscriptions Bearing on Indian History and Civilization, 2nd ed. (Calcutta: Select Inscriptions Bearing Indian and Civilization, 2nd ed. (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1966), 1:325-28. 1:32528. 10. Katherine Anne Harper, Seven Hindu Goddesses of Spiritual Transformation: The Goddesses of Spiritual Transformation.. The 10. Katherine Anne Harper, Seven Iconography of the Saptamatrikas (Lewiston, N.Y.: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989); and of the Saptamatrikas N.Y.: The Edwin Press, 1989); Tiwari, Goddess Cults, 95-99. Goddess 9599. Tiwari, 11. Fleet, Inscriptions, 72-78; Sircar, Select Inscriptions, 399-405. 399 405. 11. Fleet, Inscriptions, 7278; Sircar, Select a 12. A. L. Basham, Notes on the Origins of Sktism and Tantrism, Religion and Society A. 12. "Notes of Saktism and Tantrism," Religion and Society in Ancient India: Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya Commemoration Volume (Calcutta: Roy & Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya Commemoration Volume Roy & in Ancient

Early Evidence for Tantric Religion Evidence for

35

Chowdhury, 1984), 148- 54; and M. C. Joshi, "Sakta-Tantrism in the Gupta Age, Ar wna 1984), 14854; Sakta-Tantrism Age," Aru i a Bh rati:: Prof A. N. Jani Felicitation Volume (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1983), 77-81. Bharati Prof. a N Jani Volume 7781. 13. Fleet, Inscriptions, 47-52; Sircar, Select Inscriptions, 32528. Select 13. Fleet, Inscriptions, 4752; 325-28. 14. D aya Ram Sahni, "Deogarh Rock Inscription of Svmibhaa, Epigraphica Indica Deogarh a t 14. Daya Svamibhata," Epigraphica Indica 18 ((19251926): 125- 27. 12527. 18 1925- 1926) : 15. See: J. N. Tiwari's brilliant historical study of goddess cults in ancient India, 94 15. See: N . Tiwaris 94181; and N. N. Bhattacharyya, The Indian Mother Goddess, 2d ed. (Columbia, Mo.: South and N. N. Bhattacharyya, Asia Books, 1977). Asia Books, 1977). 16. Fleet, Inscriptions, 72- 78. 16. Fleet, Inscriptions, 7278. 17. Basham, "Notes," 148- 50. 17. Basham, Notes, 14850. 18. II have substituted the reconstruction "[pracu]dita-" ffor Fleet's and Basham's have substituted the reconstruction [pracu]dita- or Fleets and Bashams 18. [pramu]dita-. Neither Fleet's nor Basham's translation is completely satisfactory. In particFleets Bashams [pramiddita-." In particular, II am not convinced by Basham's renderings o f ambhonidhi as "cloud' rather than am not convinced by Bashams renderings of cloud rather ocean and of ghana as "cymbal" rather than "dense," "thick," "multitude," "cloud," or as cymbal rather dense, thick, multitude, cloud, "ocean" and darkness. M y rendering supports Basham's suggestion of a connection with rain-making My Bashams "darkness." a rain-making better than his own translation. 19. Basham, "Notes, 149- 50. 19. Basham, Notes, 14950. 20. Ibi d., 150. Ibid., 21. See Thomas B. Coburn, Dev-M h tmya: the Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition See a a Devi-Mahatmya: the Crystallization of theGoddess Tradition (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984); and Encountering the Goddess: A Translation of the Dev (Delhi: Encountering the Goddess: A Translation of the DeviM h tmya and a Study of Its Interpretation (Albany: State University of New York Press, a a and a Study of Its Interpretation (Albany: State University of New York Press, Mandtmya 1991). 1991). 22. Tiwar i, Goddess Cults, 63- 64 and 74 75. Tiwari, Goddess 6364 74- 75. 23. See especially chapters seven and eight of the D evi M h tmya. The numbers and See especially chapters seven and eight of the Dev Mahatmya. The numbers and a a 23. names of these Matt-kas vary considerably in different texts; see Tiwari, Goddess Cults, 94 Mtks vary considerably in different texts; see Tiwari, Goddess Cults, 94ar a names of these 181. 24. Lorenzen, Kapalikas, 13- 71. a a 24. Lorenzen, K p likas, 1371. 25. Ibi d., 24- 31, 219- 22. Ibid., 24 31, 21922. 26. Ibi d., 219- 20. Ibid., 21920. 27. Ibi d., 4- 6, 107- 110. Ibid., 4 6, 107110. 28. Ibi d., 160- 61. Ibid., 16061. 29. Ibi d., 160- 61, 141- 42, 232. Ibid., 16061, 141 42, a 30. Mark Dyczkowski, The Canon of the Saivagama and the KuhjikaT Tantras of the Mark Dyczkowski, The of the Saiv gama and the Kubjik Tantras of the a Western Kaula Tradition (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988). Kaula Tradition (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988). Western 31. Goudr iaan, "Hindu Tantric Literature iin Sanskrit," 21. See also ibid., 36- 38. Goudriaan, H i ndu Tantric Literature n Sanskrit, 21. See also ibid., 3638. 32. Susan L.Huntington, The Pala-Sena Schools of Sculpture (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984) 7, 32. Susan L.Huntington, The Pala-Sena Schools of Sculpture (Leiden: E.I. Brill, 1984) 7, 1718n. 17- 18n. 33. Ibi d., 88- 131, 153- 54, 160- 64. Ibid., 88131, 15354, 16064. 34. Ibi d., 96, 108- 116. Ibid., 96, 108116. 35. Lor enzen Kapahkas, (1991), 181. a a 35. Lorenzen K p likas, (1991), 181. 36. T he Sakta Pithas (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass, nodo[rst published iin 1948]) , 12. The Sakta Pithas (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, n.d.[rst published n 1948]), 12. 36. 37. T he Hevajra Tantra: Critical Study, Part 1 ( London: Oxford University Press, 1959), 37. The Hevajra Tantra: Critical Study, Part 1 (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), 14. 14.

36 36

d N Lorenzen David N. Lorenzen

38. Yoga of the Guhyasam jatantra: a Buddhist Tantra 38. Yoga of the Guhyasamajatantra: The Arcane Lore of Forty Verses. A Buddhist Tantra of Forty Commentary (Delhi: Motilal Barnarsidass, 1977), 99. Motilal Barnarsidass, Commentary 39. See the discussions by Goudriaan, "Intr oduction, History and Philosophy," 911, See discussions Introduction, Philosophy, 9- 11, 2021; and Sanjukta Gupta, The Changing Pattern of Pancaratra Initiation: A Case Study 20- 21; "The of Pancaratra Initiation: Case in the Reinterpretation of Ritual, SelectedStudies on Ritual in the Indian Religions: Essays to in Ritual," Selected Studies Ritual in Religions: Essays to D. H. Hoens, ed. Ria Kloppenborg (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1983): 69- 71. E.J. 6971. H Hoens, ed. Ria 40. Jan Gonda, M edieval Religious Literature iin Sanskrit (Wiesbaden: O t t o H ar Jan Gonda, Medieval Religious Literature n Sanskrit (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1977) , 163- 215; and Alexis Sanderson, "Review of N. R. Bhatt's editions of 1977), 163215; and Alexis Sanderson, Review R. Bhatts Mata gap ramevar gama and Rauravottaragama" in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and n a s a Rauravottar gama i n a Matangaparames'oaragama of the School of Oriental and African Studies 48 (1985): 564 68. Studies 564- 68. 41. Goudr iaan, " H i ndu Tantric Literature," 21. Goudriaan, Hindu Literature, 42. Ibi d, 20- 21. Ibid, 2021. 43. F or an up-to-date bibliography on this subject, see Paul Eduardo Muller-Ortega, For see The Triadic Heart of Siva (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989). Heart of State The kva 44. Ibi d, 45- 47. Ibid, 45 47. 45. See D avi d L. Snellgrove's contr ibution iin Buddhist Texts Through the Ages, ed. 45. See David L. Snellgroves contribution n Buddhist Texts Through the Ages, ed. Edward Conze iin collaboration w i th I. B. Homer, David Snellgrove and Ar thur Waley Edward Conze n collaboration with I. B. Homer, David Snellgrove and Arthur Waley (Boston: Shambala, 1990), I:13- 14n. (Boston: Shambala, 1990), I:1314n. 46. Per Kvaerne, An Anthology of Buddhist Tantric Songs: A Study of the Cary gti, 2nd a 46. Per Kvaerne, An Anthology of Buddhist Thntric Songs: A Study of the Caryagiti, 2nd ed. (Bangkok: W hite Orchid Press, 1986), 5- 7. (Bangkok: White Orchid Press, 1986), 57. ed. 47. Ibi d. Ibid. 48. O n the sect's early history, see the works of George W. Briggs, Gorakhndth and the a 48. On the sects early history, see the works of George W. Briggs, Gorakhn th and the K nphata Yogis (Calcutta: YM C A Publishing House, 1938) ; Shashibhusan Dasgupta, Oba Yogs (Calcutta: YMCA Publishing House, 1938); Shashibhusan Dasgupta, Ob Kanphata scure Religious Cults, 2nd ed. (Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mudhopadhyay, 1962); K. V. Zvelibel, scure Religious Cults, 2nd ed. (Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mudhopadhyay, 1962); K. V. Zvelibel, The Poets o f the Powers ( London: Rider, 1973) ; R . Venkataraman, History off the Tamil The Poets of the Powers (London: Rider, 1973); R. Venkataraman, History o the Tamil Siddha C ul t (Ennes: 1990) ; and Hajariprasad Dvivedi, Nath-sampraday ((in H i ndi ) Siddha Cult (Ennes: 1990); and Hajariprasad Dvivedi, Nath-sampraday i n Hindi) (Varanasi: Naivedya Niketan, 1966). (Varanasi: Naivedya Niketan, 1966). 49. D av i d Lorenzen, "Goraldmath," Encyclopedia of Religions, ed. Mircea Eliade (New 49. David Lorenzen, Gorakhnath, Encyclopedia of Religions, ed. Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 6:77- 78. Macmillan, 1987), 6:7778. 50. Zvelebil, Poets, 18, 73. Poets, 51. Goudr iaan, "Intr oduction, History and Philosophy, 23. Goudriaan, Introduction, History and Philosophy," 23. 51. 52. Lorenzen, Keipalikas, 35- 38. a a 52. Lorenzen, K p likas, 3538. 53. D ani el Gold, "Ascenso y calda del poder de los yoguis: Jodhpur, 1803- 1842," Daniel Gold, Ascenso y cada del poder de los yogus: Jodhpur, 18031842, 53. Estudio de Asia y Africa 27, nool (1992): 9- 27. de Asia y Africa 27, no.1 (1992): 927. Estudio 54. Goudr iaan and Gupta, H i ndu Tantric, 1991. 54. Goudriaan and Gupta, Hindu Tantric, 1991.