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We Tantrism?1 What Do We Mean by Tantrism?'

Andre Padoux Andr Padoux e

The beginnings of the Hindu Tantric traditions are all the more difcult to nd in of difcult in Tantrism is a protean phenomenon, so complex that Tantrism is a protean phenomenon, so complex and elusive that it is pracimpossible to dene or, at least, to agree on denition. Is tically impossible to dene it or, at least, to agree on its denition. Is not this difculty due to the fact that we see and try to dene an entity that does not really see dene does as such? Even we do not go that far, even do endorse exist as such? Even if we do not go that far, even if we do not endorse H.V. Guenthers remark that Tantrism is probably one haziest notions and Guenther's remark that Tantrism is "probably one of the haziest notions and has evolved," misconceptions the Western mind has evolved,2 the fact remains that Tantrism is, to a large extent, "a category of discourse in the West," and not, strictly speaking, West, speaking, of discourse 2 a large f a a t the c an e m one. As ascategory, Tantrism is not o r at any rate was not until our Indian one. n was our r Indian a i As a category, Tantrism notor daysan entityt in the minds of those inside. It is a category in the minds of inside. a category the of days h n a a entity in the minds t observers fromtoutside.iTo use the fashionable jargon of today: it is an etic, not an To s m use of today: T a n r emic, iemic, entity. s , was coined The term Tantrism was coined by Western Indologists of the latter part of of latter of the nineteenth century whose knowledge of India was limited and who could not of India the real nature, let alone the extent, Tantric phenomenon. They realize the real nature, let alone the extent, of the Tantric phenomenon. They believed that the practices and notions they discovered and believed that the practices and notions they discovered in Hindu and Buddhist named texts named Tantra (hence Tantrism) were something very particular, exceptional, limited, contrasting sharply with the general, respectable, eld of and limited, contrasting sharply with the general, respectable, eld of Indian and a easily philosophy and religion, a particular domain one could easily circumscribe. But with the progress of studies in these elds one came to realize that, far from being a of studies these elds one came far from being a phenomenon, Tantrism was fact something diffuse, diverse limited phenomenon, Tantrism was in fact something vast, diffuse, diverse and dene was perhaps very difcult to dene satisfactorily. Mircea Eliade was perhaps the rst to point it it when he a after out, when he wrote in a book published in 1948 that, after the fth century C.E., century .., Tantrism became a pervasive Indian "fashion" (une mode pan-indienne).3 Neibecame a pervasive fashion (une "mode" pan-indienne). ther in traditional India nor in Sanskrit texts is there a term for Tantrism; no Sanskrit texts is there a no 3 Nin traditional India nor e idescription or denition of such a category is to be found anywhere. We know also of know also that, more often than not, Tantric texts are not called Tantra. more often than not, Tantric texts are As evidence that Tantrism was not considered a particular philosophical As evidence that Tantrism was not considered a particular philosophical system, one may see that Madhava's Sarvadars'anasamgraha, a fourteenth century one see Mdhavas Sarvadaranasamgraha, a s century text, does not mention Tantra asone of the fteen dars'anas(schools of worship) it does as daranas s of the of worship) describes, although this work dates to a time usually considered as that of the considered as that of describes, although this work dates to a time fullest expansion of Tantric notions and practices. There are, of course, Tantric expansion notions and practices. There of 17 17

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elements Mdhavas elements in Madhava's description of the Saiva dars'ana where he quotes from such a of aiva darana s quotes Tantric authors as Utpaladeva or Abhinavagupta, but Tantra as such is not menauthors as Utpaladeva as mentioned. P.V. Kane explains this by saying that Madhava deliberately ignored Tantra P.V. Kane Mdhava a because it was too scandalous. But it is more likely that it was, by that time, so was too scandalous. But was, pervasive that it was not regarded as being a distinct system. pervasive was regarded as The usual reference to the Indian use of the term tantrika derives from The usual reference to the Indian use of the term t ntrika derives from a Kulltaka Bhatta's formula when commenting on the Manavadharmajastra 2.1, Kull ka Bhatas formula when commenting on the M navadharmaastra u t a s where he jjuxtaposes vaidika/t ntrika astwo forms of revelation (ruti ca dvidvidh uxtaposes vaidikaltantrika as a of revelation (frutis' ca dvidvidha s s a vaidik t ntrik ca) and, consequently, two different approaches to the ultimate vaidiki tantriki a and, consequently, approaches reality (the rst based formally on the Veda and the Brahmanic tradition and the based Veda on other texts). The distinction has remained basic one throughout second on other texts). The distinction has remained a basic one throughout thought, but a category "Tantrism" evolving. Indian thought, but without a particular category of Tantrism evolving. We may note here the use by Kull ka of the term ruti. Even outside Tantric use by Kulhu of the term sfruti. aka outside Tantric apparently, the be as ruti, s as circles, apparently, the Tantric tradition could be considered as s'ruti, that is, as a valid in its own sphere. In fact, Kull kas u shows on one revelation valid in its own sphere. In fact, Kullaa's formula shows on the one even hand that, even though there is no inside denition of Tantrism, Tantrism was at of Tantrism, Tantrism was least perceived by Indians outside it as different from the Vedic tradition. least perceived by Indians outside it as different from the Vedic tradition. It was perceived those deprecated evidently was similarly perceived by those inside who deprecated Vedic rites and show a notions. On the other hand, the quotation tends to show that the vaidika/t ntrika vaidikaltantrika was a s relationship was not a clear-cut one since both could be called ruti. Such ambigus'ruti. ambiguin fact, goes very far because Vedic and Tantric traditions, as passed, ity, in fact, goes very far because Vedic and Tantric traditions, as time passed, to permeate each and tended to permeate each other in ritual, in concepts, and in scriptural references. only are elements from the Atharva Veda some local Not only are elements from the Atharva Veda important in some local Tantric (in Orissa, for instance), but many authors quote traditions (in Orissa, for instance), but many Tantric authors quote freely from ruti. The assimilation went so far that, in Kashmir, some Valsklava Tantrikas of s'ruti. The assimilation went so s Kashmir, some Vasnava Tntrikas a Pncaratra declared their scriptures to be the Vedic akh (school), the a s a the Pdcaratra declared their scriptures to be the Vedic s'akha (school), the Eknayaakh. a s a Ekanayaakhd. use of t ntrika, a Concerning the Indian textual use of the term tantrika, we should also take note of the fact that, in Saiva Tantric texts, t ntrika often is used instead of kaula to aiva tantrika a of kaula the and as refer to the more exoteric texts and practices and as a way to distinguish from the kaula ones. Thus, those texts and practices called Tantric are the less esoteric kaula ones. Thus, those texts and practices called Tantric are the less far us a Tantric ones. India, it appears, far from providing us with a denition of Tantrism of Tantrism as something evidence assomething specic, rather accumulates evidence showing the interpenetration, Hindu thought and practice, and elements. in Hindu thought and practice, of Tantric and non-Tantric elements. A number of traits have been listed by authors writing on Tantrism as being number of traits have been by authors on Tantrism as being constituent elements. Teun Goudriaan, for instance, in his Hindu Tantrism, lists elements. Teun Goudriaan, eighteen such as some wider sense)." eighteen such traits as "some constituents of Tantrism (in its wider sense).4 The trouble, however, with such lists is, rst of all, that there is no consensus among consensus among of all, that 4 T h however, with such e scholars about these elements and, second, that there are no groups or texts usually elements are groups or texts usually scholars considered Tantric where all these elements are considered Tantric where all these elements are to be found; also, some, if not be found; also, some, most, of them can be found in non-Tantric contexts. This is not surprising because because Tantrism in its wider sense" is a hazy and ill-dened sort of notion; it can cover, in sense hazy "Tantrism of notion;

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fact, so vast a eld as to include almost all of Hinduism. Let us, however, examine of Hinduism. so as some of these traits, limiting ourselves to those I believe to be the most obvious. ourselves The rst aspect to be examined, that is, a particular Tantric ideology, I rst aspect to be examined, that is, a particular ideology, believe is important. II differ with those who consider Tantrism to be, in Jean believe is important. differ with those who consider be, Jean Filliozats words, "merely the ritual and technical aspect of Hinduism.5 This view, Filliozat's merely of Hinduism." 5 however, is not to be dismissed too hastily since ritual, when the technical aspect is technical aspect is added to it, can go a long way toward characterizing Tantrism if you take it as a to it, can go a characterizing as general Hindu phenomenon. Indeed, ritual may well provide one of the most Hindu phenomenon. Indeed, ritual may provide one of practical, but surely minimal, overall denitions of Tantrism. I shall refer again to of Tantrism. refer again this subject later on. subject later on. The ideological aspect of the Tantric vision is the cosmos as permeated by ideological aspect of cosmos as by power (or powers), a vision wherein energy (akti) is both cosmic and human and a energy (s'akti) s cosmic and macrocosm ideology is where microcosm and macrocosm correspond and interact. The ideology is imbecause explains such features as the concept portant because it explains such Tantric features as the concept and practice of of kun alin, as well as a number of yogic and ritual practices for the use and control d as number of yogic kundalini, as practices for the use and control that power. It also explains some aspects of speculations and practices of that power. It also explains some aspects o f the speculations and practices the power of the word (v c), especially the nature and power a concerning the power of the word (vac), especially the nature and power of and ideology organizes, mantras, and so forth. This ideology not only colors, but orientates and organizes, gives meaning all Tantric practices and observances. Such ideology and gives meaning to all Tantric practices and observances. Such an ideology is the Bharirava Tantras, those Kali, such systems as a evident in the Bharirava Tantras, in those of Kl, in such systems as the Krama a Yog nuttaraa and the Trika (all of the Saiva or Skta texts), in the esoteric Buddhist Yoganuttaraaiva al(ta tantras and in the Sahajiya traditions. It is subdued, toned down, in other tradiSahajiy a tantras other tradi tions normally considered Tantric, such as the Pdcaratra, or Agamic aivasidnormally considered Tantric, such as the Pncaratra, a Saivasid dhnta. And, you would hardly nd it among some dualist aiva authors a And, you would hardly nd it among some dualist Saiva authors dhanta. (Sadyojyoti, for instance) even though the mantras and rituals used by these adepts even the mantras and rituals used by these adepts are Tantric. Tantric. On the other hand, micro-macrocosmic correspondences are found in anthe other hand, micro-macrocosmic correspondences cient, pre-Tantric texts; for example, they are fundamental in the Upanipds. The pre-Tantric Upaniads. s example, magical use of power is apparent in the Atharvaveda too and, later on, the Tantric use of power Atharvaveda later vision permeated the Puraklas and seeped into most of Hinduism. We must add that Purnas a seeped of Hinduism. add that the ideology of power, with its aspect of violence and transgression, is essentiallto the of power, ofviolence essentia the cults of the feminine aspect of the divinity, cults that cannot always be considered as of of the always be considered as Tantric. In south India, for instance, the cults of local goddesses are surely autogoddesses are surely autoof local chthonous Dravidian and originally pre-Tantric. The ancient Indian practices of and practices of tapas (internal heat) and mastery of sexual energy (vrya) for gaining supernatural mastery of sexual energy (virya) for gaining supernatural tapas powers also are examples of controlled usesof the power that are not Tantric. also examples of controlled uses of the power that are Tantric. In all these non-Tantric domains, there are elements identical or akin to all these non-Tantric domains, there are elements identical those constituting the Tantric vision. We can say, therefore, that in the domain of We of ideology or doctrine, we nd the same situation as in the case of the other Tantric we as case of the other traits. Characteristics found clearly and fully in a few groups or in some texts only Characteristics few only are found in a wide area. Furthermore, the origin or the seeds of many traits, found in a wide area. Furthermore, the the seeds many ideological or otherwise, can be traced back to ancient, pre-Tantric, times. can be traced back ancient,

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Another Another element generally considered characteristic or constituent of Tantrgenerally characteristic or constituent of Tantrism is the use of means pertaining to this world for supramundane ends, be it is the use pertaining this world supramundane ends, be mukti (liberation) or the llesser rewards or enjoyments classied as bhoga. There is mukti esser or enjoyments classied asbhoga. There is the attempt in Tantric traditions to achieve liberation and to gain supernatural attempt in Tantric traditions to achieve and gain powers, not by renunciation o f all worldly desires or pleasures, but, to use not by renunciation of worldly desires or pleasures, but, to use Madeleine Biardeau's words, "by harnessing desirekama [desire] in all the Biardeaus words, by harnessing desirek ma [desire] in all the a meanings of that word and with all its related values t o the service of liberameanings word and with its related valuesto the service of tion," a liberation that is usually jvanmukti (liberation while living), a transcention,6 dental unity deitytotal freedom 6 a condition of unity with the deity t o t a l freedom from the world, but also plentitude and demiurgic power. triumphal plentitude and demiurgic power. l i b liberation in a Tantric context is not necessarily jvanmukti. Even e r But liberation in a Tantric context is not necessarily jivanmukti. Even in a as Abhinavaguptas Tantr loka, a best suchia completely Tantric work as Abhinavagupta's Tantredoka, the best and highhigha t Siva (tvraaktip ta), is s a estnadept, who benets from the most intense grace of Siva (tivras'aktipata), is adept, who benets from the most intense grace o liberated and dies: a higher jvanmukti. instantly liberated and dies: a condition considered higher than jivanmukti. The t jvanmukta, typical Tantric jivanmukta, totally free of a world he dominates and transcends, is of a h be found some onlyfor a to be found in some Tantras only f o r example, in the Bhairava or Kl Tantras, or Kali a Sahajiya. Vainavism or in Buddhism toothat can be viewed as hard core a si in Sahajiy V a g t In the more staid Saiddhntika Agamas where the a jvanmukti Tantrism. In the more staid Saiddhantika Agamas where the term jivanmukti . i a domm seldom s sel .0vatva, of va, a condiSi l v i s occurs, the liberated adept acquires ivatva, the condition of Siva, a condi s r o f similarity (samanta) with Siva, not one of total fusion (ekatva). This a a fusion (ekatva). This tion of i n (s mant ) with Siva, not one o u u d d the so permits the liberated soul to go on loving God. It is evidently still more so in the B Pacaratra, where devotion P is sancaratra, where devotion (bhakti) is essential. h i s m Since Since I mention bhakti, I may note here that, gaining liberation while active u t o being in of it, a this world, being in this world but not of it, being entirely dedicated to God, is o basic teaching of bhakti from the Bhagavad-Gita onward. Since, however, the the basic teaching bhakti Bhagavad-Gt a Since, l tove of h love God and the essential role of God's grace to gain liberation are insisted and the essential role Gods grace gain l l a upon intsuch Tantric works as those of Abhinavagupta, where does bhakti end and as does bhakti end of Abhinavagupta, y c Tantra begin? There is a problematical relationship between Tantrism and bhakti. begin? Tantrism j A particular Tantric way of making use of this world for supramundane ends a particular way of making use of this for supramundane ends is the ritual and soteriological use of things that are normally forbidden, that is, the is i n of things v transgression of norms. The main reason for this antinomian behavior appears to The reason behavior appears b a the wish, by so doing, to participate in the dark, chaotic, undisciplined, and be the wish, by so doing, participate chaotic, e n powerful forces that are normally repressed and kept outside the pure, orderly, very i v circumscribed world of the Brahmin. This wish, incidentally, implies a belief in a m belief in a e w world pervaded by power, a power supposedly at its utmost in that outside world. u power supposedly that outside e d Such transgressive practices include the transgressive ritual use of sex. transgressive practices include transgressive use k a The use of sex is not found in all Tantric traditions. It is not prevalent, but use sex t s a present nonetheless, in the Saiva and a.kta groups that have a Kapalika origin or nonetheless, Saiva Skta have a Kplika a a or i " background and that have kept, if only symbolically, the Kapalika culture of the and have Kplika a a of the ( h cremation ground with its cult of the Yoginis and its erotico-mystic rites and ground with its cult Yogins and its erotico-mystic rites and l a notions. It is also found in Sahajiya circles, Hindu and Buddhist. But, all this is It is also found Sahajiy a and i conspicuously absent from the less intensely Tantric traditions, whether Saiva or absent the less intensely whether Saiva or r b d e c r o a r t e

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Vainava. Transgression is characteristic of hard core" Tantrism only. On the Vaigjava. Transgression is characteristic of "hard core Tantrism only. s other hand, transgression is a universal category of human behavior. In India it is transgression a category of human older than Tantrism, as proved, for instance, by the Pahipatas and Lakulas. Erotic as Pupatas as Lkulas. a rites and sexo-yogic practices surely antedate Tantra. Here again, we see elements and sexo-yogic see elements either not found in all Tantric groups or texts, or that exist outside Tantrism and Tantrism have existed before it. For instance, the conception of the body as a structured existed before For instance, the body as receptacle of power and animated by that power and the somato-cosmic vision receptacle and animated power somato-cosmic upon which these practices are based are certainly pre-Tantric or extra-Tantric. which these practices are based are The same thing can be said about most, if not of all, of the other elements same not of all, of the other elements considered characteristic or constituent of Tantrism. The ubiquitous use of manuse of manconsidered of Tantrism. tras, for instance, together with all the notions concerning the power of the word together concerning the power of the word tras, (v c) and with the relevant practices (nyasa, japa, mantrasadhana) is so typically a a a (vac) and with the relevant practices (ny sa, japa, mantras dhana) Tantric that mantralastra is often taken as synonymous with tantraastra; however, mantraastra s as synonymous tantralastra; however, s Tantric mantras are used in non-Tantric rites. Some Vainana Samhitas, the ritual mantras Vaigjana Saruhitas, the ritual s of which is Tantric, nevertheless, consider the Vedic mantras as higher than the Tantric, nevertheless, consider mantras as higher Tantric ones. In a similar fashion ritual diagrams (mawlalas, yantras, cakras) or ones. a diagrams (man alas, yantras, cakras) d ritual gestures (mudras) are to be found variously used in and outside Tantrism. If gestures (mudr s) are a If one looks at the Tantric ritual (pap or dileg, one would notice some of the looks at the Tantric ritual (p j ua dka), one would notice some of s constitiuent elements as deriving from groups outside Tantrism also. The same elements as deriving outside also. The same applies to another element considered typically Tantric, namely the polarization of applies of the godhead into a male pole (usually higher, but inactive) and a female one godhead into a male pole (usually higher, but inactive) and a female one a (akti), which is active but theologically lower except in some Skta traditions. s theologically lower except some al(ta (s'akti), which active Such polarization is not stressed equally everywhere. The role of akti is limited polarization is not stressed equally The s s'akti a not only in Vairjava Saruhitas, but in the Siddhanta aivagamas. There are, only in Vainava Samhits, but in the Siddhnta Saivgamas. There are, s a a futhermore, aiva pantheons that are either entirely male or entirely female. Saiva pantheons are either entirely It is thus very difcult to gather traits that are both typically Tantric and is thus very gather that are found in most Tantric traditions, but not found outside these traditions when we these we limit ourselves to Hinduism. The difculty becomes even greaterindeed, it ourselves to Hinduism. The becomes even greaterindeed, becomes an impossibility i f we wish to include Tantric Buddhism as it dean impossibilityif wish to include Tantric Buddhism as developed in India and spread to China, Tibet, or Japan. and spread veloped We could try to bypass the difculty by choosing from among those constitby among those constituent elements only a few that, when present in a text, in the practice or doctrine of elements or of a given group, would sufce us declare as agiven group, would sufce for us to declare that text or group as Tantric. But, which elements ought we to choose ideological, ritual, or practical ones? Should elements chooseideological, or practical ones? Should we limit those elements to observances (vrata) or cult ritual (Tantric p j )? Comobservances ua pap)? Complicating the picture is that Tantric ritual is not always exclusive o f a Vedic the picture is that Tantric ritual is not always exclusive of Vedic practice. Several texts or authors prescribe or admit both types of ritual. A Vedic Several texts types of ritual. Vedic public behavior may hide a Tantric domestic or secret practice. Furthermore, behavior may hide a domestic secret practice. Furthermore, within the same tradition there are levels of esotericism and exclusivism, there are same of esotericism are progressive, ascending levels o f specicity (uttarottaravaiss'i,tyam) and of "Tansctyam) and of Tanprogressive, ascending levels of specicity (uttarottaravaii tricity. Usually the more specic and esoteric the level of the Tantra, the more tricity." Usually the more specic and esoteric Tantric it is. It is clear that there are degrees in Tantrism. it is. clear there degrees

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A number of other elements could be adduced to show the uncertainty of number of other elements adduced show the uncertainty of the criteria we can use to dene Tantrism, the diversity within Tantric traditions we can use dene the and the problematic nature of the relationship of Tantrism with non-Tantric, the problematic nature of relationship non-Tantric, "orthodox" Hinduism. orthodox Hinduism. On this last point, the judgment passed by each group on each the other goes from utter condemnation to the admission of the validity of the other goes from condemnation admission other's scriptures within their own eld and for their particular purpose. The others scriptures within their own eld and for their particular purpose. The Sarv gamapram nyav da, for instance, was upheld by such authors as YamuSarvagamapramanyavada, for instance, was upheld a a a such authors as Ymua natarya. This being so, how can we concur on the denition of Tantrism? ncrya. This being so, how can we a a of Like Hinduism, "Tantrism" is made up of a number of groups, traditions, Tantrism is made number of texts some some and texts sharing some common elements, especially ritual ones, and having some common beliefs and notions; the total o f these elements or beliefs somehow beliefs and notions; the total of these elements or beliefs somehow differentiate Tantric from non-Tantric Hinduism. Tantrism, however, includes Tantric from non-Tantric Hinduism. Tantrism, however, includes are faced practices or beliefs found in non-Tantric Hinduism too. Hence, we are faced with the uncertainty of the limits of Tantrism, its elusive nature, and if we take it uncertainty of limits of its elusive nature, and take apparent pervasiveness. it does comprehensively, its apparent pervasiveness. If it is pervasive, does it not loose its as something therefore, we identity as something specic? If, therefore, we wish to keep the notion of Tantrof Tantrwe as specic sufciently ism, we must take it as something specic and sufciently distinguishable in spite uncertain limits. we consider as only of its uncertain limits. If so, we can consider as Tantric those groups or texts only or the main Tantric constituent elements previously mentioned are where the main Tantric constituent elements previously mentioned are found. would the category Tantrism few This would limit the category of Tantrism to a few groups of people or of people or of a mainly Saiva-Skta a Kplika a a texts, mainly the aiva-dkta traditions with a Kapalika background, some of the of the Ntha, the Sahajiy Vainavas, and, a a s Natha, the Sahajiya Vaigjavas, and, of course, the obvious Tantric forms of Maof Mahyna a a hard core a system of observances hayana Buddhism. In such "hard core" Tantrism, we nd a system of observances (often transgressive in nature) that are given meaning by a more or less powertransgressive meaning by a more or less powervision and the cosmos, a system where power manipulated, oriented vision of man and the cosmos, a system where power is manipulated, micro-macrocosmic correspondences play an essential Also, there where micro-macrocosmic correspondences play an essential role. Also, there is a high degree of esotericism (the higher, the more esoteric, the more usually a high degree of esotericism (the higher, the more esoteric, the more Tantric) together with a particular type necessarily sexually "Tantric") together with a particular type of pantheon (not necessarily sexually however), and a developed differentiated however), and a particular and very developed type of ritual. Outof ritual. side these qualications, there may exist number and of side these qualications, there may exist a varying number and proportion of Tantric traits, but not Tantrism as such. traits, but as such. Pncartra? Possibly we a a With such a denition, could we include the Pdcaratra? Possibly we could the Pncartra a a older Samhits and the Lakmitantra, a s include the Pdcaratra of some of the older Salphitas and the Lalqmitantra, of since course, since it is heavily inuenced by Saivism. Surely, we would not include the aivism. Pncartrins a a kha, sd Kashmiri Pacaratrins who insisted they were a Vedic s'akha, nor the more recent Sr s ir S vainavas. But how much of Saivism should we include apart from the Bhairariv a v as? Saivasiddhnta a Yes, vagam mostly . agamas? Is the Agamic aivasiddhanta really Tantric? Yes, it is, but mostly owing its s . ritual aspect and because is the Sam nyaastra a s followers to its ritual aspect and because it is the Samanyalastra of the followers of the la v a Bhairav a Bhairavagamas. What about the modern "Vedantized" rividya of South India B u agamas. What about the modern Vedantized Srvidy nkaracarya and whose Tantric conceptions traces guruparampara Sa whose conceptions which traces its guruparampara to akaracarya t so toned down orthodox hardly are so toned down in order to t into orthodox Brahmin circles that it is hardly h o anymore? Tantric anymore? w m u c h

What Do We Mean by Tantrism? What Tantrism?

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Another approach to Tantrism and to its denition might be to stress its Another approach Tantrism be stress its ritual aspect without omitting entirely the ideological side, but subordinating it to aspect it ritual. One would underline the particular and proliferating nature of the ritual, ritual. One would underline of and its conjunction with speculations and practices concerning the power of the its conjunction speculations and power of word (mantras, etc.). Ritual also involves the manipulation of power and a pattern also of power and a that combines the assertion of the identity or fusion of worshiper and worshiped combines the assertion of worshiper (n devo devam arcayet) together with an ensemble of offerings and obeisances (nadevo devam arcayet) together a an ensemble of offerings and obeisances (upac ra) to the deity (or Buddhist entity), who is treated as an honored guest. It is (upacara) a as important to stress that such rituals entail an intense inner participationbody, stress such inner participation body, mind, and word o f the worshiper in the ritual he carries out. The main merit of wordof he carries worshiper merit of an essentially ritual approach to the denition of Tantrism is that it applies equally of Tantrism applies equally well to Hindu and to Buddhist Tantrism and that it can apply not only to IndianTantrism and it can apply not only to IndianHimalayan-Tibetan, but to Chinese Buddhism also. Its drawback is that ritual is Buddhism drawback not only that of the cult. It includes other aspects of the Tantric adept's life and aspects adepts observances. Furthermore, Tantric and non-Tantric rites are often not only perFurthermore, Tantric and only performed by the same person (in different circumstances), but also sometimes by the same person (in different circumstances), but also sometimes during the same ritual. We cannot, therefore, content ourselves with the ritual the same ritual. We cannot, therefore, content ourselves approach to Tantrism. But are we not facing a sea of troubles simply because we want to dene are we not facing a sea because dene something that does not exist except in our minds? Having coined the term that does not exist except our minds? Having coined the term Tantrism, we want it to mean something specic. Those in India or elsewhere, we want mean or elsewhere, whose observances were Tantric, never used the term Tantrism nor did they give observances never used term Tantrism nor they give the term Tantric the same meaning as we do. Some would not even describe term Tantric the same meaning as we do. Some would not even describe themselves as tantrika. They simply followed the beliefs and practices that were a and themselves as t ntrika. They times in social groups. What were these? they current in their times in their own social groups. What were these? Simply they were the various forms taken by Hinduism and Buddhism as they evolved over the Buddhism as they evolved over the under course of centuries, mainly under the inuence of the Indian, Tibetan, or Chinese of centuries, of or and/or a process spheres and/or by a process of internal transformation. thus, would be quite simply the various forms taken over Tantrism, thus, would be quite simply the various forms taken over the sections Hinduism course of time by large sections of Hinduism or Buddhism. Depending upon the the and inuences, was background, the origins, and the local inuences, the evolution was more or lless or ess marked by a rejection of the orthodox Vedic rules and notions; it included more or of or less local autochthonous cults and beliefs, local magical less local autochthonous cults and beliefs, local religious behaviors, and magical less "Tantric" character of and/or other practices. All of this resulted in the more or less Tantric character of groups concerned. But, whatever case, the different groups concerned. But, whatever the case, the variety of Tantra that of Tantra bafes us might very well be nothing more than some ways which bafes us might very well be nothing more than some of the ways in which or Buddhism were actually understood, believed, and practiced by Hinduism or Buddhism were actually understood, believed, and practiced by Tibetan, and Chinese These Indian, Tibetan, and Chinese practicioners during the last two millennia. These may decide various religious forms we may decide to call Tantric in order to differentiate them order them older same set from older or different forms of the same religions, but we ought not try to set as them apart asa particular religious entity that we choose to call Tantrism, an entity probably never existed as such. that probably never existed as such.

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e Andr Padoux e Padoux

We would thus be rid of the difcult notion of Tantrism. This would be very of the of Tantrism. be very convenient! But is it possible? I am not sure. I fear we still have to toil to nd a But is possible? I am sure. I fear solution to the problem of Tantrism. the
NOTES 1. A n earlier dr aft o f this paper was presented at the Tantr a Occluded: 1992 1. An earlier draft of this paper was presented at the Tantra Occluded: 1992 Conference of the Society for Tantric Studies at Menlo Park, California, in May 1992. Conference of the Society Park, 2. H er ber t V. Guenther, The Life and Teaching of Naropa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, Herbert V. Guenther, The Press, and Teaching of Naropa 1963). 1963). 3. M ir cea Eliade, Techniques du Yoga (Paris: Gallimard, 1948). Mircea Eliade, Techniques Gallimard, 4. Sanjukta Gupta, D i r k Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, H i ndu Tantrism (Leiden: Sanjukta Dirk Hindu E.J. Brill, 1979) 7- 9. Brill, 1979) 79. 5. IIn a review published in Journal Asiatique 256 (1968): 267. 5. n a review published in Journal Asiatique 256 (1968): 267. 6. Madeleine Biardeau, Ehindousime, Anthropolgie dune religion (Paris: Hammarion, Madeleine Biardeau, Lhindousime, Anthropolgie dune (Paris: Flammarion, 1991). 1991).